MATTU UNIVERSTY

COLLEGE OF: ENGINEERING AND

TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF: CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING
Course : Chemical Engineering Project Design
Project title : production of urea from ammonia and

carbon dioxide
 1. Process Design Aspects for Liquid Foods

Process design for liquid foods involves a series of steps to ensure the
production of safe, high-quality, and marketable products.

These steps include:

1. Raw Material Handling and Preparation

 Selection: Choose appropriate raw materials based on quality, availability,

and cost.

 Cleaning: Remove foreign matter and impurities to prevent contamination.

 Size Reduction: If necessary, reduce the size of solid components to

facilitate processing.

 Sorting and Grading: Separate materials based on size, quality, and other
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relevant factors.
  2. Unit Operations

 Mixing: Blend ingredients to achieve desired consistency and uniformity.

 Heating: Apply heat to cook, pasteurize, or sterilize the product.

 Cooling: Reduce temperature to slow down microbial growth and maintain

quality.

 Separation: Separate components using techniques like filtration,

centrifugation, or evaporation.

 Concentration: Reduce water content to increase shelf life and improve flavor.

 Homogenization: Break down fat globules to prevent separation.

 Aeration: Incorporate air to improve texture and mouthfeel.

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 Flavoring and Sweetening: Add flavorings and sweeteners to enhance taste.
 Continue...
 Packaging and Storage

 Packaging: Select appropriate packaging materials to protect the product and

maintain quality.

 Storage: Store the product under optimal conditions to ensure shelf life and safety.

 4. Process Control and Quality Assurance

 Monitoring: Continuously monitor critical process parameters to ensure

consistency and quality.

 Testing: Conduct regular quality tests to ensure product safety and compliance
with standards.

 HACCP: Implement a Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) system to

identify and control potential hazards.
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 Objective
 5. Waste Management

 Minimize waste: Implement strategies to reduce waste generation throughout the

process.

 Treatment and disposal: Properly treat and dispose of waste to minimize

environmental impact.

 Key Considerations for Liquid Food Processing

 Viscosity: The thickness of the liquid affects processing methods and equipment
selection.

 pH: The acidity or alkalinity of the product influences microbial growth and
stability.
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 Specific objectives
 Temperature: Temperature affects microbial growth, chemical reactions, and
physical properties.

 Shear: The force applied to the liquid during processing can affect its texture
and stability.

 Sanitation: Maintain strict sanitation practices to prevent contamination and

ensure food safety.

 By carefully considering these aspects, food processors can design efficient

and effective processes for producing high-quality liquid foods.

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 1. concentration using thermal and membrane processes

Concentration Using Thermal Processes

Thermal processes rely on heat energy to remove water or solvent from a solution,

leaving behind a more concentrated substance.

These processes are widely used in industries that handle liquids like juices, milk, syrups,

and chemicals.
The core principle revolves around phase change, primarily evaporation or freezing, to

separate water.
1. Evaporation

 Mechanism:
o Evaporation uses heat to convert water or solvent into vapor, which is then
separated from the remaining liquid.
o The boiling point of water is reduced under vacuum conditions, allowing

7 evaporation to occur at lower temperatures (this is crucial for heat-sensitive

 Continue..

o Example: In juice concentration, water is evaporated to increase the

sugar content, which not only saves space in packaging but also enhances

shelf life.
 Key Systems:

o Single-Effect Evaporators: A single chamber heats the liquid, and the

vapor is removed. This is less energy-efficient but simple to operate.

o Multi-Effect Evaporators (MEE): A series of evaporators reuse the

vapor's heat energy in subsequent stages, improving efficiency.

 Example: In the dairy industry, MEEs are used to concentrate milk

and whey before further processing into products like condensed

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milk or protein powders.
2. Freeze Concentration

 Mechanism:

o Instead of heating, water is frozen into ice crystals, which are mechanically

separated from the liquid. This concentrates the solutes.

o Example: In the beverage industry, freeze concentration is used to make high-quality

orange juice concentrate that retains its natural flavor and aroma.
 Advantages:

o No heat is involved, so there’s minimal loss of nutrients, flavors, or volatile

compounds.
o Ideal for delicate products like coffee extracts, fruit juices, and pharmaceutical

solutions.
 Challenges:

o High energy consumption due to the refrigeration required.

