Research Reports

What is a report?

• A report is a formal document that is

structured and presented in an organized
manner, with the aim of conveying
information, analyzing data, and providing
recommendations. It is often used to
communicate findings and outcomes to a
specific audience, such as stakeholders, or
managers. Reports can vary in length and
format, but they usually contain a clear
introduction, body, and conclusion.
 What is report writing?
• Report writing refers to the process of creating a document
that represents information in a clear and concise manner.
Reports can be written for various purposes, such as
providing updates on a project, analyzing data or presenting
findings, or making recommendations.
• Effective report writing requires careful planning, research,
analysis, and organization of information. A well-structured
report should be accurate, and objective, and contain a clear
introduction, body, and conclusion. It should also be written
in a professional and accessible style, with appropriate use of
headings, subheadings, tables, graphs, and other visual aids.
• Overall, report writing is an important skill for professionals
in many fields, as it helps to communicate information and
insights in a clear and concise manner.
 Research Reports
• Reports are record of research process.
• Reports are designed to convey and record
information that will be of practical use to the
reader. It is organized into discrete units of
specific and highly visible information.
• According to Lancaster “ a report is a statement
of collected and considered facts, so drawn up
as to give clear and concise information to
persons who are not already in possession of
the full facts of the subject matter of the report”
 Purpose of Research Report
• To provide the judgement tool for the judgement of quality and
talent of researcher within and outside the academia.
• To pertain the credibility of the research.
• To develop standards, consolidate arguments and identify the
knowledge gaps.
• To present the findings with or without the recommendations.
• To provide the required vital information for management
decision making.
• To evaluate the performance of various departments or units.
• To present one’s candidature for professional advancements.
• To inform about what and how activities are happening, which
may or may not be according to the plan. Thus, controlling
activities are implemented based on the information of a report.
 Functions of Reports
• Findings of study their implications: Communicated to the
supervisor readers through research report.
• Informs the world on following matters:
– What researcher has done.
– What he has discovered
– What conclusions he has drawn from his findings.
– Tells the readers prospective researchers following matters
• Problem investigated
• Methods used to solve the problem
• Results of investigation
• Conclusion derived from results.
 Qualities of Reports
1. Properly defined objectives of the research.
2. Present accurate and proper information.
3. Present the contents to the required extent.
4. It should be neutral, unbiased and based on actual
facts.
5. Clarity of structure, content and style of the reports.
6. Drafted maintaining simple and familiar language.
7. Attractive to the audience.
8. Include proper heading, signature of the reporter
and the date of drafting the report in the right place.
• 1/ Clarity: Reports should be written in clear and concise
language, avoiding jargon or technical terms that may be
confusing to the reader.
• 2/ Objectivity: A report should be objective, meaning that it
should be free from bias or personal opinions. This is
particularly important when presenting data or analysis.
• 3/ Accuracy: Reports should be based on reliable sources and
accurate data. Information should be verified and cross-
checked to ensure that it is correct and up-to-date.
• 4/ Structure: A report should be structured in a logical and
organized manner, with clear headings, subheadings, and
secions.
• 5/ Visual aids: A report may include visual aids such
as charts, tables, and graphs, which can help to
illustrate the key points and make the information
easier to understand.
• 6/ Evidence: Reports should include evidence to
support any claims or findings, such as statistics,
quotes, or references to relevant literature.
• 7/ Recommendations: Many reports include
recommendations or suggestions for future action
based on the findings or analysis presented.
 Steps in Writing Reports
Step 1. Logical analysis of the subject matter

