Module name: Social Anthropology

Course code: Anth1012

Addis Ababa University

 Chapter one
1.1 Conceptual definition of Anthropology
 Etymological term: The word anthropology derived from two Greek word “anthropos” which
means humankind/human being and “logia” which means "study” and it is literally the study of

humankind.
 Defined as the systematic study of humankind (Scupin and DeCorse, 2012).
 Systematic study of people origin,( from human evolution) to their development and to
their contemporary variation wherever and whenever they have been found on the face of
the earth.
 The scientific study of human beings as social organisms
 Defined as the study of:
human nature,
human social group, their behavior; their interactions with each other, and
 Cont’d
 Study prehistoric origin and contemporary human diversity.
 Anthropologist found two important characteristics of human being: biological and
cultural.
 Indication: human interaction and adaptation with the material environment (Kottak, 2007).
It is crucial to consider both the biological and cultural characteristics, when dealing with
humanity.
 So anthropology is the systematic exploration of human biological and cultural diversity,
across time and space.
 It tries to achieve an understanding of cultures, society and humanity through the detailed
study of community life from ground level supplemented by comparison.
 The ultimate goal: To develop an integrated picture of human kind to answer infinites
numbers of question about all aspects of our existence under one umbrella.
 Cont’d
Can be outlined as a science which:
 Investigates the strategies for living that are learned and shared by people as
members of human social groups
 Examines the characteristics that human beings share as members of one species
(homo sapiens) and the diverse ways that people live in different environments;
 Analyses the products of social groups: material and non-material culture
The holistic and comparative study of humanity (Kottak, 2007).
It explores human biology, society, and culture and considers their interrelations.
 It raises philosophical and scientific questions about humanity .
What is meant to be human?
How and why do human groups differ, both biologically and
culturally
How are people who live in industrialized, urbanized nations
 Anthropology primary offers two kinds of insight

 1. Produce knowledge about the actual biological and cultural

variation.

 2. It offers anthropological methods and theory which enable the

practitioners to explore, to compare, to understand and solve societal
problem.
 Anthropology’s theories are:
- a ‘lens’ that helps to bring human life into focus.
- a set of useful ‘idea tools’ that help us to open up what is often
regarded as the ‘black box’ of human behavior (Srange, 2009).
 1.2Historical Dev.t
 Recent field of study and given its present shape during 20th c

France
originated in Great Britain
western world
Germany and
USA
Rooted in the works and ideas of the great ancient and medieval period
philosophers and social thinkers. They were interested in:
 The nature and origin of man,

 Cultural diversity and the morality

 Ethics of human relationships

• As distinct and academic discipline: was born during 19 th c out of intellectual

atmosphere of enlightenment.
• It emphasized on human progress and the poser of reason

• This philosophical movement stressed on the issue of human reasoning and

 Historical cont’d
 By the end of the 18thc, several of the theoretical questions raised by
anthropologists were
• Universalism versus relativism (what is common to humanity; what is culturally
specific),
• Ethnocentrism versus cultural relativism (moral judgments versus neutral
descriptions of other peoples), and
• culture versus nature (Barnard, 2004).

 It emerge as profession by late 1870

The major inputs of its growth was the expansion of western colonial powers.
The reason was:

 The colonial powers desire to better understand the people living under colonial
dominations.

 Early/western anthropologist mainly studied small communities who were

technologically simple societies.
 Historical cont’d
So the cultural and social features of non western world people were well studied and
documented by western anthropologists. This called ethnography.

 Ethnography is the detailed study/description of particular social/cultural group.

 On the other hand, By the mid-1900, anthropologists attempted to discover

universal human patterns and the common bio-psychological traits that bind all
human beings (Kottak, 2007). This approach is called ethnology.

 In Ethiopia, professional anthropologists have been studying culture and society

on a more intensive level only since the late 1950s.
 The initial emphasis was on ethnography,
 1.3 scope and subject matter of anthropology
 The breadth and depth of anthropology is very vast. There is no time and space as
far as man exists.

 It covers the past, the present and even the future.

 Interns of spatial dimension it covers all place wherever human being survive from
arctic/ very polar region to desert
 Anthropology studies all parts of the world, and will bring the reader from
The tropical rainforests of the Amazon to the cold semi-desert of the Arctic
From the skyscrapers of Manhattan to mud huts in the Sahel
From the deserts of the Middle East to the urban areas of China
From villages in the Southern Ethiopia to African cities.

 This indicated that it study from very complex cities to hunter and gatherers
survive in forest.
 Subject matter of anthropology
 Claude Lévi-Strauss(French anthropologist) has stated that “anthropology has
humanity as its object of research”
 It covers all aspects of human ways of life and culture as a man live in social
group.

 It study humanity with its all aspects of experiences, existence and in its all
means of difference and similarities.
 It conceptualizing and understanding similarities and difference between social
system(political, religious and economic) and human relationship.
 Human diversity is one of the main subject matter of anthropology( kot:2007)
 “The science of human similarities and differences”
 It pay much attention to universal human characteristics as they do to local
cultural contexts and conditions.
 Uncovering the meaning, nature, origin, and destiny of humanity is one of the
key concerns of anthropology
 They have wide ranging and frequently highly specialized interest.

 They all share common concern trying to understand connection within society
 1.4 Unique features of anthropology
The several distinguishing chxt that differentiate anthropology from other
disciplines are:-

1. Broad Scope

 Interested in all human being and all aspects of human whether

contemporary or past; wherever they may be found, from East African
pastoralists to Korean factory workers.

 No people, place or time is too remote to escape the anthropologist's notice

 No dimension of human kind, from genetic makeup to art styles, is outside

the anthropologist’s attention

2. Approaches

In terms of approaches anthropology is holistic, relativistic and comparative.

 Unique features cont’d
Holistic: study a culture or society by looking at all parts of the system and how
those parts are interrelated (Andreatta and Ferraro, 2010). in its holistic
approach, anthropology considers:

culture, history, language, their political system, religious and kinship to have
complete understanding of society.

Relativistic
 Explain a certain belief, cultural practice and other social aspects from its

context. rather than from the viewpoint of other cultures

 It rejects the notion there is absolute standards by which all other cultures
can be judged (Andreatta and Ferraro, 2010)
 Does not make value judgments.

 It should be noted that, relativism does not logically imply that there is no
difference between right and wrong.
 Cont’d
In approach it is comparative:

 Understand the difference and similarities across time and space.

 It offers a unique, cross-cultural perspective; constantly comparing the customs of one

society with those of others (Kottak, 2007).

 It helps to understand the differences and similarities among human beings across time
and place.

Emphasis on insider view

 It emphasis on the perspective of an insider, when examining other culture

 It made a distinction between the emic perspective and the etic perspective.

 give great attention to how people perceives themselves and how they understand the
world, how particular group explain their action or how they give meaning to their
behavior/practices.
 Unique features cont’d
3.Resaerch methods
 Highly depend on qualitative approach to understand the meaning behind human behavior
 It is largely qualitative,
Recognizing that most of human behavior, people lives, culture and social practices are not
readily measurable.

 It aims to be ‘in-depth’, getting under the surface of social life to make its underlying
dynamics visible (Srange, 2009).

 Its research strategy is extended field work which require more time.

Its methods of data collection are:

 Participant observation

 Ethnographic/ in-depth interview

 Focus group discussion and life history.

 1.5 misconception about anthropology
Due to lack of appropriate awareness about the nature, scope and subject matter of
anthropology, some people

 misconceived as the study of “primitive” societies or limited to the study of rural

areas and rural people (Zerihun, 2005).

 Wrongly considered as the study and analysis of fossil evidences.

 Misconceived as the purpose of anthropology is to study and preserve community

far from development and their cultural practice in museum.

Rather, anthropologists’ duties are to support those communities' capacity to empower

themselves, bring them in development processes/attract development activities in
their area.
 1.6 Relationship between anthropology and other
fields
 It greatly overlaps with other disciplines in the humanities, the social sciences,
and the physical sciences, which in one way or another deal with people and study
certain aspects of human society.
But differs:
 In its unique features.

 In its unit of analysis, i.e anthropology takes culture as an organizing concept.

 Serve as bridge and integrate the various disciplines, which examine the different
dimensions of humanity and human society.
 1.7 Contribution of anthropology
 Allows us to comprehend:
The biological,
Technological and
Cultural development of humanity, over long period of time and its entire
aspects of existence and experiences.

 It provides us with a window to look into the human world from a

broader perspective.

