College of Agriculture, Animal

Sciences and Veterinary Medicine

School of Agricultural Engineering
Agricultural Land and Irrigation
Engineering department

WELCOME TO THE COMPONENT OF

INTRODUCTION TO SOIL SCIENCES
BASICS OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCES
MODULE

By Aloys HABIMANA
12/10/24
Some references

• Calvet, R. 2003. Le sol, propriétés et fonctions. Tome 1 & 2.

• Delecour, F. 1981. Initiation à la pédologie. Gembloux. 78 p.
• Gupta, P. K. 2003. A Handbook of soil, Fertilizer and manure. 2nd
Ed., Agrobios, India, 591p.
• Hausenbuiller, L. R. 1978. Soil science, Principles and Practices.
Iowa, USA, 611p.
• Lozet, J. et Mathieu, C. 2002. Dictionnaire de science du sol.
3eme Ed., Paris, 575p.
• Mathieu C., Pieltain F. 2003. Analyse chimique des sols ;
Méthodes choisies. Editions TEC & DOC, Lavoisier, Paris, 388 p.
• Miller, W. R. and Donahue, L. R. 1990. Soils, An Introduction to
Soils and Plant Growth. 6th Ed., New Jersey, USA, 768p.
• Brady N.C and R. R Weil (2016). The Nature and Properties of Soils (15th
Edition). Prentice Hall
• White R.E. (2009). Principles and Practice of Soil Science: The Soil as a
Natural Resource. (4th Edition). Wiley Publishers.

Introduction to Soil Science by Aloys HABIMANA

Objectives
Having successfully completed the component, students
should be able:

•To Outline the functions of soils

•To understand how soils form and gain experience in
the interpretation of basic soil properties.
•Identify and characterize soils on the basis of their
physical, chemical and biological properties.
•Relate soil properties to basic management options of
the soils
•To develop skills in using such information to make
sound management decisions for both agricultural and
Introduction to Soil Science by Aloys HABIMANA
 CONTENT
1.Fundamental concepts
2.Soil physical properties
3.Soil Chemical properties
4.Soil biological properties
5.Soil organic matter and essential
plant nutrients

Introduction to Soil Science by Aloys HABIMANA

Practical

Introduction to Soil Science by Aloys HABIMANA

Practical

The course will be comprised of

•Lectures,
•Continuing Assessment Test (CAT)
•Lab analysis
•Field work

Teaching Materials:
•Chalk and black board, laptop and projector are needed for theory,
•Soil auger, core sylinder, oven dry stove, lab equipments, knife, hand hoe,
measuring rule etc for practical work.

Introduction to Soil Science by Aloys HABIMANA

 Chapter – one:

Fundamental concepts
1. INTRODUCTION TO
GIS
 Soil: Fundamental concepts
Soil science is the study of soil as a natural resource on the
surface of the earth including
•soil formation,
•classification and mapping;
•physical, chemical, biological, and fertility properties of
soils; and
•these properties in relation to the use and management
of soils.
 Soil: Fundamental concepts
Sometimes terms which refer to branches of soil science,
such as:
•Pedology (formation, chemistry, morphology and
classification of soil) and
•Edaphology (influence of soil on organisms,
(especially plants), are used as synonymous
with soil science.
•Soil occupies the pedosphere, one of Earth's spheres that
the geosciences use to organize theEarth conceptually.
 Soil: Fundamental concepts
• This is the conceptual perspective of pedology and
edaphology, the two main branches of soil science.
• Pedology (From Greek word pedon, means soil or earth)
is the study of soil in its natural setting.
• Edaphology (from Greek word edaphos, means soil or
ground) is the study of soil in relation to soil-dependent
uses.
• Both branches apply a combination of soil physics, soil
chemistry and soil biology.
 Soil: Fundamental concepts
Soil Science has six well defined and developed
disciplines
•Soil fertility: Nutrient supplying properties of soil
•Soil chemistry: Chemical constituents, chemical
properties and the chemical reactions
• Soil physics: Involves the study of physical properties
 Soil: Fundamental concepts
• Soil microbiology: Deals with micro organisms, its
population, classification, its role in transformations
• Soil conservation: Dealing with protection of soil against
physical loss by erosion or against chemical deterioration
i.e excessive loss of nutrients either natural or artificial
means.
• Soil Pedology: Dealing with the genesis, survey and
classification
 Soil: Definition
Generally soil refers to the loose surface of the earth as
identified from the original rocks and minerals from which
it is derived through weathering process.
•Whitney (1892): Soil is a nutrient bin which supplies all
the nutrients required for plant growth
•Hilgard (1892): Soil is more or less a loose and friable
material in which plants, by means of their roots, find a
foothold for nourishment as well as for other conditions
of growth”
•Dokuchaiev (1900): Russian scientist - Father of soil
science - Soil is a natural body composed of mineral and
organic constituents, having a definite genesis and a
distinct nature of its own.
 Soil: Definition

• Soil is a mixture of Earth’s uppermost mantle of

weathered rock and organic matter.
• It is natural body on the surface of the earth in which
plants grow.
• Soil is a dynamic natural body on the surface of the earth
in which plants grow, composed of mineral and organic
materials and living forms.
 Soil: Definition
Soil can be compared to various systems of animals
•Digestive system: Organic matter decomposition
•Respiratory system: Air circulation & exchange of
gases
•Circulatory system (blood): Water movement
within the soil
•Excretory system: Leaching out of excess salts
•Brain: Soil clay
•Colour: Soil colour
•Height: Soil depth
 Soil components

• Pores: 50% • Solid fraction: 50%

 Mineral fraction
• Solid fraction; inorganic
• Nature depends on the rocks on which soils were formed and
conditions of formation
Rocks are classified into 3 following groups based on
their genesis and structure:
Igneous rocks: feldspars, maphic minerals and quartz
Sedimentary rocks: formed by the consolidation of
fragmentary rock materials (sediments)
Metamorphic rocks: formed from the igneous or
secondary rocks by the action of intense heat and high
pressure resulting in considerable change in texture and
mineral composition
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
i. Igneous rocks
• These are first formed in the earth crust due to the
cooling and solidification of molten rocks(magma).
• Based on the mode of formation, they are further
classified as extrusive and intrusive rocks.

•
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
i. Igneous rocks
• Extrusive rocks (or volcanic rocks) are formed due
to the consolidation of magma on the surface of the
earth.
• The magma, when it flows on the Earth surface is
called LAVA E.g. Basalt
• Intrusive rocks (or plutonic rocks) are produced due
to solidification of magma below the surface of the
earth. E.g. Granite
• Rocks formed in vertical cracks are called dykes and
rocks formed in horizontal cracks are called sills.
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
ii. Sedimentary rocks
• These rocks are formed from the consolidation of
sediments (mud and sand) accumulated through wind or
water action at the surface of the earth.
• They are cemented together by chemicals or pressure
• These rocks are also called as clastic rocks.
ROCKS - 3 MAJOR CLASSIFICATIONS
iii. Metamorphic rocks
• These rocks are formed from igneous and sedimentary
rocks under the influence of great heat, pressure,
chemically active liquids and gases.
• Change may occur in mineral composition or texture or
both.
• The changes due to water is called hydro metamorphosis
and due to pressure is called dynamo metamorphosis
Organic fraction
• Soil organic matter consists of plant, animal and
microbial residues in various stages of decay.
• See details on soil organic matter in Chapter 5.

