Chapter two Governments, Systems and Regimes

By solomon assefa 2023

Classifying the various forms of government has been one of the principal concerns of political
analysis through the ages

•What is the difference between governments, political systems and regimes?

•What is the purpose of classifying systems of government? On what basis have, and should, regimes
be classified?
•What are the major regimes of the modern world?
•Has western liberal democracy triumphed worldwide?
What is government
•Government in its broadest sense, refers to any mechanism through which ordered rule is
maintained, the ability to make collective decisions and the capacity to enforce them.

• The core functions of government are, thus, to make law (legislation), implement law (execution)
and interpret law (adjudication).
What is political system
•Political system: A network of relationships through which government generates 'outputs' (policies) in
response to 'inputs' (demands or support) from the general public.
•A political system is, in effect, a subsystem of the larger social system.
•It is a 'system', in that there are interrelationships within a complex whole; and 'political', in that these
interrelationships relate to the distribution of power, wealth and resources in society.
•Political regimes can thus be characterized as effectively by the organization of economic life as they
are by the governmental processes through which they operate.
Con
•A regime is a 'system of rule' that endures despite the fact that governments come and go.
•Whereas governments can be changed by elections, through dynastic succession, as a result of
coups d'état, and so on, regimes can be changed only by military intervention from without, or by
some kind of revolutionary upheaval from within.
Why classify political systems

•First, classification is an essential aid to the understanding of politics and government.

•The second purpose of classification is to facilitate evaluation, rather than analysis
Classical typologies

•devised by Aristotle in the fourth century BCE, which was based on his analysis of the 158 Greek city-
states.
•Aristotle held that governments could be categorized on the basis of two questions: 'Who rules?', and
'Who benefits from rule?
•In each case, however, government could be conducted either in the selfish interests of the rulers, or
for the benefit of the entire community. He identified the six forms of government.
con
•In his view, tyranny, oligarchy and democracy were all debased or perverted forms of rule in which a
single person, a small group and the masses, respectively, governed in their own interests and,
therefore, at the expense of others.
• In contrast, monarchy, aristocracy and polity were to be preferred, because in these forms of
government the individual, small group and the masses, respectively, governed in the interests of
all.
con
•Aristotle declared tyranny to be the worst of all possible constitutions, as it reduced citizens to the
status of slaves.
•Monarchy and aristocracy were, on the One person The few, The many Rulers Who benefits All
• because they were based on a God-like willingness to place the good of the community before the
rulers' own interests.
• Polity (rule by the many in the interests of all) was accepted as the most practicable of constitutions.
• Nevertheless, in a tradition that endured through to the twentieth century, Aristotle criticized popular
rule on the grounds that the masses would resent the wealth of the few, and too easily fall under the
sway of a demagogue.
con
•He therefore advocated a 'mixed' constitution that combined elements of both democracy and
aristocracy, and left the government in the hands of the 'middle classes', those who were neither rich
nor poor.
• Demagogue: A political leader whose control over the masses is based on the ability to whip up
hysterical enthusiasm.
con
•The 'classical' classification of regimes came to an end in the introduction of the constitutional
republicanism established in the USA following the American War of Independence of 1775–83,
•the democratic radicalism unleashed in France by the 1789 French Revolution, and
•the form of parliamentary government that gradually emerged in the UK created political realities that
were substantially more complex than early thinkers had envisaged.
•Traditional systems of classification were therefore displaced by a growing emphasis on the
constitutional and institutional features of political rule.
•Thus, monarchies were distinguished from republics, parliamentary government was distinguished
from presidential government and unitary systems were distinguished from federal systems.
con
•Republicanism: The principle that political authority stems ultimately from the consent of the people;
the rejection of monarchical and dynastic principles.
The beginning of 20 century world was divided into two kinds of regime: democratic states and
totalitarian states

