Gamma ray

Fig. 1. The gamma ray log and spectral gamma ray log: some typical responses. The gamma ray
log shows natural radioactivity. The spectral gamma ray log gives the abundance of the
naturally radioactive elements, thorium, Th and uranium, U in parts per million (ppm)
and
potassium, K in %. F=feldspar, M=mica, *=glauconite.
Gamma ray
• The gamma ray log is a record of a formation’s radioactivity.
radioactivity
• The radiation emanates from naturally-occurring uranium, thorium and potassium.
• The simple gamma ray log gives the radioactivity of the three elements combined,
while the spectral gamma ray log shows the amount of each individual element
contributing to this radioactivity.
• The geological significance of radioactivity lies in the distribution of these three
elements.
• Most rocks are radioactive to some degree, igneous and metamorphic rocks more
so than sediments.
• However, amongst the sediments, shales have by far the strongest radiation.
• It is for this reason that the simple gamma ray log has been called the ‘shale log’.
log
• However note that not all shales are radioactive, and all that is radioactive is not
necessarily shale (Fig. 1).
Gamma ray - Principal uses

• The gamma ray log is still principally used quantitatively to derive shale volume.

• Qualitatively in its simple form, it can be used to correlate, to suggest facies and
sequences, and to identify lithology (shalyness).

• The spectral gamma ray can be used additionally to derive a quantitative radioactive
mineral volume and a more accurate shale volume.

• Qualitatively it can indicate dominant clay mineral types, give indications of

depositional environment, indicate fractures and help- to localize source rocks
Gamma ray - Principal uses

• The gamma ray log is still principally used quantitatively to derive shale volume.

• Qualitatively in its simple form, it can be used to correlate, to suggest facies and
sequences, and to identify lithology (shalyness).

• The spectral gamma ray can be used additionally to derive a quantitative radioactive
mineral volume and a more accurate shale volume.

• Qualitatively it can indicate dominant clay mineral types, give indications of

depositional environment, indicate fractures and help- to localize source rocks
Gamma ray - Natural gamma radiation

• Natural radiation in rocks comes essentially from only three elemental sources: the
radioactive elements of the thorium family, of the uranium-radium family and of the
radioactive isotope of potassium 40K.

• Quantitatively, potassium is by far the most abundant of the three elements (Table 2),
but its contribution to the overall radioactivity in relation to its weight is small.

• In reality, the contribution to the overall radioactivity of the three elements is of the
same order of magnitude, the abundance seeming to be the inverse of the
contribution in energy: a small quantity of uranium has a large effect on the
radioactivity, a large quantity of potassium a small effect.
Gamma ray - Natural gamma radiation

Table 2. Abundance and relative radiation activity of the natural radioactive elements.
Gamma ray - Natural gamma radiation
• Each of the three sources emits gamma rays spontaneously: they emit photons with
no mass and no charge but great energy (this being the definition of gamma ray).
ray

• One of the characteristics of gamma rays is that when they pass through any material
their energy is progressively absorbed.

• The effect is known as Compton scattering,

scattering and is due to the collision between gamma
rays and electrons which produces a degrading (lowering) of energy (Fig. 2).

• The higher the common density through which the gamma rays pass, the more rapid
the degradation or loss of energy (in reality it depends on the material’s electron
density, which is very similar to common density).

• In borehole logging, when radiations are observed by the tool, they have already
passed through the formation and probably also the drilling mud, both of which cause
Compton scattering.
Gamma ray - Natural gamma radiation

Fig. 2. Schematic drawing of the Compton scattering of gamma rays. The effect is more
marked
in denser matter.
Gamma ray - Natural gamma radiation
•Thus the discrete energy levels at which
gamma rays are emitted become
degraded, and a continuous spectrum
of values is observed (Fig. 3).
• When each of the radioactive minerals
is present, their radiations become
mixed and the resulting spectrum is
very complex.
• However, it will still contain diagnostic
peaks (Fig. 3), which can be used to
identify the original source of radiation.
• This is the principle used in the spectral
gamma ray tool.

