Solar_System_Formation (2)

The Origin of
the Solar
System
Origin of the Solar System
Our theory must explain the data
1. Large bodies in the Solar System have orderly
motions.
2. There are two types of planets.
– small, rocky terrestrial planets
– large, hydrogen-rich Jovian planets
3. Asteroids & comets exist in certain regions of the
Solar System
4. There are exceptions to these patterns.
The Solar Nebula
• The nebular theory states that our solar system
formed out of a nebula which collapsed under its
own gravity.
• Observational evidence
– We observe stars in the process of forming today.
– The are always found within interstellar clouds of
gas.
• solar nebula – name given to the cloud of gas from
which our own Solar System formed
Gravitational Collapse
• The solar nebula was initially somewhat spherical and a
few light years in diameter.
– very cold
– rotating slightly
• It was given a “push” by some event.
– perhaps the shock wave from a nearby supernova
• As the nebula shrank, gravity increased, causing collapse.
• As the nebula “falls” inward, gravitational potential
energy is converted to heat.
– Conservation of Energy
• As the nebula’s radius decreases, it rotates faster
– Conservation of Angular Momentum
Flattening of the Solar Nebula
• As the nebula collapses, clumps of gas collide & merge.
• Their random velocities average out into the nebula’s
direction of rotation.
• The spinning nebula assumes the shape of a disk.
Why does the cloud spin?
• It is part of a spinning galaxy, so there is a lot of
angular momentum available
• Particles closer to the center of galaxy move more
rapidly than particles farther away. The speed of
particles decreases with the distance from the center
• As a shock wave and then gravity compress the
cloud, angular momentum must be conserved, so
torque transfers some angular momentum from the
galactic disk to the interstellar cloud.
• This is similar to the formation of cyclones and
hurricanes in our atmosphere.
The Coriolis effect
• Air moves fastest at the equator due to the Earths Spin
• As temp differences causes air currents to move North
south, the result is a whirlpool of air
Orderly Motions in the Solar System
• The Sun formed in the very center of the nebula.
– temperature & density were high enough for nuclear fusion
reactions to begin
• The planets formed in the rest of the disk.
• This would explain the following:
– all planets lie along one plane (in the disk)
– all planets orbit in one direction (the spin direction of the disk)
– the Sun rotates in the same direction
– the planets would tend to rotate in this same direction
– most moons orbit in this direction
– most planetary orbits are near circular
More Support for the Nebular Theory
• We have observed disks around other stars.
• These could be new planetary systems in formation.
 Pictoris
AB Aurigae
Building the Planets
Condensation – Various elements and compounds

began to condense (i.e. solidify) out of the nebula at
different temperatures.
• Atoms and molecules joined to form groupings of
more complex compounds
The temperature in the Solar nebula depended
on distance from the protosun.
Why Are the Outer Layers of Gas Giants Composed
of Lighter Elements than the Outer Layers of the
Inner Planets? (Why are they so large?)
• The outer planets grew larger than the Earth

very quickly… but why?
– In the outer regions, it was cool enough for a larger
range of materials (rocky materials, methane,
ammonia, and ices) to condense, so
– There were more raw materials coming together, and
thus more gravity to attract hydrogen.
– Ices stick together more easily than rocks do, so less
material was bounced away.
The Young Sun emitted pulses of
UV and X-rays
• These photons ionized some atoms in the
solar nebula and deposited charge on others
• These made the atoms and molecules
“sticky”
• Try to slide down a plastic slide on a dry,
sunny day. Your hair will stand up!
• So only rocks & metals condensed within 3.5
AU of the Sun… the so-called frost line.
• Hydrogen compounds (ices) condensed beyond
the frost line.
accretion - small grains stick to one another because of
electromagnetic force until they are massive enough to
attract other accreted substances due to gravity
• Accretion is mostly a gravitational effect.
Accretion continues today!
Building the Planets through Accretion
After condensation produces larger particles and groups of
particles, these will:
• combine near the Sun to form rocky planetesimals,
which eventually combine to form terrestrial planets
• combine beyond the frost-line to form icy
planetesimals which…
• capture H/He far from Sun to form gas (Jovian) planets
• Each gas (Jovian) planet formed its own “miniature”
solar nebula.
• Moons formed out of the disk.
solar wind - charged particles streaming out from the Sun
cleared away the leftover gas in the solar system
• Blew away Earth’s primordial atmosphere
• Blew away the atmosphere of Mars
Origin of the Asteroids
• The solar wind cleared the leftover gas, but not the
leftover planetesimals.
• Those leftover rocky planetesimals which did not accrete
onto a planet are the present-day asteroids.
• Most inhabit the asteroid belt between Mars & Jupiter.
– Jupiter’s gravity prevented a planet from forming there.
Origin of the Comets
• The leftover icy
planetesimals are our
present-day comets.
• Those which were
located between the
Jovian planets, if not
captured, were
gravitationally flung in
all directions to form the
Oort cloud.
• Those beyond Neptune’s
The nebular theory predicted the orbit remained in the
existence of the Kuiper belt 40 years ecliptic plane in the
before it was discovered! Kuiper belt.
Exceptions to the Rules
So how does the nebular theory deal with
phenomena that do not fit the model’s predictions?
• There were many more leftover planetesimals than we

see today.
• Most of them collided with the newly-formed planets
and moons during the first few billions of years of the
solar system.
• We call this the heavy bombardment period.
Exceptions to the Rules
Close encounters with and impacts by planetesimals could
explain:
• Why some moons orbit opposite their planet’s rotation
– captured moons (e.g. Triton)
• Why rotation axes of some planets are tilted
– impacts “knock them over” (extreme example: Uranus)
• Why some planets rotate more quickly than others
– impacts “spin them up”
• Why Earth is the only terrestrial planet with a large Moon
– giant impact
Formation of the Moon
(Giant Impact Theory)
• The Earth was struck by a

Mars-sized planetesimal
• A part of Earth’s mantle was
ejected
• This coalesced in the Moon.
– it orbits in same direction
as Earth rotates
– lower density than Earth
– Earth was “spun up”
How Old is the Solar System?
• How do we measure the age of a rock?
• How old is the Solar System and how do we know?
• Isotopes which are unstable are said to be radioactive.
• They spontaneously change in to another isotope in a
process called radioactive decay.
Radiometric Dating
• The time it takes half the amount of a radioactive isotope
to decay is called its half life.
• By knowing rock chemistry, we choose a stable isotope
which does not form with the rock…its presence is due
solely to decay.
• Measuring the relative
amounts of the two
isotopes and knowing the
half life of the radioactive
isotope tells us the age of
the rock.
The Age of our Solar System
• Radiometric dating can only measure the age of a rock
since it solidified.
• Geologic processes on Earth cause rock to melt and
resolidify, so Earth rocks can’t be used to measure the solar
system’s age.
• We must find rocks which have not melted or vaporized
since they condensed from the Solar nebula.
• Meteorites imply an age of 4.6 billion years for our solar
system
• This value is consistent with the age of the oldest moon
rocks (4.4 billion years)
• Radioactive isotopes are formed in stars & supernovae
– suggests that solar system formation was triggered by a
nearby supernova
Explain the difference
between the formation of the
inner planets and the outer
planets, and why the outer
planets are so large
compared to the size of the
inner planets.

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The Origin of

Condensation – Various elements and compounds

• The outer planets grew larger than the Earth

• There were many more leftover planetesimals than we

• The Earth was struck by a

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