Step 2. Preparation of the final outline

Step 3. Preparation of the rough draft

Step 4. Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft

Step 5. Preparation of the final bibliography

Step 6. Writing the final draft

 Step 1. Logical analysis of the subject
matter
Primarily concerned with the development of a
subject.
• There are two ways in which to develop a
subject:
(a) logically
(b) chronologically
Step 2. Preparation of the final outline
• Outlines are the framework upon which long
written works are constructed.
• They are an aid to the logical organization of
the material and a reminder of the points to
be stressed in the report.
 Step 3. Preparation of the rough draft
• This follows the logical analysis of the subject and
the preparation of the final outline.
• Such a step is of utmost importance for the
researcher now sits to write down what he has
done in the context of his research study.
• He will write down the procedure adopted by him
in collecting the material for his study along with
various limitation faced by him.
• The various suggestion he wants to offer regarding
the problem concerned.
 Step 4. Rewriting and polishing of the
rough draft
• This step happens to be most difficult part of
all formal writing.
• “In addition the researcher should give due
attention to fact that in his rough draft he has
been consistent or not. He should do the
mechanics of writing- grammar, spelling and
usage.
 Step 5. Preparation of the final
bibliography
• Next in order come the task of the preparation
of the final bibliography. The bibliography,
which is generally appended to the research
report.
• The bibliography should be arranged
alphabetically. Generally this pattern of
bibliography is considered convenient and
satisfactory from the point of view of reader.
 Step 6. Writing the final draft
• The final draft should be written in a concise
and objective style and in simple language.
• Avoiding vague expression such as a “it seems”,
“there may be”, etc.
• It must be remembered that every report
should be an attempt to solve some intellectual
problem and must contribute to the solution of
a problem and must add to the knowledge of
both the researcher and the reader.
 Tips for Report Writing
• A report should be properly dated & signed by
the concerned authority or by the chairman of
the committee or by all committee members.
This has a legal significance and needs special
attention in report writing.
• A lengthy report is not necessary. In fact,
report should be brief and compact
document, it should give complete picture of
problem under investigation.
 Tips for Report Writing
• Writing reports needs skills and this task
should be accomplished by the researcher
with the utmost care.
• A good report is one which is drafted in a
simple and clear language. Its should not be
difficult and a reader should be able to
understand the entire report easily, exactly &
quickly.
 Tips for Report Writing
• Reports present adequate information on various aspects of
the business.
• In a report writing attention should be given to certain
essential technical details. For eg: the pages and paragraphs
of the report should be numbered properly. Marginal
heading and titles should be given. This gives convenience to
the readers.
• The data collection, analysis and interpretation of the data,
conclusions drawn and the recommendations made in report
should be made accurate so as to make the whole report
reliable and dependable for future reference and also for
policy decisions.
 Significance of Report
• All the skills and the knowledge of the professionals are
communicated through reports.
• Reports help the top line in decision making.
• A true and balanced report also helps in problem solving.
• It is considered a major component of the research study as the
research remains incomplete without report.
• Reports communicate the planning, policies, and other matters
regarding an organization.
• Reports discloses unknown information.
• A report should be in a proper format. The report should have all
the essentials components such as title, introduction, findings &
recommendations.
 Broad Division/Layout of Reports
1. Preliminary Material
– Title of Report
– Acknowledgement
– Table of Contents
– List of Tables and Illustrations
– Abstract / Synopsis
2. Body of Report
– Introduction
– Literature Review
– Methodology
– Results
– Discussion
– Conclusion
– Recommendations
3. Supplementary Material
– References / Bibliography
– Appendices
 Content of Research Report
• Cover page
• Summary
• Acknowledgement
• Index
• Introduction
• Objectives
• Literature review
• Research Methodology
• Data analysis and interpretation
• Conclusion
• Bibliography
• Appendix/Annexure
 Precautions in Writing Research Report
• Communicate research finding
• Length of research report
• Curiosity within reader
• Objective style of writing
• Use of charts, graphs and tables
• Appropriate layout
• Avoid grammatical mistakes
• Logical analysis
• Appendices
• Bibliography of necessary sources
• Appearance
• Policy implications
• Originality
• Objectives of study
 Types of Reports
• Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the length
and the form are largely dictated by the problems at hand. For instance, business firms
prefer reports in the letter form, just one or two pages in length. Banks, insurance
organisations and financial institutions are generally fond of the short balance-sheet type
