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General Biology

Chapter 1

A Tour of the cell


Overview: The Fundamental Units of
Life
• All organisms are made of
cells
• The cell is the simplest collection of
matter
that can live
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular
function
• All cells are related by their descent
from
earlier cells
Concept 6.1: To study cells, biologists use microscopes
and the tools of biochemistry

• Though usually too small to be seen


by the
unaided eye, cells can be complex
• Scientists use microscopes to visualize
cells
too small to see with the naked eye
• In a light microscope (LM), visible
light
passes through a specimen and then
through
glass lenses, which magnify the image
• The quality of an image
depends on
– Magnification, the ratio of an object’s
image
size to its real
– size
Resolution, the measure of the clarity
of the
image, or the minimum distance of
two
– Contrast, visible differences in parts
distinguishable
of the
sample points
Concept 6.2: Eukaryotic cells have
internal
membranes that compartmentalize
their
functions
• The basic structural and functional unit of
every
organism is one of two types of cells:
• prokaryotic
Only organisms of the domains
or eukaryotic
Bacteria
Archaeaand
consist of prokaryotic
• cells
Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all
consist of
eukaryotic
cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic
Cells

• Basic features of all


cells
– Plasma membrane
– Semifluid substance called
cytosol
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by
having
–– DNA
No nucleus
in an unbound region called the
nucleoid

– No membrane-bound
Cytoplasm organelles
bound by the plasma
membrane

© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.5
FIMBRIA
E
Nucleoid

Ribosomes

Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome Cell wall

Capsule

0.5 μm
Flagella (b) A thin section
(a) A typical
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by
having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded
by a
membranous nuclear envelope
– Membrane-bound
organelles
– Cytoplasm in the region between the
plasma
membrane
• Eukaryotic and
cells nucleus
are generally much
larger than
prokaryotic
cells

© 2011 Pearson
• The plasma membrane is a selective
barrier
that allows sufficient passage of
oxygen,
• nutrients,
The generalandstructure
waste toofservice the
a biological
volume of
membrane
is a double layer of
every cell
phospholipids

© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.6
Outside of cell (A) TEM OF A
PLASMA
MEMBRANE

Inside of cell
0.1 μm
Carbohydrate side
chains

Hydrophilic
region

Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region Phospholipid Proteins

(b) Structure of the plasma membrane


Figure
6.8a
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)
Nuclear
Rough Smooth
envelope
Flagellum ER NUCLEUS
ER Nucleolus
Chromatin
Centrosome
Plasma
membrane
CYTOSKELETON:
Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules
Ribosomes

Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Lysosom
e
Figure
6.8c Nuclear Rough
envelope endoplasmic
NUCLEUS reticulum Smooth
Nucleolus endoplasmic
reticulum
Chromatin

Ribosomes

Central
vacuole
Golgi
apparatus Microfilaments
Intermediate CYTOSKELETO
filaments N
Microtubule
s

Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma Chloroplast
membrane
Cell wall Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s
genetic instructions are housed in the
nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes
• The nucleus contains most of the
DNA in a
eukaryotic
• cell
Ribosomes use the information from the
DNA
maketo
proteins

© 2011 Pearson
The Nucleus: Information
Central
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s
genes
and is usually the most conspicuous
• organelle
The nuclear envelope encloses the
nucleus,
separating it from the
• cytoplasm
The nuclear membrane is a double
membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid
bilayer

© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.9a
NUCLE
Nucleolus
US
Chromatin

Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore

Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome

Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
• Pores regulate the entry and exit of
molecules
from the
• nucleus
The shape of the nucleus is maintained
bynuclear
the lamina, which is composed of
protein

© 2011 Pearson
• In the nucleus, DNA is organized into
discrete
units called
• chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a single
DNA
molecule associated with
• proteins
The DNA and proteins of
chromosomes are
together called
• chromatin
Chromatin condenses to form
discrete
chromosomes as a cell prepares to
• divide
The nucleolus is located within the
nucleus andof ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
is the site
synthesis
© 2011 Pearson
Ribosomes: Protein Factories

• Ribosomes are particles made of


ribosomal
RNA and
• protein
Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis
in two
locations
– In the cytosol (free
ribosomes)
– On the outside of the endoplasmic
reticulum or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.10