 It help us to have better understanding of our selves by studying others.

 lead us to the conclusion that our culture is just one way of life among
many found in the world

 It help us to understand the logic and justification behind group behavior and cultural
 Contribution cont’d
 Expanding global awareness and an appreciation for other
cultures rather than our own

 Promotes a cross-cultural perspective that allows us to see

ourselves as part of one human family.

 helps us to avoid some of the misunderstandings arises from

cultural differences.

 It helps us fight against prejudice and discriminations.

 Helps us fight against ethnocentrism;

uses as an important tool for development. Paying great attention

to local conditions which is crucial to solve community problems.
 Cont’d
 Because of its relativistic, cross-cultural and interdisciplinary nature,
anthropology helps us:

 operating comfortably in ambiguous situations,

 working effectively as part of cross-cultural teams,

 Becoming emotionally resilient and open-minded

 It cultivates critical thinking skills and helps us develop broad

perspective.
Chapter two
Sub-fields of Anthropology
• Divided into four major sub-fields
 2.1 Archaeological Anthropology
 Studies the ways of lives of past peoples by excavating and analyzing the material
culture/physical remains (artifacts, features and eco-facts) they left behind.

 Archaeologists study artifacts to get clues/hints about values, beliefs, norms and
cultures of societies that existed in the past.

Artifacts: material remains made and used by the past peoples

 Can be removed from the site and taken to the laboratory for further analysis.

 These are cultural material small in size like: Tools, ornaments, arrowheads,
coins, and fragments of pottery are examples of artifacts.
 Archae cont’d
 Features: are made or modified by past people, but they cannot be readily carried away from the
site. Examples different house foundation, building, palaces, fireplaces, religious places and etc.

 Eco-facts: non-arte-factual, organic and environmental remains such as soil, animal bones, and the
remains of plants that were not made or altered by humans; but were used by them.
 Eco-facts provide archaeologists with important data concerning the environment and how people
used natural resources in the past.

Archaeological anthropology divided into three areas of specialties.

1 Prehistoric Archaeology: investigates human prehistoric cultures.

It focuses on entire period called prehistory- between 6000 and 2.5 million yrs ago).

2 Historical Archaeology
 interpret artifacts of societies of the recent past after the development of the art of writing)

 It reconstruct the cultures of people who used writing and whom historical documents have been

written.
 That is when people began to write down things that can tell about the past.

3 Ethno-archaeology (study material culture of current societies) to understand life style of past people.
In Ethiopia we have Archaeological findings in north, south, east and western part of the country that
shown our county belonged to those countries which have old civilization.
 2.2 Linguistic Anthropology
focuses on the evolution of languages by studying contemporary human languages as well as those of the
past.

 It studies how language is used within a society, and how the human brain acquires and uses languages.

 It tries to understand languages variation in their structures, units, and

grammatical formations.

 It gives special attention to the study of unwritten languages.

 Studies human language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural practice.

 Argument : language is a system of information transmission and reception.

By sound/speech, gesture or in other ways such as visual.
: the most distinctive feature of being human.
: a key to explore culture

Linguistic anthropology is divided into four distinct areas of research:

Structural/Descriptive Linguistics,
Historical Linguistics,
Ethno-Linguistics, and Socio-linguistics.
 Linguistic cont’d
Structural /Descriptive Linguistics

 studies the structure of linguistic patterns like:

 Grammatical patterns of languages to identify the similarities and differences among contemporary
languages.

 Examines sound systems

 The meanings attached to words in specific languages to understand the structure and set of rules of
given language.
 Every culture has a distinctive language with its own logical structure and set of rules and
This structure &rules use for putting words and sounds together for the purpose of communicating.
 Descriptive linguist use to compile dictionaries and grammar books for previously unwritten languages.

Ethno-linguistics (cultural linguistics)

 Examines the relationship between language and culture.
 cultural linguists explore how different linguistic categories can affect how people categorize their
experiences, how they think, and how they perceive the world around them.

Historical linguistics
 Deals with the emergence of language in general and how specific languages have diverged/separated
over time.
 It focuses on the comparison and classifications of different languages to differentiate the historical
links between them.
 Linguistic cont’d
Socio-linguistics
 Examines how the use of language defines social groups.

 It investigates linguistic variation within a given language.

 Study situational use of language.

 Linguistic.A generalized that, no language is a homogeneous system in which

everyone speaks just like everyone else. One reason for variation is geography, as
in regional dialects and accents.


It also expressed in the bilingualism of ethnic groups.
 2.3 Socio-cultural anthropology
 Often called social anthropology or cultural anthropology.

 Its main concern is the social and cultural dimensions of the living peoples

 Studies nonmaterial and material lives of contemporary and historically recent

human societies, taking the concept of culture as central point.

 Social anthropologists conduct studies of living peoples, most often by:

visiting and living among a particular people for an extended period of time,
usually a year or longer. i.e field work

 Concerned with making generalizations and seeking explanations for,

similarities and differences among the world's people.
 Sociocultural cont’d
Socio-cultural anthropologist engage in two aspects of study. Ethnography (empirical
study) and ethnology (theoretical study).
Ethnography Ethnology

Requires field work to collect data Uses data collected by a series of different researchers

The direct involvement of the

researcher in the setting under
investigation.

Anthropologist observes, talks to,

and lives with the people he or she
studies.

Focuses on obtaining firsthand and

high-quality data directly from the
source.
Often descriptive Usually synthesizes ethnographic data

Group/community specific Comparative/cross-cultural study of contemporary cultures and

societies.
provides a comprehensive
account of a particular Identify and explain cultural differences and similarities, to test
community, society, or culture hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance understanding of how
social and cultural systems work.
 The ethnographer with research participant

The intention is to see activities as social actions embedded within a socially organized
domain and accomplished in and through the day-to-day activities of participants.
It is the ability of ethnography to understand a social setting as perceived by its
 Socio-cultural anthropology uses both approaches to answer all sort of questions
related to culture and human societies.

 Social Anthropology has different specialization such as:

Medical Anthropology
Urban Anthropology
Economic Anthropology
Political Anthropology
Development Anthropology
Anthropology of Religion, Ecological Anthropology, and etc.
 2.4 physical/Biological anthropology
 Focuses on the biological aspects of human beings.
 Classified as:
Biological Anthropology
Forensic Anthropology
Primatology the sub-fields of physical anthropology are closely related with N.S
Paleoanthropology
Population and genetics
Human ecology
There are two area of research in physical anthropology.
1. Research on human evolution
 Study of the gradual processes of simple forms into more differentiated structures in hominid

 Interested in reconstructing the evolutionary record of the human species using fossils/bones.
 It shows that the origin of humanity trace back over 6 million years and state Africa is the cradle(origin) of human being.

Evidence: Lucy(Australopithecus Afarensis)

Location: Africa, Ethiopia, Afar

Physical Anthropologists studies how biology affect human culture and the opposite

This is the principle that cultural ideas of beauty can affect our biological bodies

 Studies the biological dimensions of humans and other primates.

 Physical/biological cont’d

2. Research on modern human Variation

Modern human biological variation are the result of cumulative process of invisible
change occurring in human life.

These changes have been accumulated and passed through genes.

Genes: are chxt that carry biological traits of an organism.

Therefore: physical anthropology essentially concerned with human evolution and

human genetics.
Human evolutionary research categorized into:
 Paleoanthropology
The study of human biological evolution through the analysis of fossil
remains
 primatology
 Biological anthro. Cont’d
In evolutionary research this is one specialization which studies about primates or
recent human ancestors to explain human evolution.

Primatologist study
 The evolution,

 Anatomy,

 Adaptation, and social behavior of primates, to understand the taxonomic order to

which humans belong.

 Biological anthrop. cont’d
Research on modern human biological variations shows:
• Human biological variations are the result of the cumulative processes of
invisible changes occurring in human life.
• Concerned with the genetic investigation of how and why the physical traits of
contemporary human populations vary throughout the world.

• Argued: the major sources of biological variations are derived from the
interrelated effects of:
Natural selection,
Geographical isolation and
Genetic mutations.

It focuses on the genetic materials of an organism such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic

acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). Similarities in the DNA of two or more species
are evidence that they share a common evolutionary ancestor.
 Biological anthrop. cont’d
 Evolutionary and Paleo-anthropological perspectives on human origin
Anthropologists today rely on scientific views of evolution in order to explain human
origins.
Evolution refers to a process and gradual change in specie over time & used to
describe the cumulative effects of three independent facts. These attributes of
evolution can be observed in nature every day.