Soil water and soil air

-They are filled in soil pores:
 Air: 25%
 Water: 25%
 Soil Forming Factors
Origin of soils

Parental materials of soil:

hard (solid) rock masses, and
organic residues

Rock and minerals are the main sources of

parent materials; vary greatly in chemical
composition
 Weathering of rocks and minerals
 disintegration and decomposition of rocks

a) Physical weathering:
Agents: Temperature, Water, Wind.

b) Chemical weathering:
Solution, Hydratation, Hydrolysis,
Carbonation, Oxidation and reduction.

c) Biological weathering:
Agents: Man and animal;
Roots of higher plants;
Microorganisms.
 Factors of soil formation
Two groups
•Passive : i) Parent material, ii) Topography,
iii) Time
•Active : iv) Climate, v) Vegetation & organism

Passive Soil forming factors

•The passive soil forming factors are those which
represent the source of soil forming mass and
conditions affecting it.
•These provide a base on which the active soil forming
factors work or act for the development of soil.
 Factors of soil formation
Two groups
•Passive : i) Parent material, ii) Topography,
iii) Time
•Active : iv) Climate, v) Vegetation & organism

Active Soil Forming Factors

•The active soil forming factors are those which
supply energy that acts on the mass for the
purpose of soil formation.
 Factors of soil formation

Soil = f (cl, pm, g, o, t)

Climate Passive factors

Parental materials
Topography

Biota /Living Organisms

Time

Active factors
• Parent materials: geological or organic precursors to the soil
Nature of Parental material influence soil formation by :
their rates of weathering,
nutrients they contain for plant use
particle sizes they contain
• Climate: primarily precipitation and temperature
• Biota : living organisms, especially native vegetation, microbes,
soil animals, and increasingly human beings
• Topography: Slope aspect, and landscape position
• Time: The period of time since the parent materials began to
undergo soil
Pedogenetic processes
1. Humification.
• Humification is the process of transformation of raw
organic matter into humus.
• Degrading or break down of the organic material by algae,
fungi, insects and worms causes humification which leaves
behind a dark, amorphous humus releases nitrogenous
compounds into the soil.
• This stage is called mineralization
• The organic changes, thus, refer to the accumulated effect
produced by these processes.
• Degrading Humificafion Mineralisation
Pedogenetic processes
2. Eluviation.
•The meaning of eluviation is washing out.
•It is the process of removal of constituents in suspension or
solution by the percolating water from the upper to lower
layers.
•In other words it refers to the down wash of clay and other
soluble material, leaving behind a deprived or eluvial horizon.
Pedogenetic processes
3. Illuviation.
•It is the reverse of eluviation.
•Illuviation is said to have occurred when accumulation or
deposition of material from the upper layers leaves behind an
enriched horizons.
•In other words the process of deposition of soil material in
the lower layer is known as illuviation.
4. Leaching.
•It is the downward movement of material-clay, bases or
organic stuff, in solution or colloidal form.
•Leaching is more pronounced in humid areas than in dry
areas.
Pedogenetic processes
5. Horizonation.
•It is the process of differentiation of soil in different horizons
along the depth of the soil body.
•The differentiation is due to the fundamental processes,
humification, eluviation and illuviation.
 Soil profile

• Soil profile is the vertical section of the soil showing the

various layers from the surface to the unaffected parent
material is known as a soil profile.
• The various layers are known as horizons.
• They are named as horizon A, horizon B and horizon C.
• The surface soil or that layer of soil at the top which is liable
to leaching and from which some soil constituents have
been removed is known as horizon A or the horizon of
eluviation.
 Soil profile
• The intermediate layer in which the materials leached from
horizon A have been redeposited is known as horizon B or
the horizon of illuviation.
• The parent material from which the soil is formed is known
as horizon C
• Soil profile is the key for the soil classification and also forms
the basis for the practical utility of soils.
• A hypothetical mineral soil profile will include O, A, B, C and
R master horizons and all the possible sub-horizons.
 Soil profile
Master horizons and sub horizons
O horizon – It is called as organic horizon.
•It is formed in the upper part of the mineral soil, dominated
by fresh or partly decomposed organic materials.
•O1 - Organic horizon in which the original forms
of the plant and animal residues can be
recognized through naked eye.
•O2 - Organic horizon in which the original plant or animal
matter can not be recognized through naked eye.
 Soil profile
Master horizons and sub horizons
A horizon – Horizon of organic matter accumulation adjacent
to surface and that has lost clay, iron and aluminum.
•A1 - Top most mineral horizon formed adjacent to the
surface.
•There will be accumulation of humified organic matter
associated with mineral fraction and darker in Colour than
that of lower horizons due to organic matter.
 Soil profile
Master horizons and sub horizons
A horizon –
•A2 - Horizon of maximum eluviation of clay, iron and
aluminium oxides and organic matter.
•Generally lighter in colour than horizons above and below.
•A3 - A transitional layer between A and B horizons with more
dominated properties of A1 or A2 above than the underlying
B horizon.
•This horizon is sometimes absent.
 Soil profile

Master horizons and sub horizons

B horizon – Horizon in which the dominant features are
accumulation of clay, iron, aluminium or humus alone or in
combination..
•B1 - A transitional layer between A and B. More like A than B
•B2 - Zone of maximum accumulation of clay, iron and
aluminium oxide that may have moved down from upper
horizons or may have formed in situ.
•The organic matter content is generally higher and Colour
darker than that of A2 horizon above.
 Soil profile
Master horizons and sub horizons
B horizon-
•B3 - Transitional horizon between B and C and with
properties more similar to that of overlying B2
C horizon
•It is the horizon below the solum (A + B), relatively less
affected by soil forming processes.
•It is outside the zone of major biological activity. It may
contain accumulation of carbonates or sulphates, calcium and
magnesium .
Morphology of horizons is observed
 on field: depth of horizons, color, texture,
structure, organic matter, presence of pores,
presence of roots, presence of oxides, etc.)
 and completed by laboratory analysis:
(granulometry, CEC, etc.
Epipedon
The epipedon includes the upper part of the soil
profile darkened by organic matter, the upper eluvial
horizons, or both
Endopedon
The lower part of the soil horizon mainly composed
of mineral matter without organic matter
Soil profile
Soil
profile
 Chapter – two:

soil physical properties

1. INTRODUCTION TO
GIS
 Introduction

• Physical properties (mechanical behaviour) of a

soil greatly influence its use and behaviour
towards plant growth.
• The plant support, root penetration, drainage,
aeration, retention of moisture, and plant
nutrients are linked with the physical condition
of the soil.
• The physical properties of a soil depend on the
amount, size, shape, arrangement and mineral
composition of its particles.
 Soil texture
The texture of the soil is a physical property
which indicates the proportion of sand, silt and
clay in a given soil.