Fig. 3. Complex spectrum observed from a radioactive

source containing potassium, thorium and uranium,
after Compton scattering.
Gamma ray - Log characteristics
Calibration, log presentation, units and scales.

Simple gamma ray log –

• Accepted unit for radioactivity logging is the API (American Petroleum Institute) unit
– defined in a reference well in the grounds of the University of Houston, Texas.

• The simple gamma ray log is usually recorded in track 1 along with the caliper.
• Scales are chosen locally, but 0-100 or 0-150 API are common (Fig. 4A).
• The tool is small and can be combined with practically any other tool.
Gamma ray - Log characteristics

Fig. 4. Typical gamma ray and spectral gamma ray log headings.
Gamma ray - Log characteristics
Spectral gamma ray log –
• Essential results of spectral gamma ray tool are elemental abundances.

• There are several common presentation formats for the gamma ray spectral log.
• The simplest and probably best, is a straightforward plot of elemental abundances
across tracks 2 and 3 on arithmetic scales (Fig. 4B).
• Track 1 of this (Schlumberger) presentation shows two curves, the CGR and the
SGR.
• The SGR = standard gamma ray is the total contribution of the three elements in
API units.
Gamma ray - Log characteristics
Spectral gamma ray log –

• It is the same as the simple gamma ray log, but re-constructed from the elemental
values plotted on tracks 2 and 3.
• To arrive at these values the following multipliers are used: 1 ppm U = 8.09 API
units, 1 ppm Th = 3.93 API units, 1% K = 16.32 API units.
• Thus 3 ppm of uranium in a mix contributes 24.27 API units, and so on.
• The SGR is therefore the sum of these API contributions (and can be remembered as
the Sum Gamma Ray).
• The CGR = computed gamma ray curve represents the contributions of only the
thorium and potassium in API units.
• Hence the difference between the SGR and the CGR is the contribution, in API units,
of uranium.
• The CGR is considered to be an improved clay volume indicator to the total (SGR)
API count (and can be remembered as the Clay Gamma Ray).
Gamma ray - Depth of investigation
• The depth from which radiation can be detected by the simple gamma ray tool is
generally small but difficult to be precise about.
• However as a rough guide the volume of investigation can be considered to be
approximately 20 cm vertically above and below the detector (along the borehole)
and 10 cm radially (Fig. 5A).
• Because of Compton scattering this volume will vary with formation density: it will be
smaller in dense formations (Fig. 5B).
• Moreover, readings will be commonly smeared, since the presented gamma ray log
value is generally an average of three contiguous raw values.
• The simple gamma ray sonde can be combined in many tools; it is run both centred in
the borehole (sonic and resistivity tools) or against the borehole wall, that is
eccentred (density and neutron tools).
• Because of Compton scattering in the drilling mud, the log made against the borehole
wall with direct contact to the formation, will always show a higher reading and
higher amplitude than the borehole centred version immersed in the mud (Fig. 6).
Gamma ray - Depth of investigation

Fig. 5. Depth of investigation of the gamma ray tool.

(A) average volume from which radiation are
detected.
(B) depth of investigation shown to be dependent
on formation density. Investigation is less in dense
formations.
Gamma ray - Depth of investigation

Fig. 6. Comparison of a gamma ray log from

a hole centred tool (DLL-MSFL-GR
logged at 10m/min) and an eccentred
tool (LDL-CNL-GR logged at 4m/min).
The eccentred tool shows higher
values and greater sensitivity.
Gamma ray - Logging speed
• Because gamma radiations are discrete events and are measured in the gamma ray
tools by ‘counting’, there are restrictions on logging speeds.
• Radiations are counted by the tool over a fixed period of time called the time
constant.
• Because the number of individual emissions is not high, to have as large a count as
possible, the time constant should be long.
• However, since a borehole tool is constantly moving, too long a time- constant will
blur bed boundaries and mix several lithologies.
• With a rapidly moving tool, the rock being ‘counted’ at the beginning of a long time-
constant will not be the same as the rock being ‘counted’ at the end.
• In practical terms, the compromise is that the simple gamma ray tool should not travel
more than 30 cm in the time constant.
• As an example, Schlumberger uses a time-constant of 4 seconds, a logging speed of
275 m/hr, during which period a formation logged is 30.5 cm.
Gamma ray - Logging speed

