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Chapter 9
Earth
Introduction
The Earth is the most studied terrestrial planet, we are made of Earth staff.
Over 3 million species of living organisms on Earth.
Nearly all human life in regions where the average temperature is (0- 30
degree Celsius).
Ocean covering 71% of the Earth’s surface. They are needed for production of
fresh water.
Introduction
Earth In Bulk
Radius = 6378 Km; or diameter = 2R = 12742 Km

Mass of Earth = 61024 Kg
r (density) = 5500 Kg/m3; or 5.5 g/cm3. Density is higher in the inner earth. (Not
homogenous)
What powers the activity in Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and

surface?
The heat flow from Earth’s interior to its surface is minuscule—just 1/6000 as great
as the flow of energy we receive from the Sun—but it has a profound effect on the
face of our planet.
Earth’s Surface Temperature and the
Greenhouse Effect
We can calculate the amount of solar energy that Earth should
absorb each second using the amount of energy reaching us
from the Sun each second.
Since this amount must equal the amount of electromagnetic

energy that Earth emits each second, which in turn depends on
Earth’s average surface
temperature, we can calculate what Earth’s average surface
temperature should be.
The result is a very chilly 255 K (−18°C=−0.7°F), so cold that

oceans and lakes around the world should be frozen over. In
fact, Earth’s actual average surface
temperature is 287 K (14°C=57°F). What is wrong with our model?
Earth’s Surface Temperature and the
Greenhouse Effect
Surface heating:
• Sunlight that is not reflected is absorbed by Earth’s surface, warming it
• Surface re-radiates as infrared thermal radiation
• Atmosphere absorbs some infrared, causing further heating
The Greenhouse Effect
The Greenhouse Effect and
Global Warming
One result of modern society has been to
increase CO2 levels in the atmosphere. A
corresponding increase in global average
temperature has been seen as well. Exactly
how much the temperature will continue
to increase is not known.
9-2 Studies of earthquakes reveal Earth’s layered interior structure
Chemical Differentiation and Earth’s Internal Structure

9-2: Studies of earthquakes reveals
Earth’s layered interior structure
Earth’s Interior
Seismic waves:
Earthquakes produce both pressure and shear
waves.
Pressure waves or P-waves arelongitudinal
and will travel through both liquids
and solids.
Shear waves or S-waves are transverse and
will not travel through liquid, as
liquids do not resist shear forces.
Wave speed depends on the density of the
material.
Earth’s Interior
We can use the pattern of reflections during earthquakes to deduce interior
structure of Earth
The seismic evidence reveals that

our planet has a curious internal
structure—a liquid outer core of
iron sandwiched between a
solid inner iron core and a solid
mantle.
Temperature and Melting Point of Rock Inside Earth
Without any change in
temperature, solid rock
can become liquid when
the pressure on it
decreases.
Earth’s Interior
Mantle is much less dense than core
Mantle is rocky; core is metallic—iron and nickel
Outer core is liquid; inner core is solid, due to pressure
Volcanic lava comes from mantle, allows analysis of composition
Plate movement produces earthquakes, mountain ranges, and
volcanoes that shape Earth’s surface
The crust (which includes ocean seafloors) is divided into huge plates whose
motions produce earthquakes, volcanoes, mountain ranges, and oceanic
trenches.
Surface Activity
At plate boundaries, get earthquakes and volcanoes
Surface Activity
A plate colliding with another can also raise it, resulting in very high mountains
The Collision of Two Plates

Surface Activity
Plates can also slide along each other,
creating faults where many earthquakes
occur
Continental
drift: Entire
Earth’s surface
is covered with
crustal plates,
which can
move
independently
Fitting the Continents Together

The Breakup of the Supercontinent Pangaea
9-3: Earth’s magnetic field produces a magnetosphere
and reverses direction
The magnetosphere is the region around the Earth where charged particles from the solar wind are
trapped
These charged particles are trapped in areas called the Van Allen belts, where they
spiral around the magnetic field lines
Earth’s Magnetosphere
The Aurora
The Aurora
Earth’s Atmosphere
At the early stage after the formation of the earth, we had a primary atmosphere
composed mainly of light gases:
H He
CO2 H2O vapor
Then cooling processes led to the condensation of water vapor to form the
oceans.
Most of the CO2 was then dissolved in the ocean water.