0.25
ΜM
Free ribosomes in cytosol
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit

Small
subunit
TEM showing ER
and Diagram of a ribosome
ribosomes
Concept 6.4: The endomembrane
system
regulates protein traffic and
performs
• Components of the endomembrane
metabolic
system functions in the cell
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic
reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either
continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
© 2011 Pearson
The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Biosynthetic
Factory
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts
for
more than half of the total membrane in
• many
The ER membrane is continuous with the
eukaryotic
nuclear
envelop cells
• eThere are two distinct regions of
ER

– Smooth ER,surface
Rough ER, which lacks
is studded with
ribosomes
ribosomes

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure Smooth ER
6.11 Nuclear
envelope
Rough ER

ER lumen
Cisternae Transitional ER
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
200
Smooth Rough ER
nm
ER
FUNCTIONS OF SMOOTH ER

• The smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes
carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and
poisons
– Stores calcium ions

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


FUNCTIONS OF ROUGH ER

• The rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded
to carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


THE GOLGI APPARATUS: SHIPPING
AND RECEIVING CENTER

• The Golgi apparatus consists of


flattened membranous sacs called
cisternae
• Functions of the Golgi apparatus
– Modifies products of the ER
– Manufactures certain
macromolecules
– Sorts and packages materials into
transport vesicles

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.12

cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 μm
Golgi apparatus)
Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi
Golgi apparatus) apparatus
LYSOSOMES: DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS

• A lysosome is a membranous
sac of hydrolytic enzymes that
can digest macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze
proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and
nucleic acids
• Lysosomal enzymes work best in the
acidic environment inside the
lysosome

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


• Some types of cell can engulf another
cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food
vacuole and digests the molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle
the cell’s own organelles and
macromolecules, a process called
autophagy

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
1 μm
6.13a Nucleus

Lysosome

Digestive
enzymes

Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion

Food vacuole

(a) Phagocytosis
Figure
6.13b
Vesicle containing
two damaged 1 μm
organelles

Mitochondrion
fragment

Peroxisome
fragment

Lysosome

Peroxisome

Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle

(b) Autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse
Maintenance Compartments
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have
one or several vacuoles, derived from
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


• Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
• Contractile vacuoles, found in many
freshwater protists, pump excess water
out of cells
• Central vacuoles, found in many mature
plant cells, hold organic compounds and
water

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure 6.15-
1

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

Plasma
membrane
Figure 6.15-
2

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
trans Golgi membrane
Figure 6.15-
3

Nucleus

Rough ER
Smooth ER

cis Golgi

Plasma
trans Golgi membrane
CONCEPT 6.5: MITOCHONDRIA AND
CHLOROPLASTS CHANGE ENERGY FROM
ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration, a metabolic process that uses
oxygen to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae,
are the sites of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


THE EVOLUTIONARY ORIGINS OF
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLASTS

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have


similarities with bacteria
– Enveloped by a double membrane
– Contain free ribosomes and circular
DNA molecules
– Grow and reproduce somewhat
independently in cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


MITOCHONDRIA: CHEMICAL ENERGY
CONVERSION
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic
cells
• They have a smooth outer membrane
and an inner membrane folded into
cristae
• The inner membrane creates two
compartments: intermembrane space and
mitochondrial matrix
• Some metabolic steps of cellular
respiration are catalyzed in the
mitochondrial matrix
• Cristae
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. present a large surface area for
Figure
6.17a

INTERMEMBRANE
SPACE
Outer
membrane

DNA

Inner
Free membrane
ribosomes
in the Crista
mitochondrial e
Matrix
matrix
0.1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion
• Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs,
stacked to form a granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid
• The chloroplast is one of a group of
plant
organelles, called plastids

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


PEROXISOMES: OXIDATION

• Peroxisomes are specialized metabolic


compartments bounded by a single
membrane
• Peroxisomes produce hydrogen
peroxide and convert it to water
• Peroxisomes perform reactions with
many different functions
• How peroxisomes are related to other
organelles is still unknown