1. Replication: The fact that life forms have offspring/descendants/children

2. Variation: The fact that each offspring is slightly different from its parents, and its
siblings; and

3. Selection: The fact that not all offspring survive, and only those the ones best
suited/matched to their environment.
 Cont’d
Anthropologists study humanity as a biological phenomenon by raising questions
such as:

 What species are we most and least like?

 Where and when did we first appear?
 What were our ancestors like?
 Can we learn about human behavior from the behavior of our nearest relatives,
the chimpanzees and gorillas?
 Is our species still evolving? How do modern human genetics, population growth,
and other current issues play out from a biological perspective?

The changes through time of the properties of a living species and therefore,
evolution is the foundation of the life sciences.
 2.4.2 Anthropological perspectives on racial types and human
physical variation
 Like all living things, humans have to classify their perceptions into some kind of order.
 Not all human beings look the same, so humans have spent some time putting people

of different colors, body shapes, and so on into different categories sometimes called
races.
 But, had some very bad consequences for millions of human beings over the centuries.

So what is race?
 Biological term: a group of organisms of the same species that share similar physical

and genetic attributes and survive in specific geographic regions.

 Sub-division of a single species

 started in ancient Egypt, by 1350 BC. Based on skin color:

 Anthropologists argued: “Human racial classification has no social value and rather it is

destructive of social and human relations.

 Professional anthropologists generalized that, human “race” is an antiquated/old-

fashioned concept.

 But important for biomedical reasons.

 Adaptation
 a process (behavioral and/or biological) that increases the likelihood of survival
for an organism.
 In humans, adaptations include complex behavior, such as making tools. These
behaviors aren’t passed on genetically but rather culturally.
 2.4.5. Anthropologists view about Human Races?

Two important point

1.Genetic differences don’t mean a lot, biologically

 we’re all in Homo sapiens.

 A look at the genes shows no significant species-level differences only very

minor visible ones such as skin color, shape of nose, or hair texture.

 Race is nearly meaningless when applied to humanity.

 Physical anthropologists more commonly talk today of ancestry, a more general

term

2. Cultural behavior isn’t genetically linked to those in geographical differences.

 Cont’d
 Most of human behavior isn’t biologically determined in the natural environment - most of it is
culturally learned.

 It’s culture that really drives behavior, not the genes

 Defining human races is almost impossible

Bio-cultural animal
Humanity evolves both as a result of: biological factors and cultural factors.
For this reason, anthropologists call it bio-cultural evolution

It is the most common term we use to refer human beings.

Humanity stands for a group of life forms with the following characteristics:

 Bipedalism (walking on two legs);

 Relatively small teeth for primates of our size;
 Relatively large brains for primates of our size;
 Using modern language to communicate ideas; and
 Using complex sets of ideas called culture to survive.
 2.5. Human socio-cultural and biological diversity and
similarities:
What is to be human?
 Anthropology is a broader discipline covering a vast spatio-temporal dimension in the study
of humanity.
 It is unique among most academic disciplines both in the social and natural
sciences. It is the most holistic discipline studying human beings comprehensively

Some of the questions central to humanity and anthropology are:

 What are the commonalities among humans worldwide? (That is, what does every

human culture do?)

 What are the variations among humans worldwide (That is, what things do only

some cultures do?)

 Chapter three
Human Culture and Ties that Connect Society
3.1. Conceptualizing Culture
The concept culture is one of the most contested and widely used notions in anthropology and
sociology… “It is used with various meanings in common sense.
There are more than 160 definition of culture. Many of these definition say the same things.
But the Widely used definition of culture is by:
 Edward B. Tylor defined culture as “a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of
society”.

 B. Malinowski: “as cumulative creation of man". He regarded culture as the handiwork of man
and the medium through which he achieves his ends.

 (Linton, 1940): The sum total of knowledge, attitudes and habitual behavioral patterns shared
and transmitted by the members of a particular society.

 Robert Bierstedt “Culture is the complex whole that consists of everything we think and do and
have as members of society.”

 Clyde Kluckhohn (1949) : as a way of thinking, feeling, believing. It is the group’s knowledge
stored up (in memories of men; in books and objects) for future use.
 A mental map which guide us in our relation to our surrounding and other people.

 Culture as the common way of life shared by a group of people. It includes all things beyond nature
and biology

3.2 Characteristic Features of Culture

a) Culture is Learned: learned behavior that are appropriate to a particular group of people (Oke, 1991)
The process of learning culture after we are born is called enculturation.
b) Culture is Shared.
 It must have a shared meaning by at least two people within a society.
 But not all things shared among a group of people are cultural.

Not transmitted genetically; it is acquired through the process of social interaction and learning among
human groups

c) Culture is Symbolic
human had a capacity to use symbols, signs whose relationship to things they signify(Keesing, 1981).
Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural learning.

d) Culture is All-Encompassing
Comprises countless material and non-material aspects of human lives.
Culture is the sum total of human creation
 Chxt of culture cont’d
e) Culture is Integrated ( culture is a system )
The various aspects of a culture are interrelated.
The parts of which, to some degree, are interconnected with one another.
Change in one aspect will likely generate changes in other aspects.
f) Culture Can Be Adaptive and Maladaptive
People adapt themselves to the environment using culture and this what makes
humans unique.
But as we use/create new technology to adapt the natural environment, it create new
problems which we call maladaptive of culture.

g) Culture is Dynamic: Culture is changing constantly as new ideas and new

techniques are added
 3.3 Aspects/Elements of Culture
Two of the most important aspects of culture are material and nonmaterial culture.

1. Material culture
human-made objects.
e.g tools, furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges,
The physical substance which has been changed and used by man.

It includes technical and material equipment. It is referred to as civilization.

2. Non – Material Culture

It is something internal and naturally valuable, reflects the inward nature of man.
It consists of:
 Words the people use or the language they speak,
 The beliefs they hold
 Habits they follow,

 Aspects of non-material culture are :
All cultures have four common nonmaterial cultural components: symbols,
language, value and norms.
Symbol
 anything that meaningfully represents something else which people use to
communicate with others.
 It is something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language or culture.
 No obvious, natural, or necessary connection between the symbol and what it
symbolizes
 Symbols can produce loyalty/faithfulness and animosity, and love and hate.

Language
It is a key element of culture. Culture encompasses language, and through language,
culture is communicated and transmitted.
 Aspects of non-material culture cont’d
Values
 Values are collective /shared ideas which tells what is right or wrong, good or bad, ethical or
unethical, moral or immoral in a particular culture.

 Are like road maps / guiding principles that dictate our behavior and actions.

 It is central aspect of the non-material culture of a society and are important b/c they influence
the behavior of the members of a society.

Norms
 Norms are established rules of behavior or standard of conduct.
 There is a specific guiding value for every norm.
 Norms are detailed and specific social rules for specific situations
 Shared rules and guidelines of society
 Norms are enforced by sanctions and

can be negative or positive

Based on their level of importance social norms are divided into two.
These are:
Folkways and Mores
a) Folkways: Norms guiding ordinary usages and conventions of everyday life.
Not strictly enforced but
result in a person getting a bad look by others.

b) Mores: much stronger norms than folkways.

 Norms that are believed to be essential to core values and we insist on conformity.
 Breaking mores might result serious reaction from the community.

People who violate mores are usually severely punished

Punishment for the violation of mores varies from society to society

ostracism,
vicious gossip,
public ridicule, exile
loss of one’s job,
physical beating/punishment,
imprisonment and commitment to a mental asylum
 3.4 Cultural Unity and Variations:
 In studying human diversity in time and space, anthropologists distinguish among the universal, the generalized, and the
particular.

1) Universality

 Are cultural traits that span across all cultures.

long period of infant dependency, year-round sexuality,

complex brain that enables use of symbols and use of languages and tools.
Incest taboo, exogamy (marriage outside one’s group).

Where you choose to travel and explore, you'll find the above things.

2) Generality

 Generalities are cultural traits that occur in many societies but not all of them. e.g., farming and nuclear family. strict
control over women’s virginity, etc

3) Particularity

 Trait of a culture that is not widespread.

It include the specific practices that distinguish cultures from one another.
All people become hungry but the potential food sources defined as edible vary across cultures
i.e. what is appealing to eat in one society may be considered unbelievable in another.
homosexuals or lesbianism as a way of life,
polyandrous marriage practice, eating of raw meat, etc.( for example donkey meat in Ethiopia).
 3.5. Evaluating Cultural Differences:
Ethnocentrism, Cultural Relativism and Human Rights
A. Ethnocentrism

 The tendency to see one’s own culture as superior to others

 Judging the behavior and beliefs of people raised in other cultures
 The tendency to see the behaviors, beliefs, values, and norms of one's own group as the only right way
of living and to judge others by those standards.