Note: clays are microscopic in size !

Soil texture
• Sand and silt are of no importance to the soil as
they don’t contribute to the soil’s ability to restore
water or nutrients.
• Clay is an active part of soil texture as clay has a
small size and it has a large amount of surface
area per unit mass and it helps in storing ions and
water.
• The soil texture refers to the coarseness or
fineness of the mineral matter in the soil.
• It is determined by the proportion of the sand, silt,
and clay particles. The equal proportion of all three
of them is known as loam.
Soil texture
• Clay: Particle Size – diameters less than
0.002 millimeter
• Silt: Particle Size – diameters between 0.002
millimeters to 0.05 millimeters.
• Sand: Particle Size – diameters between 0.05
and 2 millimeters.
• Rocks larger than 2 millimeters are regarded as
pebbles, gravel, or rock fragments and
technically are not soil particles.
Soil texture triangle
• The textural triangle can be used to determine
the texture class after an analysis of laboratory
which determines the percentage of sand, silt and
clay.

• Loamy Soil: Loamy soil is the one in which none

of the three (sand/silt/clay) dominates the other
two.
• In particular, loamy soil has about 40% sand,
40%silt, and 20% clay.
 Particle Diameter Size
(Sieving)
• Soil particle diameters
range over 4 orders of
magnitude
• Coarse fragments = or >2
mm
• Sand < 2 mm to 0.05 mm
• Silt < 0.05 mm to 0.002
mm
• Clay < 0.002 mm
Textural Triangle
 Using the textural
Triangle
• To use the diagram, locate the percentage of clay first and
project inward parallel to sand line.
• Do likewise for the per cent silt and project inward parallel
to clay line and for sand, project inward parallel to silt.
• The point at which the projections cross or intersect will
identify the class name
• Some times, the intersecting point exactly fall on the line
between the textural classes.
• Then it is customary to use the name of the finer fraction
when it happens.
• (eg). Soil containing 40% clay, 30% sand.
Using the textural
Triangle
• Textural class determined by the intersection point
of the lines corresponding to the percentage of each
of the three particle sizes

• The percentage lines

for each particle size
are those lines properly
oriented to the number
• For example, 40 % Silt
would be marked on
the line shown in brown
 Using the textural
Triangle
A soil consists of the
following:
• 30 % clay
• 30 % silt
• 40 % sand
Following the lines for:

• 30 % Clay CLAY LOAM

• 30 % Silt
• 40 % Sand

Textural Class:
• Clay Loam
 Exercice 1

A soil sample weights 600 g. The

coarse elements from this sample
weight 100 g. Its granulometric
analysis gives 250 g of sand and 100
g of silt.

What is the textural class of this soil?

 Answer

Weight of fine soil = 600 g – 100 g = 500 g.

Weight of clay = 500g – (250g + 100g) = 150g

Percentage of granulometric fractions:

Sand = (250 / 500) x 100 = 50 %
Silt = (100 / 500) x 100 = 20 %
Clay = (150 / 500) x 100 = 30 %

Textural class = Sandy clay loam

Exercise 2
A soil sample weighs 800 g.
During its textural analysis, following Sieve’s Weight
fractions were taken on sieves: size (mm) (g)
20 50
1. What are the weights of the 2 150
following fractions of this soil sample: 0.5 80
(a) Coarse elements 0.2 20
(b) Fine soil 0.05 50
(c) Sand 0.02 70
(d) Silt 0.005 80
(e) Clay 0.002 120
0.0002 100
2. Calculate the percentages of
(a)sand, (b) silt and (c) clay.

3. Show the textural class of this soil

on the textural triangle.
Answer
1. Weights of the following fractions of this soil
sample:
(a) Coarse elements: (50 + 150) g = 200 g
(b) Fine soil: (800 - 200) g = 600 g
(c) Sand: (80 + 20 + 50) g = 150 g
(d) Silt: (70 + 80 + 120) g = 270 g
(e) Clay: (600 – 150 – 270) g = 180 g

2. Percentages of fractions:
• Sand : (150/600) x 100 = 25%
•Silt : (270/600) x 100 = 45%
• Clay : (180/600) x 100 = 30%.

3.The textural class of this soil is clay loam

 Assignment 1

A soil sample weighed 800 g. During its textural analysis

following fractions were taken on sieves:
Sieve’s size (mm) Weight (g)
20 20
2 80
0.5 220
0.2 80
0.05 120
0.02 70
0.005 40
0.002 100
1. What are the weights of the following
fractions of this soil sample: coarse elements,
fine soil, sand, silt and clay

2. Calculate the percentages of sand, silt and

clay.

3. Show the textural class of this soil on the

textural triangle
Soil structure

It is the space arrangement of the mineral particles

of the soil and their possible connection by OM,
hydroxides of Fe or alumina or both.

The assembly of these solid particles forms called

structural units elementary aggregates. These
aggregates are made of several particles of the soil
linked between them by organic substances, Fe
oxides, carbonates, clays, silica, etc.
 Soil structure

• Clays, organic matter, and materials excreted by soil

organisms bind the soil particles together to
form aggregates.
• Soil structure is important for plant growth, regulating
the movement of air and water, influencing root
development, and affecting nutrient availability.
 Soil Structure
Soil structure refers to the arrangement of
soil particles (sand, silt and clay) and pores in
the soil and to the ability of the particles to
form aggregates. .
• Organic matter is the glue
that holds the aggregates
together

• Large pores (spaces)

between aggregates are
filled with air in a moist soil.

• Small pores are filled with

water in a moist soil. Even
smaller pores inside the
aggregates (not shown) are
also filled with water.
 Soil structure
• Aggregates are groups of soil particles held together by
organic matter or chemical forces.
• Pores are the spaces in the soil
• The pores between the aggregates are usually large
(macropores).
• Their large size allows good aeration, rapid infiltration of
water, easy plant root penetration, good water drainage,
as well as providing good conditions for soil micro-
organisms
• The smaller pores within the aggregates or between soil
particles (micropores) hold water against gravity
(capillary action)
Soil
aggregates
Soil
structure
 Soil density

(i)Particle density / solid density

It is the density of the solid particles of soil without
consideration of the weight of water and air.

ρs :density of the solid,

Ms: mass solid,
Vs: volume of the solid

In the majority of the mineral soils, the average density

of the particles varies between 2.6 and 2.7 g/cm³.
The presence of OM decreases the value of the density
of particles.
 Soil particle density
Particle density of different soil textural
classes
(ii) Bulk density

It gives the relationship between the mass of the dry

particles and the total volume of the soil.