• What is democracy?
• What is totalitarianism?
• Polyarchy (literally, 'rule by many') refers, generally, to the institutions and political processes of
modern representative democracy.
• Polyarchy can be understood as a rough or crude approximation of democracy, in that it operates
through institutions that force rulers to take account of the public's wishes.
• Its central features are (Dahl, 1989): (1) government is based on election; (2) elections are free and
fair;
• (3) practically all adults have the right to vote; (4) the right to run for office is unrestricted;
• (5) there is free expression and a right to criticize and protest; (6) citizens have access to alternative
sources of information; and (7) groups and associations enjoy at least relative independence from
government.
con
•A liberal democratic state is a political regime in which a 'liberal' commitment to limited government is
blended with a 'democratic' belief in popular rule.
•Its key features are: (1) the right to rule is gained through success in regular and competitive
elections, based on universal adult suffrage;
•(2) constraints on government imposed by a constitution, institutional checks and balances, and
protections for individual and minority rights; and
•(3) a vigorous civil society including a private enterprise economy, independent trade unions and a
free press.
•The terms liberal democracy and pluralist democracy are often used interchangeably.
What is totalitarianism and
totalitarian state?
•Totalitarianism is an all-encompassing system of political rule, typically established by pervasive
ideological manipulation and open terror.
•Totalitarianism differs from autocracy and authoritarianism, in that it seeks to politicize every aspect of
social and personal existence, rather than just suppress political opposition.
•Totalitarian regimes are sometimes identified through a 'sixpoint syndrome' (Friedrich and Brzezinski,
1963): (1) an official ideology; (2) a one-party state, usually led by an all-powerful leader;
•(3) a system of terroristic policing; (4) a monopoly of the means of mass communication;
•(5) a monopoly of the means of armed combat; and (6) state control of all aspects of economic life.
con
•Authoritarianism is a belief in, or practice of, government 'from above', in which authority is exercised
regardless of popular consent.
•Authoritarianism thus differs from authority, as the latter rests on legitimacy, and so arises 'from
below'. Authoritarian regimes emphazise the claims of authority over those of individual liberty.
•However, authoritarianism is usually distinguished from totalitarianism. Authoritarianism, associated
with monarchical absolutism, traditional dictatorships, and most forms of military rule, seeks to exclude
the masses from politics rather than abolish civil society.
What is absolutism?
•Absolutism is the theory or practice of absolute government, most commonly associated with an
absolute monarchy.
•Government is 'absolute', in the sense that it possesses unfettered power:
•government cannot be constrained by a body external to itself.
•The absolutist principle, nevertheless, resides in the claim to an unlimited right to rule (as in divine
right), rather than the exercise of unchallengeable power. As it is based on a principled claim, whether
religious or rational, absolutism does not invest government with arbitrary power.
What is dictatorship?
•A dictatorship is, a form of rule in which absolute power is vested in one individual; in this sense,
dictatorship is synonymous with autocracy.
•Dictators are thus seen as being above the law and as acting beyond constitutional constraints.
•Early examples of dictators were Sulla, Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar in Rome, more recent
ones are Hitler, Mussolini and Saddam Hussein.
•More generally, dictatorship is characterized by the arbitrary and unchecked exercise of power,
•We classified dictatorship’, in saying, 'party dictatorship', 'military dictatorship' and 'personal
dictatorship’.
con
•In the secund have of 20 century, our world again divided in to 3 a capitalist 'first world' a communist
'second world' a developing 'third world'.
•The three-worlds classification had economic, ideological, political and strategic dimensions
•From economic perspective, the capitalists world, In 1983, these countries generated 63 per cent of
the world's gross domestic product (GDP) with having only 15 per cent of the world's population
(World Bank, 1985).
•Communist regimes produced 19 per cent of the world's GDP with 33 per cent of the world's
population.
•The less-developed countries of Africa, Asia and Latin America were produced 18 per cent of the
world's GDP with 52 per cent of the world's population.
•Ideologically, The first world was wedded to 'capitalist' principles, such as the desirability of private
enterprise, material incentives and the free market,
•politically practiced liberal-democratic politics based on a competitive struggle for power at election
time,
• the second world was committed to 'communist' values such as social equality, collective endeavor,
and the need for centralized planning,
• politically one-party states, dominated by 'ruling' communist parties.
• Third world regimes were typically authoritarian, and governed by traditional monarchs, dictators or,
simply, the army.
• The three-worlds classification was underpinned by a bipolar world order, in which a USA-
dominated West confronted a USSR-dominated East.
•however, the 3 classification of regime ended 1989-91.
•Francis Fukuyama (see p. 271) proclaim that the 'end of history. He meant by this that ideological
debate had effectively ended with the worldwide triumph of western liberal democracy.
•second-world and third-world regimes were collapsing as a result of the recognition that only the
capitalist first world offered the prospect of economic prosperity and political stability.
REGIMES OF THE MODERN WORLD