 Judging our own group as the axis of everything, and we scaling and rating all others with reference to
it.
 Cultural imperialism: The attempt of one society to impose its values on another.

 The characteristic of all societies.

 It is a cultural universal.

It result

 Prevent us from understanding and appreciating another culture.

 Limit us from open communication and result in misunderstanding and mistrust.

 It is argued that small amount of ethnocentrism is important. it acts as a conservative force in

B. Cultural relativism
 seeing other’s culture within the framework of their values, beliefs and motives.
 States that cultures differ, Ideas, behaviors and acts will give ‘right’ meaning in the
context of that specific culture.
 It might give ‘wrong’ meaning from the view point of people from other culture.

 Suspends judgment and views about the behavior of people from the perspective
of their own culture.

 Every society has its own culture, Every culture contains its own unique pattern of
behavior.

 So a culture has to be studied in terms of its own meanings and values.

 Describes an attitude of respect for cultural differences.

 Cultural relativism cont’d
Chxt of cultural relativism:

 Appreciating cultural diversity

 Accepting and respecting other cultures

 Trying to understand every culture and its elements in terms of its own context
and logic

 Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among many; and

 Recognizing what is immoral, ethical, and acceptable in one culture may not be
so in another culture.
 C. Human rights
 Human rights: rights based on justice and morality beyond and superior to
particular countries, cultures, and religions.
 Many anthropologists are uncomfortable with the strong form of cultural relativism
that suggests that all patterns of culture are equally valid.

 Human rights include:

-The right to speak freely,

-To hold religious beliefs without persecution, and
-To not be murdered, injured, or enslaved or imprisoned without charge.

 A doctrine of universal human rights, emphasizes on the rights of the individual

over those of group.

 Most ethnographers try to be objective, accurate, and sensitive in their accounts of

other cultures. It got nothing to do with ignoring international standards of
justice and morality.
 3.6 Culture Change
Culture change can occur as a result of the following Mechanisms:
 Diffusion

Cultural elements are borrowed from another society and incorporated into the culture of the
recipient group

Can categorized as:

Direct when two cultures trade with, intermarry among, or wage war on one another.

Forced when one culture subjugates another and imposes its customs on the dominated group.

Indirect when cultural traits move from group A to group C via group B without any
interaction between A and C.

 Acculturation
The exchange of cultural features that results when groups have continuous firsthand contact.
 Invention

When humans innovate, creatively finding solutions to problems is a third mechanism of

cultural change.
 Globalization
 Spreading of culture through different mass media
 nations and people in different geographical area are

increasingly interlinked and mutually dependent

 long-distance communication is easier, faster, and cheaper

than ever, and extends to remote areas.

So In terms of transportation, communication system and in
terms of lifestyles globalization can play important role in
culture change
 3.7 Ties That Connect: Marriage, Family and Kinship
3.7.1 Marriage:
• A change in status for a man and a woman and the acceptance by society of the new family
that is formed.
• It is permanent legal union between man and woman.
• debatable whether or not families and the institutions of marriage are universals.
• So it is not universally valid definition.
That is why marriages may unite more than two spouses or in some societies, including the

modern nations of Belgium and the Netherlands, recognize same sex marriages.

 e.g in Africa’s Sudan a Nuer woman could marry another woman if her father had only
daughters but no male heirs, who are necessary if his patrilineal age is to survive.
 On the other hand, some societies did not have marriage in the conventional sense of the
term. Example: Nayar of Southern India

3.7.1.1 Rules of Marriage

 Rules that state when one can marry and cannot marry.

 It is rules of regulating mating(sexual intercourse)

 Marriage cont’d
3.7.1.2.Mate selection(whom should you marry?)
There are certain rules and regulation of marriage among the society of the world.

a) Exogamy: a rules by which man not allowed to marry some one from his own social
group.

b) Endogamy: endogamy requires individual to marry within their own group and
forbidden them to marry outsides.

c)Preferential cousin marriage: a common form of preferred marriage is cousin

marriage and practiced in one form or another in different region of the world.

There are two types of cousin marriage.

1) cross cousin marriage: are children of siblings of the opposite sex. i.e one’s
mother’s brother and one’s father sister children. It function is to strengthen and
maintain ties between kin group established by marriage.
 Marriage cont’d
2) parallel cousin marriage:

 When marriage take place between children of siblings of the same sex,
namely children of one’s mother sister and one’s father brother

 The mate may come either from one’s father brother children or one’s
mother sister children.

It involves the marriage of a man his father’s brother daughter.

The function of parallel cousin marriage: prevent the fragmentation of family

property.

Such cultures of marriage found in some Arab societies of northern Africa.

 Marriage cont’d
d)The levirate and sororate

Levirate: where by widow is expected to marry the brothers of/some close relative
of her died husband.

The children born from new father and women’s legally belong to dead man not the
actual father/biological father.

It serve to the social security for the widow and her children

Sororate: when a wife dies and the widow marrying the sister of the dead women if
the dead woman has no sister/sibling the family has the obligation to supply the same
equivalent relatives.
 3.7.1.3. number of spouse
a) Monogamy: marriage of one man to one woman.
b) Polygamy: marriage of man or woman two or more mate. Polygamy can be
classified as:

1) Polygny: a marriage of a man to two or more woman at a time.

2) polyandry: the marriage of woman to two or more men at the time.

Marriage of a man with two or more sister at a time is called sororate polygny.
 3.7.1.4.economic consideration of marriage
Marriage use as economic transaction and can be divided into:

 Bride price: It is also known as bride wealth, is the compensation given upon marriage
by the family of the groom to the family of the bride.

 Bride service: When the groom works for his wife’s family

 Dowry: dowry involves a transfer of goods or money in the opposite direction, from the
bride's family to the groom’s family.

 Reciprocal Exchange: involves equal exchange of gifts between the families of both the
bride and the groom
 3.7.1.5 Post-Marital Residence
Where the newly married couple lives after the marriage ritual. These are classified as:

 Patrilocal: the married couple lives with or near the relatives of the husband’s father.

 Matrilocal: the married couple lives with or near the relatives of the wife.

 Avunculocal: The married couple lives with or near the husband’s mother’s brother.

 Ambilocal/Bilocal: The married couple has a choice of living with relatives of the wife or
relatives of the husband

 Neolocal: The Married couple forms an independent place of residence away from the
relatives of either spouse.
 3.7.2 Family
 It is the most important primary group in society. The family, as an institution, is universal.

Anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different types of family

The Nuclear Family: Consisting of married couple and their dependent children,
 a two-generation family
 formed around the conjugal or marital union.
 It remains relatively autonomous and independent unit.
 Most likely to be found in societies with greatest amount of geographic mobility.
‘family of orientation(in which one can born & reared)
‘family of procreation’(established by marital union).

The Extended Family:

 Extends beyond the nuclear family of parents and their children to include aunts, uncles,
grandparents, cousins or other relatives, all living nearby or in the same household.
 Blood ties are more important than ties of marriage.
 Consist of two or more families that are linked by blood ties.

This takes the form of a married couple living with one or more of their married children in a
single household or homestead and under the authority of a family head.
 3.7.2.1 Functions of Marriage and Family
1.Biological Function: sexual and reproductive function.
The institution of marriage regulates and socially validates long term, sexual relations
between males and females.

Sexual cohabitation between spouses automatically leads to the birth of off-springs.

The task of perpetuating/preserving the population of a society is an important
function of a family.

2.Economic Function: Marriage brings economic co-operation between men and

women and ensures survival of individuals in a society.

3.Social Function: In marriage, one adds not only a spouse but most of the spouse’s
relatives to one’s own group of kin. linking one’s kin group to another kin group.
4. Educational and Socialization Function:
-The task of educating and enculturating children
-The transmission of social heritage.
 3.7.3 Kinship
 A significant concept in Anthropology. kinship and family
constitute the focal points in anthropological studies.
 social relations based on culturally recognized ties of descent
and marriage.

 Kinship is the method of reckoning relationship. A kinship

system is neither a social group nor does it correspond to
organized combination of individuals.

 It is a structured system of relationships where individuals

are bound together by complex interlocking and ramifying ties.

 The relationship based on blood ties or marital ties.

 It is called “consanguineous or affinal kinship” respectively.
 3.7.4 Descent
• Permanent social unit whose members claim common ancestry
• Social recognition of the biological relationship that exists between the
individuals.
• Often, decent group membership is determined at birth and is life-long.
• It is an ascribed status
 Descent rule: refers to a set of principles by which an individual traces his descent.
There are three important rules of decent:

1. Patrilineal descent

 When descent is traced solely through the male line.