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 Concentration Using Membrane Processes
Membrane processes are non-thermal, energy-efficient methods that use semi-

permeable membranes to separate water or solvents from solutes. These processes

are particularly advantageous for heat-sensitive products.
1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)

 Mechanism:
o Reverse osmosis relies on applying high pressure to force water through a
semi-permeable membrane, leaving solutes (e.g., sugars, salts, and proteins)
behind.
o The pressure applied must exceed the natural osmotic pressure of the
solution.
o Example: RO is used to concentrate fruit juices, where water is removed
while retaining the flavor, sugars, and nutrients.
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  Applications:
o Desalination of seawater to produce drinking water.
o Pre-concentration of dairy products like whey before drying.
o Concentration of maple syrup and fruit juices to reduce bulk for transport.
 Advantages:
o Energy-efficient compared to thermal methods.
o Retains sensitive nutrients and flavors since no heat is involved.
 Disadvantages:
o Only moderately effective at concentration—cannot achieve very high
concentration levels like evaporation.
o Membranes can foul (become clogged) and require frequent cleaning or
replacement.

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2. Ultrafiltration (UF)
 Mechanism:
o Ultrafiltration uses membranes with larger pores compared to RO. It
separates water and small solutes from larger molecules, such as proteins,
polysaccharides, and fats.
o Example: UF is widely used in the dairy industry to concentrate whey
proteins or lactose.
 Applications:
o Production of whey protein concentrate (WPC) or lactose-free milk.
o Concentration of plant-based proteins (e.g., pea protein).
o Clarification of fruit juices by removing suspended solids.

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Advantages:
Suitable for separating and concentrating large molecules like proteins.
Preserves the functional and nutritional properties of sensitive compounds.
Disadvantages:
Cannot remove small solutes like salts or sugars.
Limited to specific applications requiring selective separation.
3. Nanofiltration (NF)
Mechanism:
Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes between those of RO and UF,
allowing selective removal of small solutes while retaining larger ones.
Example: NF can concentrate sugars while allowing water and small salts to
pass through, making it useful in sugar syrup production.
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 Advantages:
o No heat is involved, so there’s minimal loss of nutrients, flavors, or volatile
compounds.
o Ideal for delicate products like coffee extracts, fruit juices, and pharmaceutical
solutions.
 Challenges:
o High energy consumption due to the refrigeration required.
o Ice separation can be complex and costly.
3. Thermal Processes: Pros and Cons
Advantages Disadvantages
Can achieve very high concentration High energy requirements (heating or
levels freezing).
Widely applicable to various industries Can degrade heat-sensitive compounds
during evaporation.
14 Established technology with proven Freeze concentration requires specialized
 Concentration Using Membrane Processes
Membrane processes are non-thermal, energy-efficient methods that use semi-
permeable membranes to separate water or solvents from solutes.
These processes are particularly advantageous for heat-sensitive products.
1. Reverse Osmosis (RO)
 Mechanism:
o Reverse osmosis relies on applying high pressure to force water through a
semi-permeable membrane, leaving solutes (e.g., sugars, salts, and proteins)
behind.
o The pressure applied must exceed the natural osmotic pressure of the
solution.
o Example: RO is used to concentrate fruit juices, where water is removed

15 while retaining the flavor, sugars, and nutrients.

 Continue...
 Applications:
o Desalination of seawater to produce drinking water.
o Pre-concentration of dairy products like whey before drying.
o Concentration of maple syrup and fruit juices to reduce bulk for transport.
 Advantages:
o Energy-efficient compared to thermal methods.
o Retains sensitive nutrients and flavors since no heat is involved.
 Disadvantages:
o Only moderately effective at concentration—cannot achieve very high
concentration levels like evaporation.
o Membranes can foul (become clogged) and require frequent cleaning or
replacement.
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2. Ultrafiltration (UF)
 Mechanism:
o Ultrafiltration uses membranes with larger pores compared to RO. It
separates water and small solutes from larger molecules, such as proteins,
polysaccharides, and fats.
o Example: UF is widely used in the dairy industry to concentrate whey
proteins or lactose.
 Applications:
o Production of whey protein concentrate (WPC) or lactose-free milk.
o Concentration of plant-based proteins (e.g., pea protein).
o Clarification of fruit juices by removing suspended solids.