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


CONCEPT 6.6: THE CYTOSKELETON IS A
NETWORK OF FIBERS THAT ORGANIZES
STRUCTURES AND ACTIVITIES IN THE CELL

• The cytoskeleton is a network of


fibers extending throughout the
cytoplasm
• It organizes the cell’s structures and
activities, anchoring many organelles
• It is composed of three types of
molecular structures
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. filaments
Figure
6.20

10 μm
ROLES OF THE
CYTOSKELETON: SUPPORT AND
MOTILITY
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the
cell and maintain its shape
• It interacts with motor proteins to
produce motility
• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel
along “monorails” provided by the
cytoskeleton
• Recent evidence suggests that the
cytoskeleton may help regulate
biochemical activities

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.21
VESIC
ATP LE
Receptor for
motor protein

Motor protein Microtubule


(ATP of cytoskeleton
(a) powered)

Microtubule Vesicles 0.25 μm

(b)
COMPONENTS OF THE CYTOSKELETON

• Three main types of fibers make


up the cytoskeleton
– Microtubules are the thickest of the
three components of the
cytoskeleton
– Microfilaments, also called actin
filaments, are the thinnest components
– Intermediate filaments are fibers
with diameters in a middle
range

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Table
6.1a

10
μm

Column of tubulin dimers

25 nm

α β Tubulin
dimer
Table
6.1b

10 μm

Actin subunit

7 nm
Table
6.1c

5 μm

Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)
8−12
nm
MICROTUBULES

• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25


nm in diameter and about 200 nm to 25
microns long
• Functions of microtubules
– Shaping the cell
– Guiding movement of organelles
– Separating chromosomes during cell
division

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


CENTROSOMES AND
CENTRIOLES
• In many cells, microtubules grow out
from a
centrosome near the nucleus
• The centrosome is a “microtubule-
organizing center”
• In animal cells, the centrosome has a
pair of centrioles, each with nine
triplets of microtubules arranged in a
ring

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.22

CENTROSO Microtubule
ME

Centrioles
0.25 μm

Longitudinal
section of
one
centriole

Microtubules Cross section


of the other centriole
CILIA AND
• Microtubules control the beating of cilia
FLAGELLA
and
flagella, locomotor appendages of some
cells
• Cilia and flagella differ in their beating
patterns

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure 6.23
Direction of swimming

(a) Motion of flagella


5 μm

Direction of organism’s movement

Power stroke Recovery stroke

(b) Motion of cilia


15 μm
• Cilia and flagella share a common
structure
– A core of microtubules sheathed by the
plasma membrane
– A basal body that anchors the
cilium or flagellum
– A motor protein called dynein, which
drives the bending movements of a
cilium or flagellum

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.24 0.1 μm Outer microtubule Plasma membrane
doublet
Dynein proteins
Central
microtubule
Radial
spoke
Microtubules Cross-linking
proteins
between
(b) Cross section of outer
Plasma motile cilium doublets
membrane
Basal
body

0.5 μm 0.1 μm
(a) Longitudinal section Triplet
of motile cilium

(c) Cross section of


basal body
Figure
6.24b

0.1 Outer microtubule Plasma membrane


ΜM doublet
Dynein proteins
Central
microtubule
Radial
spoke
Cross-linking
proteins between
outer doublets
(b) Cross section of
motile cilium
Figure
6.24c

0.1
μm
Triplet

(c) Cross section of


basal body
• How dynein “walking” moves flagella and
cilia
− Dynein arms alternately grab, move, and
release the outer microtubules
– Protein cross-links limit sliding
– Forces exerted by dynein arms cause
doublets to curve, bending the cilium or
flagellum

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.25a

MICROTUB
ULE ATP
DOUBLETS

Dynein protein

(a) Effect of unrestrained dynein movement


Figure
6.25b

Cross-linking proteins
ATP
between outer doublets

1 3
2

Anchorage
in cell

(b) Effect of cross-linking proteins (c) Wavelike motion


MICROFILAMENTS (ACTIN FILAMENTS)

• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in


diameter, built as a twisted double chain
of actin subunits
• The structural role of microfilaments is
to bear tension, resisting pulling forces
within the cell
• They form a 3-D network called the cortex
just inside the plasma membrane to help
support the cell’s shape
• Bundles of microfilaments make up the
core of microvilli of intestinal cells
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure
6.26
MICROVIL
LUS

Plasma membrane

Microfilaments
(actin
filaments)