ρb : bulk (apparent) density,

Ms : mass dry soil,
Vt : total volume of the soil,
Vs : volume of the solid particles,
Vw : volume of water,
Va : volume of the air.
 Soil bulk density
Bulk density of different soil textural
classes
Bulk Density vs. Particle
Density

http://soil.gsfc.nasa.gov/pvg/pd3.htm
 Soil porosity
• Soil porosity is the percentage of a soil that is pore spaces
or voids.
• The average soil has a porosity of about 50%, and the
pores are filled with air or water depending on the
moisture content.
• Sands have larger pores, but less total pore space than
clays.
• If both bulk density and particle density are known, the
total porosity can be calculated using these values.
 Soil porosity
It is an index of the relative volume of the pores in soil. Its
value oscillates between 0,3 and 0,6 (or 30 – 60 %).

•f= Vf/Vt = (Va+Vw)/(Vs+Vw+Va)

•Vf: volume of the pores,

•Vt: total volume
•Vs: volume of the solid particles,
•Vw: volume of water,
•Va: volume of air.
 Exercise 3

A soil sample contains solid particles

which weight 600 g with a volume of
300 ml. The volume of water is 150 ml
and the volume of air is also 150 ml.

Calculate the solid density, bulk

density and porosity of this soil.
 Answer
a) Solid density:
ΡS = Ms/Vs
= 600 g / 300 ml
= 2 g/cm³

b) Bulk density:
Ρb= Ms/Vt = Ms/(Vs+Vw+Va)
= 600 g / (300+150+150)
ml
= 1 g/cm³

c) Porosity:
f=Vf/Vt = (Va+Vw)/(Vs+Vw+Va)
= (150+150)ml /
Assignment 2
A soil surveyor collected an undisturbed sample of moist soil
that weighed 1500 g using a core ring 10 cm in diameter and
10 cm height. Upon drying in an oven at 105oC for 24 hours
the soil weighed 1200 g. Calculate the dry bulk density and
mass wetness.
Take π to be 3.14.
 Soil Water (moisture)
/soil solution
Soil moisture
quantity of water contained in a certain quantity
of soil.

Soil Water, an excellent solvent for most of the

plant nutrients,is a primary requisite for
plant growth,
 Importance of soil
water
Soil water serves as a solvent and carrier of food
nutrients for plant growth
Yield of crop is more often determined by the amount
of water available rather than the deficiency of other
food nutrients
Soil water acts as a nutrient itself
Soil water regulates soil temperature
Soil forming processes and weathering depend on
water
Microorganisms require water for their metabolic
activities
 Importance of soil
water
 Soil water helps in chemical and biological
activities of soil
 It is a principal constituent of the growing
plant
 Water is essential for photosynthesis
 Water serves four functions
in plants
 it is the major constituents of plant
protoplasm(85-95%)
 it is essential for photosynthesis and
conversion of starches to sugars
 it is the solvent in which nutrients move into
and through plant parts to capture sunlight.
 In fact, the soil water is a great regulator of
physical, chemical and biological activities in
the soil.
 Soil Water (moisture)
content
Special terms reflect the fraction of voids filled with water
(all vary by texture and condition):
• Saturation: All voids are filled with water
• Field Saturation: Natural “saturated” moisture content
which is lower than full saturation due to air that is
trapped.
• Field capacity: Water that can leave pores by gravity has
done so
• Wilting point: Water that is extractable by plant roots is
gone
• Hygroscopic point: Water that can be removed by all
usual means is gone
Changes in Soil Water
Storage
 Saturated (all pores filled)

Field Capacity (Some air, some water)

Wilting point
(water too tightly held for plant use)
Soil Water (moisture)
content
Field Capacity
• Following a rain or irrigation, a
portion of the water from saturated
soils will drain from the soil due to
gravity.
• After two to three days the
gravitational drainage will become
negligible.
• At this time the soil is said to be at
field capacity.
 Entry of Water into Soil
Infiltration:
•Infiltration refers to the downward entry or movement of
water into the soil surface
•It is a surface characteristic and hence primarily
influenced by the condition of the surface soil.
•Soil surface with vegetative cover has more infiltration
rate than bare soil
•Warm soils absorb more water than colder ones
•Coarse surface texture, granular structure and high
organic matter content in surface soil, all help to increase
infiltration
•Infiltration rate is comparatively lower in wet soils than
dry soils
 Entry of Water into Soil
Percolation:
•The movement of water through a column of soil is called
percolation.
•It is important for two reasons.
i) This is the only source of recharge of ground water
which can be used through wells for irrigation
ii) Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often
out of reach of plant roots (leaching)
•In dry region it is negligible and under high rainfall it is
high
•Sandy soils have greater percolation than clayey soil
•Vegetation and high water table reduce the percolation
loss
 Entry of Water into Soil
Permeability:
•It indicates the relative ease of movement of water with
in the soil.
•The characteristics that determine how fast air and water
move through the soil is known as permeability.
•The term hydraulic conductivity is also used which refers
to the readiness with which a soil transmits fluids
through it
Drainage:
•The frequency and duration of periods when the soil is
free from saturation with water.
•It controls the soil cum water relationship and the supply
of nutrients to the plants.
 Soil colour
• The color of the soil is an indicator of
several characteristics of soil.
• The soil colours are best determined
by the comparison with the Munsell
colour chart.
 Soil colour
• The Munsell soil colour notation is
divided into three parts:
• Hue - it denotes the dominant spectral colour
(red,yellow ,blue and green).
• Value - it denotes the lightness or darkness of a
colour (the amount of reflected light).
• Chroma - it represents the purity of the colour
(strength of the colour).
 Soil colour
• The Munsell colour notations are
systematic numerical and letter
designations of each of these three
variables (Hue,Value and Chroma).
• For example ,the numerical notation 2.5
YR6/6 suggests a hue of 2.5 YR,value of
5 and chroma of 6.
• The equivalent or parallel soil colour
name for this Munsell notation is `red`.
Soil air

Composition of soil and atmosphere air:

Gases Soil air Atmosphere air

(%) (%)
Nitrogen (N2) 79.2 – 81.4 79.0

Oxygen 15.1 – 20.6 21.0

Carbon dioxide 0.2 – 4.5 0.03
(CO2)
Soil temperature

The temperature of the soil comes from the solar

radiation and changes with the depth and time (time of
the day).
The temperature of the soil depends on heat reaching
the surface of the soil and transformation of this heat.
 Chapter – three:

soil chemical properties

1. INTRODUCTION TO
GIS
 3.0. Introduction
• The chemical properties of a soil are determined by colloids
of this soil.

• A colloid is substance solid whose constitutive particles are

very small (less than 0.001mm) μm) and can have several
reactions on their surfaces.