•five regime types can be identified in the modern world:

•this are western polyarchies new democracies East Asian regimes, Islamic regimes and military
regimes.
Western polyarchies

•Western polyarchies are broadly equivalent to regimes categorized as 'liberal democracies', or even
simply 'democracies'. Their heartlands are North America, western Europe and Australia.
con
•The basic characteristics are, a relatively high tolerance of opposition. guaranteed in practice for
competitive party system.
•widespread acceptance of liberal individualism. institutionally guaranteed and protected civil liberties,
•and by a vigorous and healthy civil society. the opportunities for participating in politics should be
sufficiently widespread to guarantee a reliable level of popular responsiveness.
•The crucial factor here is the existence of regular and competitive elections operating as a device
through which the people can control and, if necessary, displace their rulers.
2tipe of democracy that exercised in
western polyarchy or democracy
•majority' democracies and 'consensus' democracies.
•Majority democracies are organized along parliamentary lines according to the so-called 'Westminster
model.
•Majoritarian tendencies are associated with any, or all, of the following features:
con
•single-party government
•a fusion of powers between the executive and the assembly an assembly that is either unicameral or
weakly bicameral
•a two-party system a single-member plurality, or first-past-the-post, electoral system.
•unitary and centralized government
•an uncodified constitution and a sovereign assembly.
•Work in homogeneous society.eg Ethiopia unicameral state
consociational democracy

•a system of consociational democracy has developed that is particularly appropriate to societies that
are divided by deep religious, ideological, regional, cultural or other differences.
•Consensual or pluralistic tendencies are often associated with the following features.
con
•coalition government. a separation of powers between the executive and the assembly
•an effective bicameral system a multiparty system proportional representation.
•Federalism. or devolution a codified constitution and a bill of rights.
•Work in heterogeneous society.eg america
New democracies Regimes

•New democracies: Regimes in which the process of democratic consolidation is incomplete.

•characterized by the adoption of multiparty elections and market-based economic reforms.
•New democracies not only lack developed democratic political cultures, they also have to handle the
strains produced by the external forces of globalization, as well as rapid internal change.
•The most dramatic evidence of their vulnerability is the re-emergence of the armed forces into
politics.
East Asian regimes

•The main principle are social harmony, respect for authority and a belief in the family.
•First they are orientated more economic goals than political ones. Their overriding priority is to boost
growth and deliver prosperity, rather than to enlarge individual freedom in the western sense of civil
liberty.
con
•Second, there is broad support for 'strong' government. Powerful 'ruling' parties tend to be tolerated,
•and there is general respect for the state. there is general acceptance that the state as a 'father
figure' should guide the decisions of private as well as public bodies, and draw up strategies for
national development.
•third, they support by a general disposition to respect leaders because of the Confucian stress on
loyalty, discipline and duty.
Islamic regimes