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 Advantages:
o Suitable for separating and concentrating large molecules like proteins.
o Preserves the functional and nutritional properties of sensitive compounds.
 Disadvantages:
o Cannot remove small solutes like salts or sugars.
o Limited to specific applications requiring selective separation.
3. Nanofiltration (NF)
 Mechanism:
o Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes between those of RO and UF,
allowing selective removal of small solutes while retaining larger ones.
o Example: NF can concentrate sugars while allowing water and small salts to
pass through, making it useful in sugar syrup production.

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 Applications:
o Concentration of sugar solutions in food processing.
o Partial demineralization of dairy products or juices.
o Water softening by removing divalent salts.
 Advantages:
o Selective separation of compounds based on size and charge.
o Lower pressure requirements compared to RO.
 Disadvantages:
o Less effective for fine filtration compared to RO.

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 4. Forward Osmosis (FO)
 Mechanism:
o Forward osmosis uses a concentrated draw solution to naturally pull water
across a membrane, leaving solutes behind. No external pressure is applied.
o Example: Emerging in juice and coffee concentration where maintaining
flavor integrity is critical.
 Advantages:
o Extremely gentle process, ideal for high-quality products.
o Lower energy consumption compared to RO and thermal methods.
 Disadvantages:
• Slow process compared to RO.
• Requires additional steps to separate the draw solution from the product

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 Comparison of Thermal vs. Membrane Processes

Aspect Thermal Processes Membrane Processes

Energy Usage High (heating or freezing Low (pressure-driven
required) systems)

Heat Sensitivity May degrade heat- Ideal for heat-sensitive

sensitive compounds products

Concentration Level Can achieve very high Limited by membrane

levels of concentration capacity

Operating Cost Higher due to energy use Moderate (membrane

replacement costs)

Applications Juices, syrups, milk, Proteins, juices,

pharmaceuticals desalination, beverages
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Practical Applications
 Food Industry:
o Thermal evaporation is used for tomato paste, condensed milk, and sugar syrups.
o Membrane ultrafiltration is used to produce whey protein concentrate and lactose-
free milk.
 Beverage Industry:
o Freeze concentration ensures premium-quality fruit juice concentrates.
o Reverse osmosis is used in coffee extraction and wine concentration.
 Water Treatment:
o Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration are key for desalination and wastewater
treatment.
 Pharmaceuticals:
o Ultrafiltration and freeze concentration are used to purify and concentrate

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active ingredients.
 3. Food Packaging And Product Shelf Life
1. Functions of Food Packaging in Shelf Life Extension
Food packaging serves multiple purposes beyond just containment.

 These include:

A. Protection Against Environmental Factors

 Oxygen: Exposure to oxygen accelerates spoilage by promoting oxidation of
fats (leading to rancidity) and degradation of nutrients like vitamins A and C.
Packaging materials with oxygen barriers (e.g., vacuum-sealed or nitrogen-
flushed packaging) help prolong freshness.
o Example: Potato chips are often packed in nitrogen to prevent oxidation
and maintain crunchiness.
 Moisture: Packaging prevents water loss (in fresh produce) or water gain (in
dry foods like crackers), both of which affect texture and quality.
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  Light: UV and visible light can degrade pigments (e.g., chlorophyll in green
vegetables), vitamins, and fats. Opaque or tinted packaging blocks light
exposure.
o Example: Milk stored in opaque cartons prevents light-induced vitamin
degradation.
B. Microbial Protection
 Packaging creates a physical barrier to prevent contamination by bacteria,
molds, or other microorganisms.
o Example: Sterile packaging like Tetra Pak ensures long shelf life for milk
and juices without refrigeration.
C. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
 MAP replaces the air inside the package with a controlled mix of gases (such
24 as nitrogen or carbon dioxide) to slow microbial growth and oxidation.
 Example: Fresh-cut salads are packed with reduced oxygen levels to delay
wilting and spoilage
D. Physical Protection
 Packaging prevents damage from impact, compression, or vibration during
transport and storage.
o Example: Eggs are stored in specially designed cartons to prevent
breakage.
E. Convenience and Communication
Packaging often includes instructions for proper storage (e.g., “keep
refrigerated” or “store in a cool, dry place”) to guide consumers in maintaining
shelf life