• The most important colloids of the soil are clay and humus.
• Others are hydroxides of iron, aluminium (they are
electropositive colloids) and silica (electronegative colloid).
 3.0. Introduction
Proportion of colloids in soil is as follows:

•Aluminosilicates (clay containing of silica):

silica 80%

•Sesquioxides free (oxides and hydroxides of Fe, Al;

oxides of Mn, Ti) : 10 %

•Humus : 5%

•Other colloids : 5%
 3.0. Introduction
Mineral nutrients are absorbed by plants from the soil
solution as ions.
•An ion is an electrically charged particle formed by the
removal or addition of electrons from an atom or
molecule.
•An ion with a positive electrical charge is called a cation.
•An ion with a negative electrical charge is called an
anion.
•Cations include sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium
(Ca++), magnesium (Mg++) and aluminium (Al+++).
•Anions include chloride (Cl-), nitrate (NO3-), sulphate
(SO4--), carbonate (CO3--), phosphate (H₂PO₄-) and boric
acid (BO₃---).
 3.1. Ion Exchange
Ion exchange reactions
•The process by which ions are exchanged between solid
and liquid phases and /or between solid phases if in close
contact with each other is called ion exchange.
•The common exchangeable cations are Ca2+ Mg2+ H+ ,K+,
NH4+ and Na+.
•The common anions are SO42-, Cl- , PO43- and N03-.
•The ion exchange in soil is due to the presence of
residual positive and negative charges on the soil
colloids.
Ion exchange reactions
•The negative charges attract positively charged ions and
the positive charges attract negatively charged ions from
soil solutions coming in contact with colloids.
•Exchange of cation is called cation exchange and
exchange of anion is called anion exchange.
•The capacity of the soil to hold and exchange cation is
called cation exchange capacity (CEC).
•The capacity to hold and exchange anion is called Anion
exchange capacity (AEC).
•Ions adsorbed to soil surfaces can be exchanged with
ions in soil solution.
Ion exchange reactions
•Organic colloids and inorganic micelles (clays) are sites of
ion exchange
•Where do ions in soil come from?
• Release from organic matter
• Rain
• Weathering of parent material
• Applied fertilizers
Ion exchange reactions
•Exchangeable cations:
The cations that can be replaced on exchange site by
other cations are called exchangeable cations.
weakly held, in contact with soil solution, ready for quick
replacement.
“outer sphere complex”
Exchangeable ions (on soil surfaces) cannot be removed by
leaching.
Soluble cations (in solution) can be removed by leaching
Ion exchange reactions
•Nonexchangeable cations:
cations
•Ions that are held very lightly with the colloid may be
traped between layers of clay micelle.
They adsorbed by strong bonds or held in inaccessible
places.
They do not pass to the soil solution very easily
“inner sphere complex”
not part of ion exchange!
 3.2. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
•Cation exchange capacity (CEC) is the total amount
of exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb
(retain, hold) and exchange.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

• The higher the soil CEC the

greater ability it has to store
plant nutrients

• Soil CEC increases as

1. The amount of clay
increases
2. The amount of organic
matter increases
3. The soil pH increases
4. Fineness of soil particles
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Milliequivalent (MEQ)
1 meq wt. of CEC has 6.02 x 10 20 adsorption
sites
MEQ of Common Cations
Element Na+ K+ Ca++ Mg++
Valence 1 1 2 2
Eq. Wt 23/1=23 39/1=39 40/2=20 24/2 = 12
MEQ wt 0.023 0.039 0.02 0.012
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Replacing power of ions

•Replacing power of ions increases with atomic weight.
•Divalent cations have more replacing power than
monovalent ions.
•Hydrogen is an exeption.
•H ions are adsorbed more strongly than other monovalent
or divalent ions.
•The replacing power of cations varies with the type of ion,
size, degree of hydration, valence, concentration and the
kind of clay mineral involved.
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Replacing power of ions
•The replacing power of monovalent cations increases in
the following order: Li < Na < K < Rb < Cs < H and for
divalent cations: Mg < Ca < Sr < Ba.
•In case of mixture of monovalent and divalent
•cations as they exist in normal soils the replacing power
increases in the following order:
•Na+ < K+=NH4+ < Mg2+=Ca2+ < Al3+ < H+.
•This means Na is more easily replaced than K and
•K more easily than NH4.
Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Base saturation
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)
Base saturation
•The basic cations are also called exchangeable bases (Ca2+,
Mg2+, K+, Na+)
•The sum of these 4 bases is Sum of exchangeable Bases
(S).
•The proportion of the basic cations, expressed as a
percentage, compared to the total of the cations on the
complex of exchange is called rate of saturation in bases
(V).
•V = S x 100 / T where T is the ECEC and S is the
exchangeable bases
 Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

Base saturation
•V = S x 100 / T
Example
•If a soil has a CEC of 16 cmol/kg and 4.2 cmol/kg of cations
Al3+ and H+, Determine the rate of saturation in bases.
•S = 16 – 4.2 = 11.8 cmol/kg
•V = 11.8 x 100/16 = 73.7%.
•The whole of Al3+ and H+ is called Exchangeable acidity
3.3. Soil reaction/soil pH
Introduction
• The reaction of soil indicates the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of a soil, usually expressed by the pH.
• The pH is the decimal logarithm of the reverse of the
concentration of a solution in ions H+.
• pH= - log [H+]
• Where pH is the hydrogen potential,
• [H+] is the concentration in H.
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Measure of soil pH
•The measurement of pH is done using an electrode pH-
meter.
•The measurement of soil pH is carried out in a suspension
of the soil sample in water (pH water) or in a solution of KCl
(pH KCl).
•The pH with water is always higher than the pH KCl. In the
acid soils, it is interesting to measure the pH KCl.
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Measure of soil pH
•At the laboratory, one uses of KCl 1N.
•The K+ ions are exchanged with the H+ ions which were
not dissociated in aqueous suspension.
•The difference between pH KCl and pH water (ΔpH) gives a
good idea of potential acidity.
•ΔpH = pHKCl - pH water
•If ΔpH= 0, it is a neutral acidity
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Measure of soil pH
•If ΔpH< 0, the particles of soil have negative charges.
•They then attract the cations present in the soil;
•If ΔpH> 0, the particles of soil have positive loads.
•They then attract the anions present in soil.