 A man’s sons and daughters all belong to the same descent group by birth,
 It is only the sons who continue the affiliation. Succession and inheritance pass
through the male line.
2. Matrilineal descent

 When the descent is traced solely through the female line.

 At birth, children of both sexes belong to mother’s descent group, but later
only females acquire the succession and inheritance.

3. Cognatic Descent

 In some societies individuals are free to show their genealogical links

either through men or women. Some people of such a society are therefore
connected with the kin-group of father and others with the kin group of
mothers.
 There is no fixed rule to trace the succession and inheritance; any
combination of lineal link is possible in such societies.
 3.8 Culture areas and culture contact
• a cluster of related cultures occupying a certain geographical region.
• In anthropology it has been used beginning from the 1920s when
anthropologists were interested in examining the concentration of
cultural trains in a given geographic area.
• In the context of Ethiopia, we may have plough culture area, Enset
culture area, and pastoral societies’ culture area.

A. Plough culture area

• Plough culture area represents those parts of the country where
agriculture is predominantly the means by which subsistence is eked
out.
• Most of the highland and central parts of the country serves as the
backbone of the economy is considered a plough culture.
• This area has been a subject of anthropological inquires over the
past seven decades starting from the 1950s.
B. Enset culture area

• Covers a vast region in the southern part of country. Enset cultivating regions
of the present day SNNPRS such as the Guraghe, Sidama and Gedeo areas
constitute enset culture area. In this region, enset serves as a staple diet and
basically people make their living on it.

C. Pastoral culture area

• Found in the low land areas covering a large section of: Afar in the northwest,
Somali in the southeast and Borena of southern of Ethiopia. As opposed to the
above the cases, inhabitants of the pastoral culture area
• Rely significantly on their herds and cattle for a living.
• Mobility of people and herds is a major characteristic feature of the people
occupying the pastoral culture area.
 Chapter four
Marginalized, Minorities, and Vulnerable Groups
4.1 Definition of concepts

 Marginalization is defined as a treatment of a person or social group as

minor, insignificant or peripheral.
 It involves exclusion of certain groups from social interactions, marriage
relations, sharing food and drinks, and working and living together.
 affects certain social groups in a given community or society

 There are marginalized social groups in every society and culture.

 Its nature and level is varies from society to society as a result of cultural
diversity.

 However, Women, children, older people, and people with disabilities are
 vulnerability
 Refers to the state of being exposed to physical or emotional injuries.

 are people exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment.

 The impacts of attacks and harms are not limited to physical damages. They could
also lead to long-term problems including emotional disorder (e.g., psychological
trauma) and social or relational problems.

 e,.g Child marriage would lead to teenage pregnancy. Teenage pregnancy in turn
leads to a severe reproductive health problems such as fistula.
 women with fistula suffer from isolation from social interactions.

 As a result, they need special attention, protection and support.

 E.g, children and people with disabilities need special support and protection as
they are exposed to risks and neglect because of their age and disabilities.
 Minority groups
 Minority group’ refers to a small group of people within a community, region, or
country.
 Groups with a defined socioeconomic or political status within a larger society
based on some combination of their: ethnicity, economic role, and religion,
concerned about protecting or improving that status.

 In most cases, minority groups are d/f from the majority poptn in terms of race,
religion, ethnicity, and language.

e.g, black Americans are minorities in the USA, Christians would be minorities in a
Muslim majority country and the inverse is true.

 Hence, minority groups can be ethnic minorities, religious minorities, or racial

minorities in a given community, region or country.
 There are different forms of marginalization.

4.2 Gender-based marginalization

Sex and gender

Sex: associated with biological differences: in sexual/reproductive organ, breasts, type of voice,
and distribution of hair on physical, in height (men tend to be taller), weight (men tend to weigh
more), and physical strength (Kottak 2005).

Gender: is socially/culturally constructed characteristics of females/women and males/men.

 Gender-based marginalization is closely related to gender inequality.

 It involves discrimination on a group of people based on their gender.

 Mainly arises from socio-cultural norms and it is varies from culture to culture.

 Girls and women face negative discrimination in societies across the world.

 Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. Mostly, it involves exclusion of girls and

 They do not have equal rights in terms of property ownership and
inheritance in many cultures in Ethiopia and other parts of Africa

 There are some customary practices that affect the health and wellbeing
of girls and women.

 These practices collectively are called harmful traditional practices

(HTPs).
 Two examples of harmful traditional practices. These are:

1. Female genital mutilation/cutting

2. Child marriage
(FGM/C) is regarded as a form of gender-based violence .
FGM/C is practiced in 28 countries in Africa. The prevalence of the
practice is very high in some countries
 The prevalence of FGM/C is very high in the following regions in Ethiopia
 Somali (99%), Afar (91%), Harai (82%), and Oromia (76%). Tigray (24%) and
Gambela (33%) exhibit low FGM/C prevalence

 FGM/C is performed shortly after birth in Amhara, Tigray and Afar regions as well
as in northern parts of Oromia. In southern Ethiopia, FGM/C is practiced when girls
are approaching the age of marriage.
Key drivers of FGM/C
Different factors support the continuation of FGM/C. The major factors include:

 Maintenance of cleanliness, preservation of virginity

 Discouraging promiscuity, increasing marriageability

 Enhancement of fertility, improvement of male sexual satisfaction

 Social acceptance, fear of marginalization, and compliance with tradition and

 Fgm cont’d
 The major factors are:
1. Belief in impurity:

In some societies uncut/uncircumcised women are considered impure. They are also
regarded as polluting to others including men having sex with them. As a result,
marriage and casual sexual contact with an uncut woman is regarded as breaking of
taboo.

2. Discouraging promiscuity:

It refers to a person who has a lot of different sexual partners or sexual relationships.

According to such beliefs, uncut women, including uncut married women, would have
sexual relationship with multiple partners.

3. Preserving virginity:
In many Ethiopian cultures, social norms prohibit premarital sex and pregnancy.
 4. Fear of ill-manner

FGM/C is practiced as a means of moderating the behavior of girls and women

5. Social sanctions
Avoiding FGM/C is considered as violation of social norms in FGM/C practicing
societies.
Hence, parents and girls abandoning FGM/C will be punished through social
sanctions including isolation from the community

Negative impacts of FGM/C

• Violation of the rights of girls and women.

• Has negative implications for the health, social and psychological wellbeing of
girls and women.
• severe bleeding during and after the practice,
• different forms of infections,
 4.3 Marginalized occupational groups

 According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized groups

in many parts of Ethiopia.

 The most marginalized occupational groups are tanners, potters, weavers and
ironsmiths.

 They have different names in different parts of the country.

 Craft-workers such as potters and tanners are considered as impure and excluded
from social interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and
participation in associations and celebrations.
 Cont’d….
 Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes/contradictions. They have important
contributions to their communities; however, they are marginalized by the dominant
and majority groups.

 For examples, weavers produce cultural clothes highly demanded by thousands and
millions of people.

 Despite their contributions, weavers are marginalized from the wider society.

 Ironsmiths are among occupational groups marginalized in many cultural setting in

Ethiopia.
 They contribute a lot especially in rural areas. Ironsmiths serve rural communities
by producing farming tools such as plough shares, sickles, and hoes.

 Potters produce pottery articles essential for food processing and serving for
fetching water.

 Despite their contributions, these occupational group considered as inferior and

marginalized from wide areas of social interactions.

 Dena Freeman and Alula Pankhurst (2001), well-known anthropologists,

identified different forms of marginalization targeting minority occupational
groups.
Type of marginalization Manifestations of marginalization

• Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to

Spatial marginalization forests, on poor land, around steep slopes.
• They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at
the outskirts of markets).
• When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way
for others and walk on the lower side of the road.
• Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic activities
Economic including production and exchanges. In some cultures they are
marginalization not allowed to cultivate crops.
• They have a limited access to land and land ownership .

• Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not

Social marginalization share burial places with others; they are excluded from
membership of associations such as iddirs.
• When they are allowed to participate in social events, they
must sit on the floor separately-sometimes outside the house or
near the door.

Cultural marginalization is manifested in negative stereotyping such as the

Cultural marginalization following:
• Occupational minorities are labeled as impure and polluting; they are
accused of eating animals that have died without being slaughtered;
• Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking
morality, respect and shame.
 4.4 Age-based vulnerability

 It is different forms of attack, physical injuries and emotional harms on children

and old people.
 For example, children and older people (people aged 60 and above) are exposed

to various forms of attack, harm and mistreatment because of their age.

e.g Children: Discrimination and vulnerability
Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age.