of tabulation for their annual reports to their customers and shareholders. Mathematicians
prefer to write the results of their investigations in the form of algebraic notations.
• News items in the daily papers are also forms of report writing. They represent firsthand
on-the scene accounts of the events described or compilations of interviews with persons
who were on the scene.
• Book-reviews which analyze the content of the book and report on the author’s intentions,
his success or failure in achieving his aims, his language, his style, scholarship, bias or his
point of view. Such reviews also happen to be a kind of short report.
• The results of a research investigation can be presented in a number of ways viz., a
technical report, a popular report, an article, a monograph or at times even in the form of
oral presentation. Which method of presentation to be used in a particular study depends
on the circumstances under which the study arose and the nature of the results.
• The reports could be of two types, Technical Reports and Popular Reports
 Technical Reports
A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is
required whether for recordkeeping or for public dissemination.
• A general outline of a technical report can be as follows:
1. Summary of results: A brief review of the main findings just in two or
three pages.
2. Nature of the study: Description of the general objectives of study,
formulation of the problem in operational terms, the working
hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required, etc.
3. Methods employed: Specific methods used in the study and their
limitations. For instance, in sampling studies we should give details of
sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4. Data: Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and
limitations. If secondary data are used, their suitability to the problem at
hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey, the manner in which data
were collected should be fully described.
 Technical Reports
5. Analysis of data and presentation of findings: The analysis of data and
presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data in the form of
tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body
of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6. Conclusions: A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications
drawn from the results be explained.
7. Bibliography: Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and
attached.
8. Technical appendices: Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to
questionnaire, mathematical derivations, elaboration on particular technique
of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index: Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.
• The order presented above only gives a general idea of the nature of a
technical report; the order of presentation may not necessarily be the same in
all the technical reports. This, in other words, means that the presentation may
vary in different reports; even the different sections outlined above will not
always be the same, nor will all these sections appear in any particular report.
 Popular Reports
• Popular report is used if the research results have policy implications.
• The popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity and
attractiveness. The simplification should be sought through clear
writing, minimization of technical, particularly mathematical, details
and liberal use of charts and diagrams. Attractive layout along with
large print, many subheadings, even an occasional cartoon now and
then is another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in
such a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy
implications.
• The general outline of a popular report is as follows:
1. The findings and their implications: Emphasis in the report is given on
the findings of most practical interest and on the implications of these
findings.
• 2. Recommendations for action: Recommendations for action on the
basis of the findings of the study is made in this section of the report.
 Popular Reports
3. Objective of the study: A general review of how the problem arise is presented
along with the specific objectives of the project under study.
4. Methods employed: A brief and non-technical description of the methods and
techniques used, including a short review of the data on which the study is
based, is given in this part of the report.
5. Results: This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results
of the study are presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all
sorts of illustrations such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices: More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is
presented in the form of appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed
if the report is entirely meant for general public.
• There can be several variations of the form in which a popular report can be
prepared. The only important thing about such a report is that it gives emphasis
on simplicity and policy implications from the operational point of view, avoiding
the technical details of all sorts to the extent possible
Bibliography, Appendices and
JEL Classification
 Bibliography
A bibliography is a list of works on a subject or by an author that were used or consulted to write a research paper, book or article. It
can also be referred to as a list of works cited. It is usually found at the end of a book, article or research paper.

