Temperature

Measurement
Techniques
This presentation explores several methods for
accurately measuring temperature, including
thermocouples, resistance temperature detectors (RTDs),
and integrated circuit sensors like the AD590 and LM35.

S
by Manohar B S
 Outline
• Thermocouples
– overview, reference junction, proper connections, types, special
limits of error wire, time constants, sheathing, potential problems,
DAQ setup
• RTDs
– overview, bridges, calibration, accuracy, response time, potential
problems
• Thermistors
• Infrared Thermometry
– fundamentals, emissivity determination, field of view
• Other
– Non-electronic measurement, thin-film heat flux gauge
• Temperature Controllers
• How to Choose
– Standards, cost, accuracy, stability, sensitivity, size, contact/non-
contact, temperature range, fluid type
Thermocouples
• Seebeck effect
– If two wires of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends
and one end is heated, current will flow.
– If the circuit is broken, there will be an open circuit
voltage across the wires.
– Voltage is a function of temperature and metal types.
– For small DT’s, the relationship with temperature is linear
V T
– For larger DT’s, non-linearities may occur.
Thermocouple Types and Applications
Thermocouple Basics Common Types Applications

Thermocouples work by Thermocouple types include Thermocouples are used

generating a small voltage in K, J, T, E, R, S, B, N, and C. widely in industrial processes,
response to a temperature Each has unique properties ovens, engines, and
difference between the two suited for different laboratories to precisely
junction points. temperature ranges and monitor temperatures.
environments.
Thermocouple Working Principle
Temperature Difference
A thermocouple generates a small voltage when its two
junctions are at different temperatures.

Seebeck Effect
This voltage is produced by the Seebeck effect, where
the temperature difference causes a flow of electrons in
the metal wires.

Measuring Voltage
By measuring this voltage difference, the temperature
at the sensing junction can be determined.
 External Reference Junction

• A solution is to put J2 in an ice-bath; then you know T2, and your

output voltage will be proportional to T1-T2.
Other types of thermocouples
• Many thermocouples don’t have one copper wire. Shown below is a
“Type J” thermocouple.

• If the two terminals aren’t at the same temperature, this also creates
an error.
Isothermal Block
• The block is an electrical insulator but good heat conductor. This way
the voltages for J3 and J4 cancel out. Thermocouple data acquisition
set-ups include these isothermal blocks.

• If we eliminate the ice-bath, then the isothermal block temperature is

our reference temperature

V  T1  Tblock 
 Software Compensation

• How can we find the temperature of the block? Use a thermister or RTD.
• Once the temperature is known, the voltage associated with that temperature
can be subtracted.
• Then why use thermocouples at all?
– Thermocouples are cheaper, smaller, more flexible and rugged, and operate over a wider
temperature range.
• Most data acquisition systems have software compensation built in. To use
Labview, you’ll need to know if you have a thermister or RTD.
Hardware Compensation

• With hardware compensation, the temperature of the isothermal block again is

measured, and then a battery is used to cancel out the voltage of the reference
junction.
• This is also called an “electronic ice point reference”.
• With this reference, you can use a normal voltmeter instead of a thermocouple
reader.
• You need a separate ice-point reference for every type of thermocouple
Making Thermocouple Beads

• Soldering, silver-soldering, butt or spot or beaded gas welding, crimping, and twisting are all OK.
• The third metal introduced doesn’t effect results as long as the temperature everywhere in the bead
is the same.
• Welding should be done carefully so as to not degrade the metals.
• If you consistently will need a lot of thermocouples, you can buy a thermocouple welder; you stick
the two ends into a hole, hit a button, and the welding is done
Time Constant vs. Wire Diameter
Time Constant vs. Wire Diameter, cont.
Thermocouple Types

If you do your own

calibration, you can
usually improve on the
listed uncertainties.
 Thermocouple Types, cont.