Both boys and girls are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people.

However, younger girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination

because of their gender.
Child girls are exposed to various kinds of harm before they reach at the age of
maturity.
 Example: Child marriage: Child marriage refers to marriage which involves girls
below the age of 18.

 It is still widely practiced in different regions of Ethiopia.

 child marriage is regarded as violation of the rights of the child (human rights
conventions).

 It is an illegal practice according to the Criminal Code of Ethiopia.

 Consequences of child marriage

 It inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls’ chance to education and

future professional development.

 It exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.

 It leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks of diseases and complications

during delivery, fistula, and death of the mother or child.
 Factors encouraging child marriage
Social norms: Social norms contribute a lot for the continuation of child marriage in
many parts of the world. parents and relatives protecting girls from pre-marital sex.

 Premarital sex and pregnancy would expose the girl and her family to social
exclusion in many parts of Ethiopia.

 The value attached to virginity is another driver of child marriage.

 Because of this, parents incline to marry off their daughter before the girl reach
at the stage of puberty to avoid the possibility of pre-marital sex and pregnancy.

 The influence of community members. They do this through social pressure

including insulting unmarried young girls.

Economic issues are among the major factors that drive child marriage. In many areas
of Ethiopia marriage provides economic security for young girls.
 4.4.2 Marginalization of older persons
 Age-based marginalization also affects older people.
 The number of older people is increasing globally. According to the estimation of
the United Nations (2009), the number of older people will increase to 2 billion by
2050.

 Eighty percent of the 2 billion older persons would live in low and middle-income
countries.

 This means Africa would have a large number of older adults after 30 years.
Ethiopia, the second populous country in Africa, would also have millions of older
persons after three decades.
 Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refer to
stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age.
 Cont’d
 People’s attitude towards older persons is changing over time in Ethiopia and all
over the world. Older men and women have been respected across Ethiopian
cultures.

 Older persons have been considered as custodians of tradition, culture, and history.
The role of older persons has been crucial in mentoring younger people, resolving
disputes, and restoring peace across Ethiopian cultures.
 Religious and ethnic minorities
 There are several examples of marginalization and discrimination
targeting religious and ethnic minorities in the world.
Example:
 The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in

different parts of the world. They were targets of extermination

 Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted

people in the world.

 The Rohingyas are vulnerable to problems such as
malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse.
 Human right approaches and inclusiveness: Anthropological
perspectives
 All forms of marginalization and discrimination against vulnerable and minority
groups contradict the principles of human rights.

 The right to inclusive services and equal opportunities is among human right of
marginalized, vulnerable and minority group.

 e.g., schools and hospitals must be accessible to people with disabilities.

 The human rights of women and girls include right to be free from harmful
practices such as forced marriage, child marriage, and female genital
mutilation/cutting.

 Anthropology appreciates cultural diversity and commonality. It is one of the

guiding principles of cultural relativism in social anthropology.

 However Anthropologists do not support/appreciate cultural practices that violate

the rights and wellbeing of individuals and groups.
 Chapter five
Inter-Ethnic Relations, Identity and Multiculturalism in Ethiopia
Ethnic group
 Is attached with various meanings.

 Max Weber1978 (German sociologist),

The belief in common descent shared by its members,
It Extending beyond kinship, political solidarity vis-a-vis other groups.
Represented by common customs, language, religion, values, morality

 B. Anderson (1983) described ethnic groups as “an imagined community” that possesses a
“character and quality”

 Schermerhorn (1996) as a unit of population having unique characteristics in relation to

others and united in common language, myth of origin, and history of ethnic allegiance
 F. Barth (1969), a self-defined group based on:

subjective factors/cultural values chosen by members from their past history or present existing
conditions in which members are aware of-and-in contact with other ethnic groups.

 In which members of a group identified themselves as belonging to specific group based on

their subjective communalities (language, myth of origin, and shared cultural entities) that
defined in reference with others (Abbink, 2004).
 Ethnic group cont’d
Hutchinson and Smith’s (1996) identified six main features that the definition of
an ethnic group, predominantly consists. This includes;
1. A common proper name, to identify and express the “essence” of the community;

2. A myth of common ancestry that includes the idea of common origin in time and
place and that gives an ethnic group a sense of fictive kinship;

3. Shared historical memories, or better, shared memories of a common past or pasts,

including heroes, events, and their commemoration;

4. One or more elements of common culture, which need not be specified but
normally, include religion, customs, and language;

5. A link with a homeland, not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnic group,
only its symbolic attachment to the ancestral land, as with diaspora peoples; and

6. A sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnic’s population
(Hutchinson and Smith, 1996:6-7).
 Ethnic Identity
 Ethnic identity is an affiliate’s construct, where an individual is viewed by
themselves and by others as belonging to a particular ethnic or cultural group.

 It can be influenced by racial, natal, symbolic, and cultural factors (Cheung, 1993).

Racial factors: involve the use of physiognomic and physical characteristics

natal factors: refer to "homeland" (ancestral home) or origins of individuals, their parents and
kin, and

symbolic factors include: those factors that typify or examplify an ethnic group (e.g.,
holidays, foods, clothing, artifacts, etc.).

Ethnicity is a social-psychological process that gives an individual a sense of belonging.

Identity as a social phenomenon.

Ethnic identity can be defined as a manner in which persons, on account of their ethnic origin,
locate themselves psychologically in relation to one or more social systems, and in which they
perceive others as locating them in relation to those systems.
 Aspects of ethnic identity
 Objective and subjective aspects of ethnic identity.
Objective aspects refer to observable behavior, both cultural and social,
such as

(1), speaking an ethnic language, practicing ethnic traditions,

(2), participation in ethnic personal networks, such as family and friendships,

(3), participation in ethnic institutional organizations, such as belief systems,

social organizations etc.

 The subjective aspects of ethnic identity refer to images, ideas, attitudes,

and feelings which can be interconnected with the objective aspects

 We can distinguish at least three types of subjective aspects of identity:

(1) cognitive, (2) moral, and (3) affective/emotional.
 5.2. Ethnicity: Identification and Social
Categorization
 It contextualizes within the broader social process of identification and group

categorization

 Ethnicity is created and re-created, through social life and everyday interaction
and becomes relevant in ongoing social situations and encounters, where people'
cope with the demands and challenges of life.

 It replaced class structure and class conflicts which were dominate discourses.
The 'basic social anthropological model of ethnicity' can be summarized as
follows:

 Ethnicity is a matter of cultural differentiation and identification always

involves a dialectical interplay between similarity and difference (Jenkins
2004), .

 Ethnicity is centrally a matter of shared meanings - what we conventionally

call 'culture' - but is also produced and reproduced during interaction.

 Ethnicity, as identification, is collective and individual, externalized in social

interaction and the categorization of others, and internalized in personal self-
identification.
 5.4 Theories of Ethnicity:
 Three Basic Anthropological Approaches for Understanding Ethnicity

Perspective Description

Primordial Approach Ethnicity is fixed at birth. Ethnic identification is based

on deep, ‘primordial’ attachments to a group or culture

Ethnicity, based on people’s “historical” and “symbolic”

memory, is something created and used and exploited by
Instrumentalist Approach
leaders and others in the pragmatic pursuit of their own
interests.

Constructivist Approach Ethnic identity is not something people “possess” but

something they “construct” in specific social and
historical contexts to further their own interests.
 5.4.1. The Primordial Model of Ethnicity
 The oldest in anthropological literature.
 Articulated ethnicity as a natural phenomenon with its foundations in primordial
ties - deriving mainly from kinship, locality and culture (Geertz 1963).

 Argued as ties of blood, language and culture and seen by actors to be ineffable
and obligatory; that they are seen as natural.

 In its general sense ethnicity is something given, ascribed at birth,

deriving from the kin-and-clan-structure of human society, and
 Hence something more or less fixed and permanent (Geertz, 1963;
Isaacs, 1975; Stack, 1986).
 5.4.2. Instrumentalist (Situational) Theory of
Ethnicity
 View ethnicity as situational defined, depending on rational calculations of
advantage and stimulated by political mobilization under the leadership of actors
whose primary motives are non-ethnic

 Banks (1996) explained the instrumentalist understandings of ethnicity as an

instrument of group mobilization for political and economic ends (Banks, 1996: 40).

 By this, ethnicity is something that can be changed, constructed or even manipulated

to gain specific political and/or economic ends.

 Advocate that in the contexts of modern states, leaders (political elites) use and
manipulate perceptions of ethnic identity to further their own ends and stay in power.