Active acidity and potential acidity

•Active acidity is the acidity developed due to hydrogen (H+)
and aluminum (Al3+) ions concentration of the soil solution.
•Potential acidity is the acidity developed due to adsorbed
hydrogen (H+) and aluminum (Al3+) ions on the soil colloids
 Soil reaction/soil pH

Extremely acid : < 4.5

Very strongly acid : 4.5 - 5.0
Strongly acid : 5.1 - 5.6
Moderately acid : 5.6 - 6.0
Slightly acid : 6.1 - 6.5
Neutral : 6.6 - 7.3
Slightly alkalin : 7.4 - 7.8
Moderately alkalin : 7.9 - 8.4
Strongly alkalin : 8.5 - 9.0
Very strongly alkalin : > 9.1
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Buffering capacity in soils
•Most soils can resist appreciable pH changes when large
amounts of material either strongly acidic or basic are
added, such as an acidic-forming or base-forming fertilizer.
•This ability to resist a change in pH is the buffering capacity
of soil.
•The buffering capacity increases as the cation exchange
capacity increases.
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Causes of soil acidity
(i)Leaching of bases
•Soil acidity is common in regions where
precipitation is high enough to leach appreciable
amounts of exchangeable bases (magnesium,
potassium, and sodium) from the surface layers of
soils.
•These are replaced by hydrogen ions resulting from
decomposition.
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Causes of soil acidity
(ii) Biological activity
•Decomposition of organic matter releases carbon
dioxide, which reacts with water, which then
produces carbonic acid, which serves as the source
of hydrogen

•CO2 + HOH H2CO3 (carbonic acid)

•H2CO3 H+ + HCO3
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Causes of soil acidity
(iii) Ammonium fertilizers
•Ammonium fertilizers are oxidized by bacteria to form
nitrate and hydrogen ions
•2NH4+ + 4O2 2NO3 + 2H2O + 4H+
(iv) Elemental sulphur
•As found in fungicides and fertilizers oxidizes to form
sulphate anions and hydrogen ions.
•Adding S to soil will form acids:
•2S + 3O2 + 2H2O 2H2SO4
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Causes of soil acidity
(v) Plant roots
•Plant roots release hydrogen cations (H+) by
exchanging them for nutrient cations (bases) i.e.
Ca2+, Mg2+, K+.
(vi) Soil erosion
Soil erosion results in the loss of bases from surface
runoff
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Causes of soil acidity
(vii) Weathering
•Weathering can result in the long term slow
release of Al (Fe) from rocks
•Rock-Al Al3+ + 3HOH Al (OH)30 + 3H+
•Rock-Al Al3+ + 2HOH Al (OH)21+ + 2H+
•Rock-Al Al3+ + HOH Al (OH)22+ + H+
 Soil reaction/soil pH
Causes of soil acidity
(viii) Acid rain
•Combustion of fuels that contain N and S releases
partially oxidized S and N.
•Further oxidation and hydration in the atmosphere
leads to sulfuric and nitric acids.

•SO2 + H2O H2SO4

•NO2 + H2O HNO3
Assignment 3
A soil sample weighed 800 g. Its pH analysis
resulted to Moderatly acidic soil and during
its textural analysis following fractions were
taken on sieves:
Sieve’s size (mm) Weight (g)
20 20
2 80
0.5 220
0.2 80
0.05 120
0.02 70
0.005 40
0.002 100
1. What are the weights of the following
fractions of this soil sample:
(a) Coarse elements, (b) Fine soil
(c) Sand, (d) Silt, (e) Clay

2. Calculate the percentages of

(a)sand, (b) silt and (c) clay.

3. Show the textural class of this soil on the

following textural triangle

4. Find the crops that require these soil pH and

texture.
 Chapter – four:

soil Biological properties

Introduction
• Organisms, both animals (fauna/micro-fauna) and
plants (flora/micro-flora) are important in the overall
quality, fertility and stability of soil.
They are responsible for the formation of humus, a
product of OM degradation and synthesis.
Moreover, organisms aid in the physical
manipulation, mixing, and formation of soil & its
structural stabilization.
Introduction
Majority of soil organisms are plants (microflora), but
animals are equally important (have more physical
role)
Most are microscopic, i.e., microflora and
microfauna.
Organisms (biological component) of the soil play
major roles in:
 Nutrient cycling & release (breakdown of organic
compounds)
 Biochemical weathering of minerals & soil
development
 Ameliorating soil physical & chemical properties
Introduction
The fauna of the soil includes/understands the
rodents (rats, rabbit,…), soil worms, arthropods
(milliapodes, insects,…), gastropodes (snakes,…),
nematodes, protozoa, etc

The flora of the soil includes the roots of the higher

plants, the algae, lichens, mushrooms and bacteria.
Food web of
a compost
pile
1. Plants
A.Microflora
Why important?

•Most crucial life forms in soils

•They generate their energy by breaking down
complex organic tissue, thereby freeing vital nutrients
for other plants.
•(Without these critters, these nutrients could be
locked up indefinitely in complex organic compounds)
a. Bacteria
• Tiny (1 μm width), one-celled
• Single cell division
• In lab: 1 can produce 5 billion in 12 hours
• (In real world limited by predators, water & food availability)

• Abundant in rhizosphere
• zone surrounding root
• dead root cells and exudate stimulate
microbial growth
• Bacteria

o Heterotrophic – derive energy by consuming

complex organic debris (leaves, roots, stems,
animal tissue)—releases ammonium for plants
o Autotrophic – oxidize inorganic materials (sulfer,
iron, carbon, ammonia).—releases nitrate and
nitrite.
 4 functional groups of
bacteria:
1. Decomposers
• Organic chemicals in big complex chains and rings
• Bacteria break bonds using enzymes they produce
• Create simpler, smaller chains
• Immobilize nutrients in their cells; prevents loss of nutrients from
rooting zone
2. Mutualists
form partnerships with plants (e.g. Rhizobium and legumes)
3. Pathogens
cause plant galls
4. Chemoautotrophs get energy from compounds other than
compounds (chemical reactions).
b. Actinomycetes (Act-tin-o-my-ce-tes)

o Group of bacteria that grow as hyphae like fungi

o Single-celled organisms slightly larger than bacteria (fine,
thread-like)
o Decompose complex organic materials in later stages in
conversion to humus.
o Capable of producing antibiotics
o adaptable to drought
o Can act in high pH
c. Fungi

o Heterotrophic organisms capable of decomposing

highly-resistant and complex organic compounds.
o Dominant flora when pH is less than 5
also…mycorrhizae fungus (Mi-cor-rizie)

Extension of
Plant roots
 Fungi
• Grow as long threads (hyphae)
• Push through soil particles, roots, rocks

• Often group into masses called

mycelium (look like roots)

• Higher fungi have basidium :

• club-shaped structure ,
• bearing fruiting body
 d. Algae
• Filamentous, colonial, unicellular
• Photosynthetic
• Most in blue-green group, but also yellow-green, diatoms,
green algae
• Need diffuse light in surface horizons; important in early stages
of succession
• Form carbonic acid (weathering)
• Add OM to soil; bind particles
• Aeration
• Some fix nitrogen
Algae
Simplest green plant (needs sun and water)
Blue-Green Algae most common
Aids in adding organic matter
Old ham sandwich residue from Rock
City fridge……
e. Protozoa
 Unicellular; larger than bacteria
 Amoeba, ciliates, flagellates
 Heterotrophic
 Eat bacteria
Bacteria have more nitrogen than protozoa need, so protozoa
release the excess
mineralize
Form symbiotic relationships
e.g., flagellates in termite guts; digest fibers
 Require water
 Go dormant within cyst in dry conditions
Protozoa
Factors Limiting Microflora
• Adequate supply of organic matter
• Temperature (Peat Bogs too cool, desert too hot)
• Moisture
• pH (6-8 optimal—Rizobium bacteria very sensitive)
• Oxygen Availability (most microflora aerobic)
1. Plants
B. Macroflora
•Grasses
•Shrubs
•Trees