•The rise of Islam as a political force has had a profound effect on politics in North Africa, the Middle
East, and parts of Asia.
•Islam is not, however, and never has been, simply a religion. Rather, it is a complete way of life,
defining correct moral, political and economic behavior for individuals and nations alike.
con
•Political Islam thus aims at the construction of a theocracy in which political and other affairs are
structured according to 'higher' religious principles.
•Nevertheless, political Islam has assumed clearly contrasting forms, ranging from fundamentalist to
pluralist extremes.
• The fundamentalist version of Islam is most commonly associated with Iran. The Iranian system of
government is a complex mix of theocracy and democracy.
• The Supreme Leader (currently Ali Khamenei) presides over a system of institutionalized clerical
rule that operates through the Islamic Revolutionary Council, a body of 15 senior clerics.
• Although a popularly elected president and parliament have been established, all legislation is
ratified by the Council for the Protection of the Constitution, which ensures conformity to Islamic
principles.
What is theocracy?
•Theocracy (literally 'rule by God') is the principle that religious authority should prevail over political
authority.
•A theocracy is therefore a regime in which government posts are filled on the basis of the person's
position in the religious hierarchy.
•Theocratic rule is illiberal in two senses. First, it violates the public/private divide, in that it takes
religious rules and precepts to be the guiding principles of both personal life and political conduct.
•Second, it invests political authority with potentially unlimited power, because, as temporal power is
derived from spiritual wisdom, it cannot be based on popular consent, or be properly constrained
within a constitutional framework.
Military regimes

•Military dictatorship has been most common in Latin America, the Middle East, Africa and Southeast
Asia, but it also emerged in the post-1945 period in Spain, Portugal and Greece.
•The key feature of a military regime is that the leading posts in the government are filled on the basis
of the person's position within the military chain of command.
•Normal political and constitutional arrangements are usually suspended,
•and institutions through which opposition can be expressed, such as elected assemblies and a free
press, are either weakened or abolished.
Division among the military rule

• military junta, most commonly found in Latin America. In some military regimes, the armed forces
assume direct control of government.
• This operates as a form of collective military government centered on a command council of officers
who usually represent the three armed services: the army, navy and air force.
• Junta: (Spanish) Literally, 'a council'; a (usually military) clique that seizes power through a
revolution or coup d'état.
con
•The second form of military regime is a military-backed personalized dictatorship.
•In these cases, a single individual gains pre-eminence within the junta or regime, often being
bolstered by a cult of personality designed to manufacture charismatic authority.
•Examples are Colonel Papadopoulos in Greece in 1974–80, General Pinochet in Chile after the 1973
military coup, and General Abacha in Nigeria, 1993–98.
con
•In the final form of military regime, the loyalty of the armed forces is the decisive factor that upholds
the regime,
•but the military leaders content themselves with 'pulling the strings' behind the scenes.
•for example, occurred in post-1945 Brazil, as the armed forces generally recognized that the
legitimacy of the regime would be strengthened.
in what circumstances does the military seize power

•In the first place, there is a clear link between the incidence of military coups and economic
underdevelopment. The vast majority of countries that have experienced military government are in
the developing world.
•Second, the military is likely to intervene in politics only when it senses that the legitimacy of the
existing institutions and the ruling elite is challenged, and when it calculates that its intervention is
going to be successful.
Con
•Third, military intervention is associated with the degree to which the values, goals and interests of
the armed forces differ from those of the broader regime. In many newly-independent developing
states, the military thus took over to 'save the nation', seeing itself as a 'westernizing' or 'modernizing'
force confronting a traditionalist, rural, hierarchical and frequently divided political elite.
•This, for instance, occurred in Nigeria, Indonesia and Pakistan.
con
fourthly the military's decision to seize power may also be
affected by international considerations.
•In some cases, international pressures undoubtedly encourage
military action.
•This was clearly the case with the Pinochet coup in Chile. Not
only did Pinochet receive covert advice and encouragement from
the US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),
•but he was also guaranteed US diplomatic support once his new
military regime was established.
Finally what is Coup d'état?

•Coup d'état: (French) A sudden and forcible seizure of government power through illegal and
unconstitutional action.
•Thankyou for your attention,.
•If you have questions, suggestions or comments please forward.
•You can read farther from Andrew Heywood, (2013),PP.265-83.