• Type B – very poor below 50ºC; reference junction temperature not important since
voltage output is about the same from 0 to 42 ºC
• Type E – good for low temperatures since dV/dT (a) is high for low temperatures
• Type J – cheap because one wire is iron; high sensitivity but also high uncertainty (iron
impurities cause inaccuracy)
• Type T – good accuracy but low max temperature (400 ºC); one lead is copper, making
connections easier; watch for heat being conducted along the copper wire, changing your
surface temp
• Type K – popular type since it has decent accuracy and a wide temperature range; some
instability (drift) over time
• Type N – most stable over time when exposed to elevated temperatures for long periods
Data Acquisition Systems for Thermocouples

Agilent, HP, and National Instruments are probably the most popular DAQ systems
Example National Instruments DAQ setup for thermocouples and costs

item part number cost

16-bit temperature data acquisition card PCI 6232E 1495
analog input module for thermocouples SCXI-1112 695
chassis SCXI-1000 695
terminal block for thermocouples SCXI-1303 275
shielded cable SH68-68-EP 95
Total cost: 3255
Resistance Temperature
Detectors (RTDs)
1 Resistance-based
RTDs use a metal wire (often platinum) whose electrical
resistance changes predictably with temperature.

2 High Accuracy
RTDs offer superior accuracy and stability compared to
thermocouples, but have a more limited temperature
range.

3 Applications
Common RTD applications include process control, HVAC,
and laboratory instrumentation.
RTD Working Principles

Resistance Change
RTDs use a metal wire or film whose resistance changes predictably with temperature.

Platinum Sensing
Platinum is commonly used for RTDs due to its highly linear and stable
resistance-temperature relationship.

Temperature Sensing
By measuring the resistance change, the temperature can be accurately
determined using calibration curves.
 RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors )

• The resistivity of metals is a function of temperature.

• Platinum often used since it can be used for a wide temperature range and has excellent stability. Nickel or
nickel alloys are used as well, but they aren’t as accurate.
• In several common configurations, the platinum wire is exposed directly to air (called a bird-cage element),
wound around a bobbin and then sealed in molten glass, or threaded through a ceramic cylinder.
• Metal film RTDs are new. To make these, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited onto a ceramic
substrate. The substrate is then etched with a laser. These RTDs are very small but aren’t as stable (and
hence accurate).
• RTDs are more accurate but also larger and more expensive than thermocouples.
RTD geometry

From Nicholas & White, Traceable Temperatures.

• Sheathing: stainless steel or iconel, glass, alumina, quartz
• Metal sheath can cause contamination at high temperatures and are best
below 250ºC.
• At very high temperatures, quartz and high-purity alumina are best to
prevent contamination.
Resistance Measurement

Several different bridge circuits are used to determine the resistance.

Bridge circuits help improve the accuracy of the measurements significantly.
The bridge output voltage is a function of the RTD resistance.
Resistance/Temperature Conversion

Published equations relating bridge voltage to temperature can be used.

For very accurate results, do your own calibration.
• Several electronic calibrators are available.
• The most accurate calibration that you can do easily yourself is to use a
constant temperature bath and NIST-traceable thermometers.
• You then can make your own calibration curve correlating temperature and
voltage
Accuracy and Response Time

• Response time is longer than thermocouples; for a ¼

sheath, response time can easily be 10 s.
AD590 Temperature Sensor
Current Output High Accuracy Easy Integration
The AD590 is an integrated It offers an accuracy of The AD590's simple current
circuit that produces a ±0.5°C over a wide output makes it easy to
current output proportional temperature range, making interface with
to absolute temperature. it suitable for precise microcontrollers and other
temperature electronics.
measurement.
AD590 Working Principles
Output Current proportional to
absolute temperature