Functions:
•Produce an array of complex organic materials (leaves, roots,
stems, bark, wood, seeds)—affect soil chemistry, water
retention, pH, organic matter, etc.
•Aid in rock weathering and soil formation
2. Animals
A. Microfauna
a. Protozoa (amoebae, ciliates, flagellates)

Single-celled organisms, need moisture (dormant when dry)

“grazers, eat bacteria”—digestion aids organic decomposition.
2. Animals
A. Microfauna
b. Nematodes (“eel worms”)

• More complex than protozoa

• Dine on decomposing organic matter, living soil animals,
living plant roots
• Destructive to crops
 2. Animals Breakfast

B. Macrofauna
a. Ants and Earthworms
Major mixers of soil
Openings allow air and water
movement

Lunch Dinner
 2. Animals
B. Macrofauna
b. Springtails, Mites, Mammals, Humans

mole

“mix, mechanically alter add organics…”

 2. Animals

B. Macrofauna
c. Arthropods
• ¾ of all living organisms
• Exoskeleton, jointed legs, segmented body

• Insects
• Crustaceans
• Arachnids
• Myriapoda
3. Feeding habits

Carnivores : parasites and predators

Phytophages: eat above ground green plant parts,

roots, woody parts

Saprophages: eat dead and decaying OM

Microphytic feeders: eat spores, hyphae, lichens,

algae, bacteria
Ecological functions of soil
organisms
• Herbivores: that feed mostly on eat parts of living
plants (eg. Insects, snails )
• Detritivores : eat dead plant debris (eg. bacteria)
• Fungivores: eat fungi (eg. Mites, nematodes)
• Bacterivores: eat bacteria (eg. worms, fungi,
arthropods)
• Predators : kill and eat other animals (preys) (eg.
Snakes, hemiptera, …)
• Parasites: live on or in another organisms and get its
nutrients from it (nematods, .
Ecological functions of soil
organisms
Carbon source:
•Heterotrophs (use organic compounds as a source of
carbon)
•Autotrophs (use CO2 as carbon source)

Energy source:
• Phototrophs (get energy from sunlight i.e.
photosynthesis)
•Chemotrophs (get energy from chemical oxidation)
4. importance of soil organisms

1. Burrowing animals
• Earthworms improve aeration, water infiltration,
drainage, and they enhance nutrient availability
and cycling.
• Termites digest large amounts of organic
matter, some of which is later available to
plants, and also affect soil physical properties.
2. Predation and parasitism
Microscopic protozoa graze on bacteria, moving
within thin films of soil water.
 4. importance of soil organisms

3. Plants
Plants have major effects in the soil environment
by the:
•cycling of water and nutrients,
•production of organic matter,
•formation of pores by root growth,
•secretion of root exudates which promote soil
aggregation, and
•production of organic acids which influence
nutrient availability.
 4. importance of soil organisms
4. Fungi
•Decomposition of organic matter which releases plant
nutrients.
•Mycorrhizae are associations between fungi and plant
roots that can be beneficial to both the plant and the
fungi.
•The fungi receive carbohydrates and exudates as
energy from the host plant root whilst nutrients such as
P, are passed back into the plant roots from the soil.
•Mushrooms are important food products; many molds,
like Penicillium, produce useful materials such as
antibiotics.
•Fungal hyphae also play a role in the development of
soil structure.
 4. importance of soil organisms
5. Bacteria.
•Heterotrophic bacteria decompose a wider
range of earth material than any other microbe
group.
•Fixation of nitrogen from atmospheric N 2 into
organic forms is also performed by bacteria,
Autotrophs synthesize their own energy from light
or by chemical oxidation.
•They are able to oxidize or reduce many
chemical elements in the soil.
•For example, nitrogen is transformed (oxidized)
from ammonium to nitrite and nitrate by two
different species, Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter .
 4. importance of soil organisms
6. Blue-green algae
Fix nitrogen especially in wet environments
such as rice paddies and wetlands.
7. Actinomycetes
•Actinomycetes also are able to
decompose resistant substances in soil.
•One type, Frankia, important in nitrogen
fixation in tree ecosystems.
•Many of our important antibiotics (all the
mycin compounds such as streptomycin)
are made from soil actinomycetes.
6. Soil environmental Factors affecting
soil organisms
1. Soil atmosphere
•Anaerobic microorganisms have the ability to
generate energy and grow in the absence of O 2.
•Aerobes must grow in the presence of oxygen.
2. Soil pH
•Soil organisms have optimal soil pH range.
•Fungi are acid tolerant (pH 4 to 6.5).
•Bacteria prefer neutral conditions (6.0 to 6.5).
6. Soil environmental Factors affecting
soil organisms
3. Soil water
•Water is essential for the activity and growth of soil
organisms.
•They require water to; move in, gas exchange, exchange
of solutes, expel wastes and obtain nutrients.
•As soils become drier, the pore spaces become
progressively filled with air.
•Many microbial cells are killed by dessication and only
those with resistant propagules can survive long periods
of drought.
6. Soil environmental Factors affecting
soil organisms
4. Temperature
All microorganisms have characteristic minimum and
maximum temperature ranges.
5. Organic matter
They are source of food.
 Chapter – five:
1. INTRODUCTION TO
GIS
soil organic matter and plant
nutrients
 5.0. INTRODUCTION

• Organic matter is anything that is living or the remains

of a living thing.
• However, in the context of soil composition, organic
matter is a build-up in the soil of decayed plant and
animal residues.
• Organic soils, such as peats, contain from 20% to as
much as 95% organic matter.
• Mineral soils contain anywhere from a trace to 15%
or 20% organic matter. Organic matter is composed of
about 58% organic carbon.
 5.1. SOIL ORGANIC MATTER
Substances containing carbon are organic matter
Soil organic matter (SOM): fraction of soil composed of
plant and animal residues in various stages of
decomposition and synthesis
SOM can be divided into two parts:
 well-decomposed part: humus [dark brown, porous, spongy in
appearance with, earthy smell]
humic substances consist of three major
chemical fractions: fulvic acid,
humic acid and humin.
 non-humic substances : fragments of the original substances as
identifiable in the original plant and animal residues.
Sources of Soil Organic Matter
(i)Plant sources:
sources most prevalent
dead and decayed plant roots, leaf
droppings, crop residues, green
manures and dead and decayed “above
ground” parts of plants.
(ii)Animal sources:
sources
all residues of animals and micro-
organisms, domestic wastes, animal
faeces, animal feeds, and animal
manures.
How is SOM
Measured?
SOM is usually measured in the
laboratory as organic carbon,
Soil organic matter is estimated to
contain 58% organic carbon (varies
from 40 to 70%) with the rest of the
SOM comprising of other elements (eg,
5% N, 0.5% P and 0.5% S).
A conversion to SOM from a given
organic carbon analysis requires that
the organic carbon content be
multiplied by a factor of
1.724(1.00/0.58).
Thus, 2% SOM is about 1 % organic
carbon.
Role of Soil Organic Matter
Storehouse of plant nutrients “revolving nutrient fund”

Soil physical conditions improvement

Medium for microbial growth and activities

Buffering capacity of soils

aids in the process of rock mineral weathering.