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 2. Types of Packaging Materials and Their Effects on Shelf Life
Different materials are used based on the food product's specific needs.
Here's a closer look:
A. Plastic Packaging
 Advantages:
o Lightweight and flexible.
o Can be made with excellent moisture and gas barrier properties (e.g.,
polyethylene, polypropylene).
o Can be vacuum-sealed or heat-sealed for airtight packaging.
 Applications:
o Used for snack foods, frozen items, and beverages.
o Plastic films (e.g., polyvinyl chloride) are used for perishable products like

26 fresh meat.
 B. Glass Packaging
 Advantages:
o Non-reactive and impermeable to gases and moisture.
o Excellent for heat-sterilized products like canned fruits or sauces.
o Provides extended shelf life for acidic or alcohol-based products.
 Applications:
o Pickles, jams, beverages (e.g., wine, beer).
 Limitations:
o Heavy and breakable.
C. Metal Packaging (Cans)
 Advantages:
o Fully protects against light, moisture, and oxygen.
o Suitable for long-term storage of shelf-stable foods like canned vegetables,
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soups, and fish.
 Applications:
Tuna, condensed milk, baked beans.
Limitations:
Can react with acidic foods if not properly coated.
D. Paper and Cardboard
Advantages:
Lightweight and biodegradable.
Often used as secondary packaging for dry foods or snacks.
Applications:
Cereal boxes, pizza boxes.
Limitations:
Limited barrier properties unless coated with plastic or wax.

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 E. Composite Packaging
 Advantages:
o Combines materials like plastic, paper, and aluminum for superior
barrier properties.
 Applications:
o Tetra Pak for milk, juice, and soups.
 Limitations:
o Difficult to recycle due to layered materials.

3. Packaging Technologies That Enhance Shelf Life

Advances in packaging technology have significantly improved food
preservation. Here are some modern techniques:
A. Active Packaging
 Packaging that interacts with the food or the environment to extend shelf
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life.
 B. Modified Atmosphere Packaging (MAP)
 Alters the internal atmosphere of the package to slow microbial growth and oxidation.
 Example: Reducing oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide levels extends the freshness
of meats and seafood.
C. Vacuum Packaging
 Removes air from the package, creating an oxygen-free barrier that prevents microbial
growth and oxidation.
 Example: Vacuum-sealed coffee or cured meats.
D. Edible Packaging
 Thin, edible films made from proteins, polysaccharides, or lipids act as an additional
barrier.
 Example: Edible coatings on fruits (like apples) reduce moisture loss and slow
ripening.
E. Intelligent Packaging
30 Monitors the condition of the food and provides real-time information to consumers.
 4.Aseptic Packaging, Freezing And Thawing Calculations
Aseptic packaging, freezing, and thawing calculations involve several important
factors, especially in food science and preservation.
Here’s a breakdown of the key concepts and calculations involved:
Aseptic Packaging
Aseptic packaging is a process where food is sterilized separately from its
packaging, allowing for a longer shelf life without refrigeration. Key
considerations include:
 Sterilization Methods: Common methods include heat, chemical, or radiation.
 Material Selection: Packaging materials must be resistant to heat and moisture,
and provide an effective barrier against pathogens.
 Filling Process: The product must be filled into the packaging in a sterile

31 environment to prevent contamination.