 Ethnicity is created in the dynamics of elite competition within the boundaries

determined by political and economic realities” and ethnic groups are to be seen as
a product of political myths, created and manipulated by culture elites in their pursuit
of advantages and power.
 Instrumentalist cont’d
 Emphasis on the ethnic group as a collectively organized strategy for the protection of
economic and political interests” (Jones 1997:74).

 Ethnic group should be regarded not as a community at all but as a rational and
purposive association.
 5.4.3. Constructivist Theory of Ethnicity
 Ethnicity is something that is being negotiated and constructed in
everyday living.

 The construction is depends on historical, social and the presence of

ethnic raw material to be utilized. It regards ethnicity as a process, which
continues to unfold.

 Mostly it is subjectivist stance and the role of individual agencies and

circumstances in triggering the historical and social factors.

 The leading figure of this approach is F. Barth and viewed ethnic identity
as an “individualistic strategy”

 As to him, ethnic boundaries were psychological boundaries; ethnic culture

and its content were irrelevant. Overall, interaction between individuals
does not lead to an assimilation or homogenization of culture.
 Multiculturalism: Definition and Theories

 defined as the way in which a given society engages with cultural

diversity.

 Is strengthened through preserving, respecting, and even encouraging

cultural diversity.

 Multiculturalism can be conceptualized by one of two theories: the

“melting pot” theory or the “salad bowl” theory.
Melting pot theory
 Can occur naturally through immigration, and when jurisdictions of
various cultures are united together through legislative verdict
 It means that heterogeneous cultures will be mixed and become one
or create a monoculture
 has been criticized because it reduced diversity into a single entity
and causing people to lose their traditions.
 The Salad Bowl Theory

 Is liberal theory of multiculturalism in comparison to the

melting pot theory.
 The salad bowl theory illustrates a heterogeneous society in

which people coexist by retaining at least some of the

distinctiveness aspects of their traditional culture.
 Like ingredients of salad, various cultures are brought

together; however, retain their own distinct flavors rather

than mixing into a single homogeneous culture. New York
City, in the United States, is considered as an example of a
salad bowl society.
 The Characteristics of a Multicultural Society
 People of different races, ethnicities, and nationalities living
together in the same community.
 People up hold, transfer, cherish, and share their distinctive

cultural ways of life, languages, art, traditions, and

behaviors.
 The Importance of Diversity
 To attain a high degree of cultural diversity. Diversity takes place
when people of diverse races, nationalities, religions, ethnicities, and
philosophies gather together to form a community.

 To recognizes and values the cultural differences among people

 It makes humanity stronger and may, in fact, be essential to its long-

term survival.

 UNESCO recognized that “...cultural diversity is necessary for

humankind as biodiversity is for nature”(Longley, Robert,2021).

 Different communities and organizations in various settings can

benefit from the different backgrounds, skills, experiences, and new
ways of thinking that come with cultural diversity.
 Unit Six
 Customary and Local Governance Systems and Peace Making

6.1 Indigenous and local governance

Indigenous systems of governance have widely been employed to

maintain social order across Ethiopian regions.

Understanding of indigenous systems of governance help us to enhance

inter-cultural understanding and smooth relationship between different
ethnic group.
 The Oromo Gadaa
 The Gadaa is one of the well-studied indigenous systems of governance.

 Asmerom, a famous anthropologist, is widely known for his ethnographic studies

on the Oromo political system.

 Three Approaches to the Study of African Society, published in 1973; and Oromo
Democracy:
 An Indigenous Political System, printed in 2000.

The Gadaa system is ‘an age grading institution of the Oromo that has:
a complex system of administration,
law making and dispute settlement’
 Gadaa cont’d
 Gadaa is widely mentioned as an egalitarian (democratic) system of governance.

 In the Gadaa system, political power is transferred from one generation set to
other every eight years.

 Gadaa officials such as the Abba Gada and Abba Seera (father of law) serve for
eight years and leave their position to the new generation of Gadaa officials.

 The law making process has rooms for wider participation of the people.

 Gumi gaayo, a law making assembly of the Borana Oromo and yaa’ii haraa, an
equivalent of gumi gaayo among waliso oromo, are a good example that held
every eight years to revising, adapting, making and publicizing the customary
law

 The indigenous system of governance among the Oromo also include

institutions of conflict resolution such as the Jaarsa Biyyaa (literally: elders
 The Gedeo Baalle
The Gedeo of southern Ethiopia have an indigenous system of governance called
Baalle.

The similarities of Baalle and the Gaada system

Both have grading system and exercise periodic transfer of power (every eight years).
The role of religion is high in the two indigenous systems of governance.

law of the Gedeo is called Seera. The Ya’a, the general assembly, is the highest body of
the Gedeo indigenous system of governance.

The Abba Gada is the leader of the Baalle. The Baalle system has a body of laws called
Seera.
In general, the Gedeo system of governance has the following major institutions:
1. The ya’a (general assembly),
2. The Seera (customary law),
3. The Abba Gada, and council of elders
 Dere Woga of the Gamo
 Gamo did not have a centralized political system.

 Gamo people were organized into several local administrations locally known
as deres.

 The highest body of the indigenous governance is the dere dubusha,

It has the responsibility:

to make and revise customary laws,
to resolve major disputes that cannot be solved at the lower levels.

 The Gamo indigenous system of governance embraces the dere woga

(customary law) and the dubusha assemblies.

 It is believed that telling a lie and hiding the truth, especially at dubusha
assemblies, are considered as violation of taboo, which would lead to spiritual
pollution and then leads to misfortunes including lack of fertility, illness, and
 6.2 Intra-ethnic conflict resolution institutions
 Conflicts and disputes exist in every society and community.

 Conflicts may arise between individuals, groups and communities within the
same ethnic group.

 In some cases conflicts may involve groups from different ethnic background.

 Peoples across Ethiopian regions have indigenous institutions and mechanisms of

conflict resolution and peacemaking.

 These institutions are parts and parcel of indigenous systems of governance.

 There are different indigenous institutions of conflict resolution and peacemaking

across regions and cultures in Ethiopia.

 They are known as: customary dispute resolution mechanisms; traditional

mechanisms of conflict resolution; grassroots justice systems; and customary
 Common aspects of Indigenous Justices Institutions

 High involvement of elders at different stages of conflict resolution and

peacemaking process.

 Preference and respect for elders known for their qualities including
experience in dispute resolution;
 knowledge of customary laws, procedures, norms and values of the society;
impartiality/neutrality,
 Respect for rules and people; the ability of listening and speaking politely;
honesty and tolerance.

 Indigenous dispute resolution practices focus on restoring social

relationships, harmony, and peaceful coexistence.
Indigenous justice systems also have differences in terms of hierarchies,
procedures and level of complexities. For example,

 In some cultural settings, conflict resolution mechanisms involve several

hierarchies and complicated procedures;

 The compositions and responsibilities of council of elders also vary from

society to society.

For example, different types of elders address different forms of disputes in

some cultural settings; whereas the same body of elders deal with various
types of disputes in other settings.

customary justice institutions include three major components.

1. customary laws,
2. council of elders, and
3.customary courts or assemblies.
 Customary law:

 It refers to a body of rules, norms, and a set of moral values that serve as a wider
framework for human conduct and social interactions.

 The Sera of the Sidama, the dere woga of the Gamo, the Seera Aadaa of the Oromo; Ye
Siltie Serra of the Siltie, Gordena Sera of Kestane Gurage are examples of customary
laws.

 In most cases, customary laws are available orally.

Council of elders:

 It is the second important institution of customary justice systems. The council of elders
embraces highly respected and well-experienced community members who have detail
knowledge of the customary laws.

 Members of the elder’s council are also known for their personal qualities such as
truthfulness and experience in settling conflicts.
  The institution of council of elders has different names in various ethnic groups:
Yehager Shimagile (Amhara), Jaarsaa Biyyaa (Oromo), Baliqenet (Siltie), Hayyicha
(Gedeo), Guurtii (Somali), Dere Cima (Gamo), Deira Cimma (Wolayita), and
Cimuma (Burji).

 Customary courts are public assemblies that serve two major purposes:

(a) hearing, discussing and settling disputes, and

(b) Revising, adapting, and making laws

 The three structures of Gamo customary justice system

The Dere Woga: It is a comprehensive body of rules and procedures that govern a wide
range of issues like:

 Inheritance,
 Property ownership,
 Marriage and divorce,
 Conflict resolution and gender division of labour.

The Dere Cima: Literally, dere cima means elders of the land/country.
 notable and respected elders experienced in resolving disputes.
 Elders serving in dispute resolution are expected to have a sound knowledge of the
customary laws, norms and values of the community.