Intermediate
filaments
0.25 μm
• Microfilaments that function in cellular
motility contain the protein myosin in
addition to actin

• In muscle cells, thousands of actin


filaments are arranged parallel to one
another

• Thicker filaments composed of


myosin interdigitate with the
thinner actin fibers
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure
6.27a

MUSCLE
CELL 0.5 μm
Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head
(a)
Myosin
motors
in
muscle
cell
contracti
Figure
6.27b

CORTEX (OUTER
CYTOPLASM): GEL WITH
ACTIN NETWORK 100 μm
Inner cytoplasm:
sol
with actin
subunits

Extending
pseudopodi
um
(b) Amoeboid movement
Figure
6.27c

Chloroplast 30
(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells μm
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS

• Intermediate filaments range in diameter


from 8–12 nanometers, larger than
microfilaments but smaller than
microtubules

• They support cell shape and fix


organelles in place

• Intermediate filaments are more


permanent cytoskeleton fixtures than the
other two classes

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


CONCEPT 6.7: EXTRACELLULAR
COMPONENTS AND CONNECTIONS
BETWEEN CELLS HELP COORDINATE
• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to
CELLULAR ACTIVITIES
the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


CELL WALLS OF PLANTS
• The cell wall is an extracellular
structure that distinguishes plant cells
from animal cells
• Prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists also
have cell walls
• The cell wall protects the plant cell,
maintains its shape, and prevents
excessive uptake of water
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose
fibers embedded in other polysaccharides
and protein
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
THE EXTRACELLULAR MATRIX (ECM) OF
ANIMAL CELLS

• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered


by an elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)

• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such


as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin

• ECM proteins bind to receptor proteins


in the plasma membrane called
integrins
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
FibFrigounre
e6c.3ti0na

Collagen EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID

Proteoglycan
complex

Integrins

Plasma
membrane

CYTOPLASM
Micro-
filaments
Figure
6.30b
POLYSACCHA
RIDE
MOLECULE
Carbohydrates

Core
protein

Proteoglycan
molecule

Proteoglycan
complex
CELL JUNCTIONS

• Neighboring cells in tissues, organs, or


organ systems often adhere, interact,
and communicate through direct
physical contact
• Intercellular junctions facilitate this
contact
• There are several types of intercellular
junctions
– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. junctions
PLASMODESMATA IN PLANT CELLS

• Plasmodesmata are channels that


perforate plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and
small solutes (and sometimes proteins
and RNA) can pass from cell to cell

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.31

CELL
WALLS
Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell
0.5 μm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, AND
GAP JUNCTIONS IN ANIMAL CELLS

• At tight junctions, membranes of


neighboring cells are pressed together,
preventing leakage of extracellular fluid
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten
cells together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
provide cytoplasmic channels between
adjacent cells

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.


Figure
6.32
Tight junctions prevent
fluid from moving Tight junction
across a layer of cells

TEM
0.5 μm

Tight junction

Intermediate
filaments

D
e
s
m TEM
o 1
s Gap μm
o junction
m
e
Ions or small
molecules

Space
between cells

TEM
Extracellular
Plasma membranes matrix
of adjacent cells 0.1 μm
Chapter 7

Membrane Structure
and Function
Function: The plasma
membrane exhibits selective
permeability, allowing some
substances to cross it more
easily than others

In 1972, Singer and Nicolson proposed that the membrane is a


mosaic of proteins dispersed within a phospholipid bilayer, with only the
hydrophilic regions exposed to water. The fluid mosaic model states
that a membrane is a fluid structure with a "mosaic" of various proteins
embedded in it.
Cellular membranes are
fluid mosaics of lipids
• and proteins
Membranes have two asymmetric leaflets
• Each leaflet has lateral fluidity
• Phospholipids are the most abundant lipid in the plasma
membrane (sphingolipids, glycolipids, cholesterol also)-n o t e :
cholesterol only in animals & some bacteria, not in plants
• Phospholipids are amphipathic molecules, containing
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
• The fluid mosaic model states that a membrane is a fluid
structure with a "mosaic" of various globular proteins
embedded in it-b o t h integral and peripheral
Figure
7.2