• However, even following these constraints,

gamma ray log repeatability in the minor
variations is poor (Fig. 7).
• This is caused by a combination of the logging
method, the computing method and the natural
statistical variation of gamma ray emissions.
• It is good practice to run a repeat section with
every spectral log so that the variability can be
judged.
• Moreover, interpretation methods must take
the quantitative level of variability into
account.

Fig. 7. Repeatability of the spectral gamma ray. Precise

repeatability is generally poor but it should be noted
that the quantities being detected are very small.
Gamma ray - Unwanted borehole effects
Simple gamma ray -
• The simple gamma ray log is relatively unaffected by small-scale borehole
irregularities, but is affected by large caves (Table 4).
• The effect is due to the increased volume of drilling mud between the formation and
the gamma ray detector which causes increased Compton scattering and a
consequent
diminution in the gamma ray log value.
• Most logging companies publish charts to correct for borehole size with mud weight
consideration.
• A quite different effect is caused by the use of the radioactive mud additive KCl.
Potassium radioactivity of the KCl is detected by the gamma ray tool and the usual
result is a marked increase in the absolute values (Fig. 8).
• It is sometimes proposed that this is simply a ‘base line shift’, because the mud
volume through the hole is relatively constant so there will only be a constant
increase in the background: relative amplitude changes will remain unaffected.
• This is not always the case especially so when there is invasion and KCl- rich mud
enters into the formation.
• Such a situation will cause an invaded reservoir to show too high a gamma
ray reading.
Gamma ray - Unwanted borehole effects
Table 4. Unwanted
Environmental effects
– gamma ray logs.
Gamma ray - Unwanted borehole effects

Fig. 8. The effect of KCl in the drilling mud on gamma ray values. Well1, with ordinary mud,
well 2 with KCl mud. The formation values should be the same. , is the difference
created by the KCl content. The wells are 3 km apart.
Gamma ray
- Radioactivity of shales and clays
• In borehole logging, the commonest natural radioactivity (by volume) is found in
shales (clays).
• A high gamma ray value frequently means shale.
• A typical shale analysed by a spectral gamma ray tool shows that each of the three
elements, U, Th, and K, is contributing (Fig. 9) and an analysis of shales in general
shows the relative contribution of each element to the overall radioactivity as
follows:
Uranium 29%
Thorium 42%
Potassium 29%

• The behaviour of the individual radioactive elements in clay minerals is so very

different.
Gamma ray
- Radioactivity of shales and clays

Fig. 9. A typical shale interval analysed by a spectral gamma ray tool. The log shows the
individual contributions of thorium, potassium and uranium to the overall radioactivity.
Gamma ray
- Radioactivity of shales and clays
•Potassium is a moderately good ‘shale indicator’.
• However, potassium occurs in detrital minerals such as feldspars as well as in clay
minerals, so that in sand-shale mixtures, potassium may occur in both the shales and
the sands and cannot alone be used as a shale indicator.
• Uranium distribution is very irregular because its affinity is to secondary components
and not the main rock forming minerals.
• Thus, in the average shale it may contribute only 10% - 30% of the total radioactivity,
but in certain cases this can increase dramatically.
• Since its distribution is not related to shale volume, uranium is a poor ‘shale
indicator’.
• For this reason, on spectral gamma ray logs, a curve is plotted without the uranium
content (the CGR) to give a better clay volume estimate (Fig. 4).
Gamma ray
- Radioactivity of shales and clays

• The behaviour of thorium in shales is not fully understood.

• Experience shows that despite its varying content in clay mineral species, it has a
constant value in almost all naturally occurring shales.

• Considering therefore the constant average value and the high percentage
contribution to the overall radioactivity, thorium is a very good ‘shale indicator’.