Accuracy ±0.5°C over a wide

temperature range

Operation Utilizes a temperature-

sensitive current source
and bandgap voltage
reference
Advantages Simple current output,
easy interfacing, high
accuracy, robust
LM35 Temperature Sensor
1 Precision Centigrade 2 Wide Range 3 Simplicity
The LM35 is a precision It can measure The LM35's linear output
integrated-circuit temperatures from -55°C and simple 3-pin package
temperature sensor that to 150°C with an make it easy to use in
outputs a voltage linearly accuracy of ±0.5°C. temperature monitoring
proportional to Celsius applications.
temperature.
LM35 Working Principles

Simple 3-Pin Design Internal Circuitry Linear Scaling

The LM35 has a basic 3-pin Its internal design uses a The LM35's output voltage
package (Vcc, ground, analog bandgap voltage reference to scales linearly at 10mV/°C,
output) for easy integration. generate a linear voltage simplifying temperature-to-
output proportional to digital conversion.
temperature.
Introduction to
Signal
Conditioning
Signal conditioning is the process of manipulating an electrical
signal in such a way that it meets the requirements of the next
stage of processing. It is essential for ensuring accurate and
reliable data acquisition in various applications.
Need for Signal Conditionin
1 Sensor Compatibility 2 Noise Reduction
Sensors often output Electrical signals can be
signals that are affected by various types
incompatible with the of noise, which can distort
input requirements of the the measurement. Signal
data acquisition system. conditioning techniques
Signal conditioning are used to eliminate or
ensures the sensor's minimize noise.
output is compatible.

3 Improved Accuracy
By conditioning the signal, the accuracy and reliability of the
measurement can be significantly improved, leading to better
decision-making and process control.
Types of Signal Conditioning
Amplification Filtering Linearization

Increasing the magnitude of a Removing unwanted frequency Converting a non-linear sensor

weak signal to a level compatible components, such as noise, from output into a linear signal for
with the data acquisition system. the signal. easier interpretation and
processing.
Noise-Eliminating Techniques
Shielding Filtering
Enclosing the signal path in a Using high-pass, low-pass, or
conductive material to band-pass filters to remove
prevent external unwanted frequency
electromagnetic interference components from the signal.
(EMI) from affecting the
signal.

Grounding Differential Signaling

Providing a common Transmitting the signal as a
reference point for all the difference between two wires,
electronic components to which can reject common-
minimize the effects of mode noise.
ground loops and noise.
Sensor Protection Methods

Overvoltage Protection Overcurrent Protection Electrostatic Discharge

(ESD) Protection
Protecting the sensor from damage Safeguarding the sensor from high
due to excessive voltage levels. current levels that could cause Shielding the sensor from sudden
overheating or burnout. high-voltage discharges that can
damage sensitive electronic
components.
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Sampling Encoding
The process of converting a continuous-time signal into a Representing the quantized values using a digital code,
sequence of discrete-time samples. such as binary, for further processing.

1 2 3

Quantization
Approximating the continuous amplitude values of the
samples into a finite set of digital levels.
Amplification and Filtering

Amplification Filtering
Increasing the magnitude of Removing unwanted
the signal to a suitable level frequency components, such
for the data acquisition as noise, from the signal.
system.

Gain Adjustment Bandwidth Limiting

Controlling the amplification Restricting the frequency
factor to optimize the signal range of the signal to prevent
level for the data acquisition aliasing during sampling.
system.
Isolation and Grounding
1 Galvanic Isolation 2 Differential Signaling 3 Proper Grounding
Separating the sensor and Transmitting the signal as a Ensuring a reliable and low-
data acquisition system difference between two impedance ground
electrically to prevent wires, which can reject connection to provide a
ground loops and common- common-mode noise. stable reference for the
mode noise. measurement.
Applications of Signal
Conditioning
Industrial Automation Sensors and instrumentation
used in manufacturing
processes
Biomedical Instrumentation Monitoring and diagnostic
equipment, such as ECG and
EEG machines

Aerospace and Defense Sensors and controllers in

aircraft, satellites, and
military systems

Environmental Monitoring Sensors for measuring

temperature, humidity, air
quality, and other
environmental parameters