The bibliography appears at the end. The main purpose of a bibliography entry is to give credit to authors whose work you've
consulted in your research. It also makes it easy for a reader to find out more about your topic by delving into the research that you
used to write your paper.

It is known as a list of works cited, a bibliography may appear at the end of a book, report, online presentation, or research paper.
Students are taught that a bibliography, along with correctly formatted in-text citations, is crucial to properly citing one's research and to
avoiding accusations of plagiarism. In formal research, all sources used, whether quoted directly or synopsized, should be included in
the bibliography.

An annotated bibliography includes a brief descriptive and evaluative paragraph (the annotation) for each item in the list. These
annotations often give more context about why a certain source may be useful or related to the topic at hand.
 Conventions for Documenting Sources

"It is standard practice in scholarly writing to include at the end of books or chapters and at the
end of articles a list of the sources that the writer consulted or cited. Those lists, or bibliographies,
often include sources that you will also want to consult. . . .
"Established conventions for documenting sources vary from one academic discipline to another.
The Modern Language Association (MLA) style of documentation is preferred in literature and
languages. For papers in the social sciences the American Psychological Association (APA) style is
preferred, whereas papers in history, philosophy, economics, political science, and business
disciplines are formatted in the Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) system. The Council of Biology
Editors (CBE) recommends varying documentation styles for different natural sciences."
 APA vs MLA Styles

There are several different styles of citations and bibliographies that you might encounter: MLA,
APA, Chicago, Harvard, and more. As described above, each of those styles is often associated with
a particular segment of academia and research. Of these, the most widely used are APA and MLA
styles. They both include similar information, but arranged and formatted differently.
"In an entry for a book in an APA-style works-cited list, the date (in parentheses) immediately
follows the name of the author (whose first name is written only as an initial), just the first word of
the title is capitalized, and the publisher's full name is generally provided.
 APA

Anderson, I. (2007). This is our music: Free jazz, the sixties, and American culture. Philadelphia:
University of Pennsylvania Press.

In contrast, in an MLA-style entry, the author's name appears as given in the work (normally in
full), every important word of the title is capitalized, some words in the publisher's name are
abbreviated, the publication date follows the publisher's name, and the medium of publication is
recorded. . . . In both styles, the first line of the entry is flush with the left margin, and the second
and subsequent lines are indented.

MLA

Anderson, Iain. This Is Our Music: Free Jazz, the Sixties, and American Culture. Philadelphia: U
of Pennsylvania P, 2007. Print. The Arts and Intellectual Life in Mod. Amer.

(MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th ed. The Modern Language Association of
America, 2009)
 Citation
A "citation" is the way you tell your readers that certain material in your work came from another source. It also gives your readers
the information necessary to find that source again, including: information about the author. the title of the work.The purpose of a
citation is usually to provide support or evidence for what you are saying; it tells the reader where this support or evidence can be
found, and it typically does this by providing a reference to a bibliography, a list of detailed bibliographic information provided at the
end of your document.

There are two methods of citing sources in your text: Parenthetical citations give a short reference in parentheses directly in the text.
Numerical citations give only a number that corresponds to a footnote, endnote or reference list entry.

When you cite the source of information in the report, you give the names of the authors and the date of publication. ... References:
The sources are listed at the end of the report in alphabetical order according to the last name of the first author, as in the following
book and article.
 Annexure and Appendix
An Annexure is “something that is attached, such as a document to a report”. a Schedule is “a written list or inventory; esp., a
statement that is attached to a document and that gives a detailed showing of the matters referred to in the document”

An appendix is a supplement or attachment which is not a part of the body of a report. It contains information that is helpful to
understand the contents or provides essential background on the research process.

An appendix is a kind of annexure.

Ztherefore we can conclude that every appendix is an annexure , but not every annexure is an appendix.
 JEL CLASSIFICATION

JEL classification system was developed for the use in Journal of Economic Literature (JEL) and is a standard method of classifying scholarly literature in the
field of Economics.

Articles in economics journals are usually classified according to the JEL classification codes. The JEL is published quarterly by the American Economic
Association and contains survey articles and information on recently published books and dissertations.

It is important to understand the JEL codes for the following reasons:

1. JEL classification is standard clasification used by many researchers.

2. JEL codes are prevalent across National and International economics journals

3. Databases like EBSCO and EconLit also follow JEL codes.

4. Used as input variable in research studies that seek to determine subject focus academic literature.
JEL Code

The JEL Code classifies your paper into specific categories so that it can be found more easily in search engines and online libraries.

You should provide up to 3 JEL Codes to your paper. If you do not have any code starting with the letter F, your work is not involved in

the field of International Economics. Here you can check the general categories as a starting point.
JEL Codes General Categories

A General Economics and Teaching

B History of Economic Thought, Methodology, and Heterodox Approaches

C Mathematical and Quantitative Methods

D Microeconomics

E Macroeconomics and Monetary Economics

F International Economics

G Financial Economics

H Public Economics

I Health, Education, and Welfare

J Labor and Demographic Economics

K Law and Economics

L Industrial Organization

M Business Administration and Business Economics • Marketing •

Accounting • Personnel Economics