Deliver Oxygen for breathing.
Protects us from UV and X-rays radiation coming from the sun,

cosmic objects and meteorites.
Keeps us warm.
Earth’s Atmosphere has a layered structure.
Structure of any atmosphere is studied in terms of

two properties: temperature & pressure
 Dramatic differences between Earth’s atmosphere and those of Venus and Mars.
 Mercury is too small and has too little gravity to hold an appreciable atmosphere.
 The greater intensity of sunlight on Venus caused higher temperatures, which boiled any
liquid water and made it impossible for CO2 to be taken out of the atmosphere and put back
into rocks. The result was a very strong greenhouse effect that raised temperatures on
Venus to their present value of about 460.
 Just the opposite happened on Mars, where sunlight is less than half as intense as it is on
Earth. The lower temperatures drove CO2 from the atmosphere into Martian rocks and froze
water into large ice caps at its poles, as well as a permafrost beneath its surface.
 On neither Venus nor Mars was life able to blossom and transform the atmosphere as it did
here on Earth.
9-6: Like Earth’s interior, our
atmosphere has a layered
• The curve shows structure
the temperature at
each altitude.
• Troposphere is
where convection
takes place—
responsible for
weather.
• Extends from the
surface to an
average altitude of
12 km
• It is heated only
indirectly by the Sun.
Temperature Profile of Earth’s Atmosphere

Troposphere: Closet part to the earth surface.
Convection depends on warming of ground by the Sun.
Convection is responsible for weather.

Stratosphere:
• Extends from about 12 to 50 km above the surface
• An appreciable amount of oxygen is in the form of

ozone, a molecule made of three oxygen atoms
(O3) . Unlike oxygen (O2) , ozone is very efficient at
absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the Sun, which
means that the stratosphere can directly absorb solar
energy.
• No convection currents
Mesosphere:
• Very little ozone is found there, so solar ultraviolet

radiation is not absorbed within the mesosphere, and
atmospheric temperature again declines with
increasing altitude.
Thermosphere:
• Atmosphere’s thinnest and uppermost layer
• The temperature increase is not due to the presence

of ozone
• Very low-density region, oxygen and nitrogen are

found as individual atoms rather than in molecules.
• The thermosphere is heated because these isolated

atoms absorb very-short-wavelength solar ultraviolet
radiation (which oxygen and nitrogen molecules
cannot absorb).
Comparing Earth’s Atmosphere and Interior
The Human Population
The Deforestation of Amazonia
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) have been damaging the ozone layer, resulting in ozone hole
The Antarctic Ozone Hole
Ozone layer is our planet’s umbrella! It seems, 1% decrease in the ozone may increase skin
cancer by 5%.
Atmospheric CO2 and Changes in Global Temperature

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Chapter 9

Over 3 million species of living organisms on Earth.

Radius = 6378 Km; or diameter = 2R = 12742 Km

What powers the activity in Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and

Since this amount must equal the amount of electromagnetic

The result is a very chilly 255 K (−18°C=−0.7°F), so cold that

Chemical Differentiation and Earth’s Internal Structure

The seismic evidence reveals that

The Collision of Two Plates

Fitting the Continents Together

Most of the CO2 was then dissolved in the ocean water.

Protects us from UV and X-rays radiation coming from the sun,

Earth’s Atmosphere has a layered structure.

Structure of any atmosphere is studied in terms of

Temperature Profile of Earth’s Atmosphere

Convection depends on warming of ground by the Sun.

Convection is responsible for weather.

• Extends from about 12 to 50 km above the surface

• An appreciable amount of oxygen is in the form of

• Very little ozone is found there, so solar ultraviolet

• Atmosphere’s thinnest and uppermost layer

• The temperature increase is not due to the presence

• Very low-density region, oxygen and nitrogen are

• The thermosphere is heated because these isolated

The Antarctic Ozone Hole

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