 Freezing Calculations
Freezing is a method used to preserve food by lowering its temperature to
inhibit microbial growth. Key calculations include:
 Freezing Rate: The time it takes for a product to freeze can be calculated
using the formula:

Equilibrium Freezing Point: This can be calculated based on the composition of the
food. For example, the freezing point depression can be computed using:

where Kf​is the cryoscopic constant and mmm is the molal concentration

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 Thawing Calculations
Thawing must be done carefully to maintain food safety and quality. Important
considerations include:
 Thawing Rate: Similar to freezing, the rate can be calculated based on heat
transfer principles:

 where m is the mass, Cp​is the specific heat capacity,

ΔT is the temperature change, and Q is the rate of heat transfer.
Practical Applications
 Food Safety: Ensure that food is rapidly frozen and thawed to minimize
microbial growth.
• Quality Preservation: Proper packaging and temperature control can help
33 maintain the texture and flavor of food products
 5. Food Laws, Legislation, Safety And Quality Control

Certainly! Here’s a detailed exploration of food laws, legislation, safety, and quality

control, covering their significance, key components, and practical implications.

Food Laws and Legislation
1. Regulatory Agencies
Regulatory agencies play a crucial role in enforcing food safety and quality

standards. Here are some key agencies:

 U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA):
o Role: The FDA oversees the safety of the majority of food products
(excluding meat and poultry), dietary supplements, and bottled water.
o Responsibilities: Establishes food safety standards, conducts inspections, and
monitors food labeling practices to protect public health.
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2. Key Legislation
Several significant laws shape food safety and quality control:
 Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA) (U.S.):
o Purpose: Shifted the focus from responding to food safety problems to
preventing them.
o Key Provisions: Requires food facilities to implement preventive controls,
conduct risk assessments, and maintain records.
 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA):
o Purpose: Provides the FDA with the authority to oversee food safety,
labeling, and the safety of food additives.
Key Provisions: Establishes standards for food safety and enables the FDA to
take action against unsafe or misbranded products

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 Food Safety
1. Principles of Food Safety
Food safety principles are vital for preventing foodborne illnesses:
 Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP):
o Overview: A preventive system for ensuring food safety by identifying
and controlling potential hazards.
o Seven Principles:
1. Conduct Hazard Analysis: Identify potential hazards that could
affect food safety.
2. Determine Critical Control Points (CCPs): Points in the process
where hazards can be controlled or eliminated.
3. Establish Critical Limits: Set maximum or minimum values (e.g.,
temperature, time) for each CCP.
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 4. Monitor CCPs: Regularly check that critical limits are met.
5. Establish Corrective Actions: Define steps to take when
monitoring indicates a deviation from critical limits.
6. Verification: Ensure the HACCP system is working effectively
through audits and testing.
7. Record Keeping: Maintain detailed records of procedures,
monitoring, and corrective actions.
 Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP):
o Overview: Guidelines to ensure products are consistently produced and
controlled.
o Key Elements: Focus on hygiene, equipment maintenance, employee
training, and proper storage conditions.
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 Quality Control
1. Quality Control Measures
Quality control (QC) involves various measures to ensure food products meet
established standards:
 Sensory Evaluation:
o Overview: Assessing attributes like taste, smell, texture, and appearance.
o Methods: Conducting taste tests and consumer panels to gather feedback
on quality.
 Microbiological Testing:
o Purpose: Regular testing for pathogens and spoilage organisms to ensure
safety.
o Techniques: Using culture methods, rapid testing kits, or molecular
techniques (e.g., PCR) to detect contaminants
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 2. Quality Assurance Systems
Quality assurance (QA) focuses on establishing a systematic approach to
ensure product quality:
 ISO 22000:
o Overview: An international standard for food safety management
systems.
o Key Elements: Incorporates HACCP principles with a focus on
communication and continuous improvement.
 Total Quality Management (TQM):
o Overview: A management philosophy aimed at long-term success
through customer satisfaction.
o Key Practices: Involves all employees in continuous quality
improvement efforts and emphasizes customer feedback.
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 3. Traceability
Traceability systems are essential for tracking food products throughout the
supply chain:
 Batch Numbering:
o Purpose: Assigns unique identifiers to batches for easy tracking.
o Implementation: Allows for quick identification and recall of products
if safety issues arise.
 Record Keeping:
o Importance: Detailed records of sourcing, production, and distribution
help ensure accountability.
o Benefits: Facilitates compliance with regulations and enhances
consumer trust.

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Thanks you!!!