 Prevent leaching of clay minerals and plant nutrients

 5.2. PLANT NUTRIENTS
• Most plants have been thought to need at least 16
essential elements for their normal growth.
• However, more than 90 elements could be absorbed
by plants irrespective of their need in the plants.
• Nutrients are elements that provide nourishment to
plants, animals and other living organisms.
• Most fertilizer nutrients are mined from the ground,
but nitrogen is primarily captured from the
atmosphere, which is 78% nitrogen.

12/10/24
• Carbon, H and O are obtained from the atmosphere and
water, and are not considered mineral elements.
• The remaining essential elements for plants can be divided
into three groups based on average concentrations in
plants:
primary macronutrients,
macronutrients
secondary macronutrients and
micronutrients.

12/10/24
Assignment 4
Outline the 13 essential nutrients, and their available
form to plants, functions and deficiency symptoms
 Major or Primary or Macro
Nutrients

N
P
K
12/10/24
 Secondary Nutrients

Ca
Mg
S
12/10/24
 Micro Nutrients (Trace Elements)
Fe - Iron
Mn -Manganese
B - Boron
Mo - Molybdenum
Zn - Zinc
Cu - Copper
Cl - Chlorine

12/10/24
• Plants cannot absorb the organic
forms of nutrients, which must be
mineralized before they can be used
by crops and other plants.
• Fertilizers generally provide nutrients
in their inorganic, or mineral, forms
which are readily available for use by
plants.

12/10/24
The source of H, O and C are air and water.
The other macronutrients – they are absorbed in larger
quantities from soil and fertilizers.
They are N, P, K. They are also called major and primary
elements.
Secondary elements are Ca, Mg and S.
They are absorbed relatively in smaller quantities than
primary nutrients.
The micronutrients – absorbed in trace quantities, hence
the name micro.
They are Cl, Cu, B, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn.

12/10/24
*
 Supplying Plant Nutrients
Nutrients that plants obtain from the soil

Macronutrients:
Macronutrients: Micronutrients:
(needed
(neededininlarge
largeamounts)
amounts) (needed in small amounts)
• • Nitrogen
Nitrogen(N)
(N) • Chlorine (Cl)
• • Phosphorus
Phosphorus(P)
(P) • Cobalt (Co)
• • Potassium
Potassium(K)
(K) • Copper (Cu)
• • Calcium
Calcium(Ca)
(Ca) • Iron (Fe)
• • Magnesium
Magnesium(Mg)
(Mg) • Manganese (Mn)
• • Sulfur
Sulfur(S)
(S) • Molybdenum (Mo)
• Nickel (Ni)
• Zinc (Zn)
Nutrient demands by
crops
• In general, nutrient needs increase as the plant grows
through the seedling stage into the reproductive stage
(silking and tasseling).
• When plants are young and small, nutrient need is
low.
• As plants enlarge and start to grow rapidly, nutrient
needs increase dramatically.
 Processes of nutrient
1. uptake
Mass flow
• Mass flow of a nutrient occurs when it is dissolved in
the soil solution and flows with water into the plant.
• This is the major process for uptake of nitrogen,
calcium and magnesium.
2. Diffusion
• Diffusion is the movement of a nutrient from an area of
high concentration to one of lower concentration.
• Typically the nutrient will move from the soil solution
(high concentration) to the root surface (low
concentration).
• This is an important process for uptake of phosphorus
and potassium
 Processes of nutrient
uptake
3. Root interception
•Root interception occurs when a root grows in to a
fresh area or surface of clay or organic matter
reducing the distance a nutrient must diffuse and
thus increasing absorption of the nutrient.
•Root interception is extremely important for very
immobile nutrients like P and thus having good soil
conditions for root growth is essential for good P
nutrition.
Where do plant
nutrients come from?
• Decaying plant litter

• Breakdown of soil minerals

• Addition by humans
• Commercial fertilizer
• Manure
• Lime
• Other
 5.3. NUTRIENTS AVAILABILITY AND
CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY
• In the soil, a large portion of plant nutrients are
bound up in complex compounds that are
unavailable to plants.
• The complex compounds are gradually changed
into the simpler compounds by chemical
weathering and biological processes.
• Thus, the chemical fertility of a soil depends in
part on how easily the plants can access the
nutrients in a form they require.
• This is referred to as the availability of a nutrient.
 5.3. NUTRIENTS AVAILABILITY AND
CEC

• The availability of nutrients within the soil is also

dependent on a range of factors such as soil pH,
soil solution, soil type and the plant age, type and
root system of the plant.
• Plant nutrients are composed of single elements
(for example, potassium (K)) or compounds of
elements (for example, ammonium nitrate
(NH4NO3)).
 5.3. NUTRIENTS AVAILABILITY AND
CEC
The nutrients (cations and anions) can be:
• Absorbed (taken up) by plant roots.
• Leached from the soil via the soil water.
• Adsorbed (attached/fixed) to the surfaces of
negatively and positively charged soil particles.
• Immobilized (consummed) by microorganisms
• Soil solution is the soil water together with its
dissolved salts (cations and anions).
• The soil solution is the medium by which most
soil nutrients are supplied to growing plants.
 5.4. NUTRIENT TRANSFORMATIONS
AND INTERACTIONS
• Mineralization refers to the conversion of
organic N sources (plant residues, manures,
and biosolids) to inorganic N sources.
• This is accomplished by a wide variety of
microorganisms.
• Immobilization is the reverse of mineralization
as this refers to the conversion of inorganic
forms of nitrogen into organic forms, such as
microbial cells and organic matter.
 5.4. NUTRIENT TRANSFORMATIONS
AND INTERACTIONS
• Mineralization and Immobilization occur at the
same time.
• The net effect of these two processes is
typically determined by the ratio of carbon to
the nitrogen content in the organic material.
• For example, a C:N ratio less than ~20 typically
results in net mineralization of N and a C:N
ratio greater than ~30 typically results in net
immobilization of N.
 5.4. NUTRIENT TRANSFORMATIONS
AND INTERACTIONS
• Nutrient uptake antagonism refers to
circumstances where, depending on soil
conditions and nutrient form and availability,
plant uptake is weighted favorably toward
some nutrient(s) over others.
Assignment 5
Describe how the following soil characteristics affect
nutrient uptake:
A. Texture
B. Structure
C. Drainage/aeration
D. Moisture
E. pH
F. Temperature
THE END

GOOD LUCK
IN THE EXAMINATION

186