Dubusha:
 It is customary courts.
 Dere dubusha, the biggest customary court in a given Gamo community,
It has two major functions:
(a) hearing, discussing and resolving disputes, and
(b) revising and making laws.
 Strengths and limitations of customary justice systems/institutions

Strengths of customary justice institutions

 Time and resources/money effectives; elders do not request payment for their
services; fines/penalities and compensation are relatively small;

 held in public spaces in the community; different parties (victims, offenders and
community members) participate in the process; decisions are communicated in
public;

 Decisions are easily enforced through community-based sanctions including

social exclusion; compliance ensured through blessings and the threat of curses;

 Aimed at restoring community cohesion, social relations, collective spirit and

social solidarity rather than revenge.

 Rely on respect for elders, the tradition of forgiveness, transferring

compensations, embedded in indigenous beliefs.
 Limitations of customary justice institutions
•Limitations related to protecting and safeguarding women’s rights. Indigenous
justice institutions are dominated by men. For example, the council of elders are not
open to elderly women. Women are excluded from participation at customary courts
and assemblies with a few exceptions.

•Indigenous institutions effective to resolve dispute and restore peace within the same
ethnic group

• Their potential in resolving inter-ethnic conflicts and restoring long-lasting peace

is very limited.
 6.3 .Inter-ethnic conflict resolution
 institutions
Abbo Gereb is one of the indigenous institutions that address inter-ethnic
conflicts. It is a dispute resolution institution in Rayya and Wajirat district,
Southern Tigray. Abbo Gereb, literally means the father of the river Gerewo.

 Abbo Gereb serves to settle disputes between individuals or groups from

highland Tigray and lowland Afar. Conflict between the two groups often arise
because of dispute over grazing land or water resources, particularly in dry
season. When conflict arises between parties from two ethnic groups, notable
elders from Tigray and Afar come together to resolve the dispute and restore
peaceful relations.
 Most of the elders involved in inter-ethnic conflict resolutions are bilingual:

The mechanisms of inter-ethnic disputes have different names.

 It is called Xinto among the Afar,

 Edible among the Issa,

 Gereb among the Tigrayans, and

 Aboroge among the Amhara

6.4 Women’s role in conflict resolution and
peacemaking
 Ethiopian women participate in the process of dispute settlement in
exceptional cases. For example when cases are related to marriage and
women’s issues.

 In some societies, women use their own institutions to exercise power,

protect their rights, and actively participate in peacemaking activities.

 In most cases, indigenous institutions of conflict resolution are dominated

by men. This does not mean that women are completely excluded from
conflict resolution and peacemaking activities.
 Women’s peacemaking sticks
Sidama women have two instruments of power:

 The Yakka :The Yakka is women’s association or unity group.

 The Siqqo The Siqqo is a stick that symbolizes peace and women honor.
The Siqqo and the Yakka are closely associated. Mobilizing the Yakka and
holding the Siqqo, Sidama women stand for their customary rights.

They do this, for example, when a woman is beaten up by her husband or a

pregnant woman is mistreated and if a woman is ill-treated by her husband
 Sidama women also use their Siqqo to make peace between quarrelling

parties.

Oromo women also have a peace stick called Sinqee. Sinqee serves the
purpose of protecting women’s rights and making peace. Quarrelling men
stop fighting when a woman stands between them holding her Sinqee.
 Don Kachel: Agnuak women peacemaking institution
 Women in many regions of Ethiopia play an important role in peacemaking.
Agnuak women have a peacemaking institution known as Don Kachel

 Literally, Don Kachel means ‘let us all live in peace’.

 It involves a peace-making movement initiated by Jaye, a group of wise and

elderly Agnuak women.

 The Jaye start a peace-making movement based on information gathered

through women’s networking.
 Women’s institution of reconciliation: Raya-
Azebo, Tigray
 Elderly and highly respected women in a village in Raya-Azebo,
Tigray established a reconciliation institution called the Debarte.

 The Debarte plays an important role in avoiding harms associated

with the culture of revenge in case of a man may kill another man in a
fight.
 6.5 Legal pluralism: interrelations between
customary, religious and state legal systems
 Legal pluralism is an important concept in disciplines that study legal issues.

 It refers to the existence of two or more legal or justice systems in a given

society or country.

 Legal pluralism indicates the co-existence of multiple legal systems working

side-by-side in the same society.

 The existence of multiple ethnic groups in Ethiopia has not only made the
country home to diverse cultures

but also, a place of diverse legal systems. Multiple legal institutions, including:
customary laws and courts,
state laws and courts, and
 Legal pluralism cont’d
 Legal pluralism is a pervasive phenomenon in Ethiopia. This is
because a single legal system does not have a capability to address all
legal cases and maintaining peace and order.
Unit Seven
Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices

 IKS is an integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs and behavior. It consists

of language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques,
artifacts, rituals, ceremonies, folklores and gender.

 It is a body of empirical knowledge and beliefs handed down through generations

of long-time inhabitants of a specific locale, by cultural transmission,
 7.1.2. Indigenous Knowledge
 indigenous knowledge is the local knowledge: knowledge that is unique to a given culture or
society.

 IK contrasts with the international knowledge system generated by universities, research

institutions and private firms.

 It is the basis for local-level decision making in:

agriculture and health care,
food preparation and education,
natural-resource management, and a host of other activities in rural communities.

IK exists in rural and urban societies as part of life that their livelihood depends on specific skills
and knowledge for survival.

WB refers IK as:
as a large body of knowledge and skills which is developed outside the formal system including
development planning,
environmental assessment,
resource management,
local conservation of biological resources, and conflict resolution
 Indigenous Knowledge cont’d
IK known by different names:

 'folk knowledge‘ and 'local knowledge

 'non-formal knowledge', 'culture‘ and 'indigenous technical knowledge',

 'traditional ecological knowledge', 'traditional knowledge', and others.

In sum, indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that people in a given community

have developed over time, and that continues to develop. It is based on experience,
 7.1.3. Special Features of Indigenous Knowledge
 Local,
 Tacit
 Transmitted orally
 Experiential rather than theoretical knowledge.
 Learned through repetition
 Constantly changing
 7.2 Significance of indigenous knowledge
 Indigenous knowledge is important in that people in a community value whatever
resource they get from the environment through sustainable production systems.

 The knowledge of local people is an enabling component of development.

 Indigenous knowledge system enable people to develop strategies for handling

household and communal activities (Mangetane et al. 2001).

 Over the years, IKS authorities (elders) make local rules to protect important
resources such as useful plants, water bodies, stone terracing, agro-forestry,
watersheds and rivers, food preservations, conflict management, calendar,
fallowing as a soil regeneration practice, etc.
 Cont’d…..
 indigenous / local knowledge can help find the best solution to a development
challenges. E.g familiarity with local knowledge can help extentionists and
researchers understand and communicate better with local people (Puffer Paula,
1995).

 not all indigenous practices are beneficial to the sustainable dev.t of a local
community; and not all IK can a priori provide the right solution for a given
problem. slash and burn agriculture and female circumcision are typical examples.
 7.3. Indigenous knowledge and development

 ''IK is relevant to development process such as agriculture, animal husbandry,

traditional medicine, saving and credit, community development, poverty
alleviation, and peaceful coexistence'' ( Boven and Morohashi, 2002).

 Ik may help identify cost-effective and sustainable mechanisms for poverty

alleviation that are locally manageable and meaningful

 indigenous institutions, indigenous technology, and low-cost approaches can

increase the efficiency of development programs, because IK is a locally owned
and managed resource (Nicolas (2000).
 Cont’d…….
 Utilizing IK helps to increase the sustainability of development efforts

 Utilizing IK helps to increase the sustainability of development efforts because the

IK integration process provides for mutual learning and adaptation, which in turn
contributes to the empowerment of local communities.

 In sum, indigenous knowledge is the knowledge that helps a society make

decisions about activities, such as agriculture and education, that are acceptable to
their life ways.
 7.4. Preservation, challenges and limitations of IK
 The future of IK, that reflects many generations of experience and problem solving
by thousands of indigenous people across the globe, is uncertain (Warren, 2004).

 The rapid change in the way of life of local communities has largely accounted for
the loss of IK. Younger generations underestimate the utility of IK systems because
of the influence of modem technology and education (Ulluwishewa, 1999).

 If IK is not recorded and preserved, it may be lost and remain inaccessible to local
people as well as to development workers.

 As IK is the key to local-level development, ignoring people’s knowledge leads

possibly to failure.