• In mixtures of sand and shale, thorium will occur only in the shale fraction (except in
rare occurrences).

• To summarize: as shale indicators, thorium, may be used in most cases, potassium

may be used in many cases but uranium should not be used at all.

• This obviously has implications for the simple gamma ray log: it is not necessarily a
good ‘shale indicator’.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

• If the scale is considered to be linear, any value (GR) of the gamma ray log will give the
volume of shale from the simple calculation

• Generally the value is not very accurate and tends to give an upper limit to the
volume of shale (Vsh). Moreover, there is no scientific basis for assuming that the
relationship between gamma ray value and shale volume should be linear.
• Thus a modification of the simple linear relationship used above has been proposed
as a result of empirical correlation.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

10
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

• The relationship changes between

younger (unconsolidated) rocks and
older (consolidated) rocks (Fig. 10).

Fig. 10. Graphical representation of the relationship

between relative gamma ray deflection
and shale volume.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use
Lithology
• As a first indicator of lithology, the gamma ray log is extremely useful as it suggests
where shale may be expected (Fig. 1).
• Moreover, as shown above, the higher the gamma ray value the higher percentage of
shale (Fig. 11). But the log is only a first indicator.
• Radioactivity of some other lithologies shows that any lithology indicated
by the simple gamma ray log must be confirmed by other logs.

Radioactivity of sandstones
• Quartz, the principal component of the coarse-grained detrital rocks, shows no
radioactivity. Sandstone consequently usually show low gamma ray values (Fig 1).
• However, associated detrital minerals are radioactive.
• The most common of these are feldspar, micas, heavy minerals and lithic fragments.
• These all cause sandstones to have high to moderate gamma ray values.
• There are many examples of radioactive sandstone (e.g. Fig. 11).
• Placer silts (concentration of heavy minerals) are frequently radioactive producing a
spiky aspect to the gamma ray log (Fig. 12).
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

Fig. 11. Radioactive sand, the ‘mica sands’ of the North Sea Jurassic. They are fine-grained
shallow marine sandstones with perhaps 20% clay but 15-30% mica, mainly muscovite,
which causes the radioactivity.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

Fig. 12. Heavy mineral concentrations (placer deposits) causing a spiky gamma ray log.
Shales have lower gamma ray values than the heavy mineral deposits.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

Coal and organic rich shale (source rock) radioactivity

• The relationship between organic matter and uranium enrichment is the basis for
being able to identify organic rich shales (source rocks) using the gamma ray log.

• In practice, although high gamma ray values often correspond to rich organic matter
(source rock intervals) (Fig. 13), such intervals do not always have a high gamma ray.
• Coals have low gamma ray values (Fig. 14).
• The contrast in this response between pure coals and organic shales is remarkable,
especially when, in typical cyclic deltaic sequences, a low gamma ray coal is
immediately overlain by a high gamma ray , organic-rich shale (Fig. 14).
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

Fig. 13. High organic carbon values and the total gamma ray giving good correlation, in this
case due to uranium associated with high organic matter.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use

Fig. 14. Gamma ray characteristics of coal (very low values) and organic rich shale (high
values)
in a deltaic sequence.
Gamma ray - Quantitative use
Facies and Grain Size
• An interesting and fairly comprehensive scheme for facies identification in detrital
sediments (sand-shale) has been developed using gamma ray log shapes.
• The basis for the scheme is the relationship between grain size and shale content. It is
shale content that the gamma ray log indicates, but it is interpreted in terms of grain
size.
• For example, a coarse grained sand will have a very low shale content, a medium-
grained sand some shale, and a fine-grained sand may be very shaly.
• The changes in grain size will be followed by changes in gamma ray value.
• This method of indicating facies with the gamma ray log, however, is not
straight forward.
• The relationship between grain size and shale content is very variable.
• Empirically, if the gamma ray log shows a typical shape it can be taken as indicating
grain-size changes.
• A lack of shape is not evidence for lack of grain-size change since it cannot be
interpreted.