Hydrophilic
head

WATER

How many of these


bilayers around
nucleus? Vacuo!e?
Figure 7,3

•Peripheral proteins usually on inner side of membrane & held their by Ionic
{with charged lipid head) or hydrophobic (with a second hydrophobic
protein) Interaction
•Hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions of integral proteins
• Freeze-fracture studies of the plasma
membrane supported the fluid mosaic model
• Freeze-facture is a specialized
preparation technique that splits a
membrane along the middle of the
phospholipid bilayer
LE 7-
4

Extracellular layer Cytoplasmic layer


Rarely does a molecule flip-flop transversely across the membrane

(a) Movement of phospholipids


•As temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid
state to a solid state
•The temperature at which a membrane solidifies depends
on the types of lipids
•Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid
than those rich in saturated fatty acids
•Membranes must be fluid to work properly; they are
usually about as fluid as salad oil
•The steroid cholesterol has different effects on
membrane fluidity at different temperatures
•At warm temperatures (such as 37°C), cholesterol
restrains movement of phospholipids
•At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by
preventing tight packing
• Integral proteins that span the membrane are called
transmembrane proteins
•The hydrophobic regions of an integral protein
consist of one or more stretches of nonpolar amino
acids, often coiled into alpha helices
• Six major functions of membrane proteins
-Transport
- Enzymatic activity
- Signal transduction
- Cell-cell recognition
- lntercellular joining
- Attachment to the cytoskeleton
and extracellular matrix (ECM)
Sidedness
of
Membrane
• Membranes have distinc­
inside and outside faces
s
•The asymmetrical
distribution of proteins,
lipids and associated
carbohydrates in the
plasma membrane is
determined when the
membrane is built by the
ER and Golgi apparatus
The Permeability of the
Lipid Bilayer
• Hydrophobic (nonpolar) molecules, such as
hydrocarbons, can dissolve in the lipid bilayer
and pass through the membrane rapidly
• Polar molecules, such as sugars, do not
cross the membrane easily

View Membrane Transport Video


Transport
• Proteins
Transport proteins allow passage of
hydrophilic substances across the membrane
• Some transport proteins, called channel proteins, have
a hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions
can use as a tunnel
• Channel proteins called aquaporins facilitate
the passage of water
• Other transport proteins, called carrier proteins,
bind to molecules and change shape to shuttle them
across the membrane
• A transport protein is specific for the substance
it moves
Passive transport is diffusion
of a substance across a
membrane with no energy
investment
• Diffusion is the tendency for molecules to
spread out evenly into the available
space
• Although each molecule moves randomly,
diffusion of a population of molecules
may exhibit a net movement in one
direction
• At dynamic equilibrium, as many
Effects of Osmosis on
Water Balance
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a
selectively permeable membrane
• The direction of osmosis is determined by a
difference in total solute concentration (but
pressure, gravity, matrix can influence)
• Water diffuses across a membrane from
the region of lower solute concentration
(higher water potential) to the region of
higher solute concentration (lower water
potential)
Water Balance of Cells
Without Walls
• Tonicity is the ability of a solution to cause
a cell to gain or lose water
• Isotonic solution: solute concentration is
the same as that inside the
cell; no net water movement across the
plasma membrane
• Hypertonic solution: solute concentration
is greater than that inside the cell; cell loses
water
• Hypotonic solution: solute concentration is
less than that inside the cell; cell gains water
Water Balance of Cells
with Walls
• Cell walls help maintain water balance
• A plant cell in a hypotonic solution swells until
the wall opposes uptake; the cell is now turgid
(firm)
• If a plant cell and its surroundings are isotonic,
there is no net movement of water into the cell; the
cell becomes flaccid (limp), and the plant may wilt
• In a hypertonic environment, plant cells lose water;
eventually, the membrane pulls away from the
wall, a usually lethal effect called plasmolysis

I
Facilitated Diffusion:
Passive Transport Aided
by Proteins
• In facilitated diffusion, transport proteins
speed movement of molecules across the
plasma membrane
• Channel proteins provide corridors that allow a
specific molecule or ion to cross the
membrane
• Carrier proteins undergo a subtle change in
shape that translocates the solute-binding
site across the membrane
Active transport uses energy
to move solutes against their
gradients
• Facilitated diffusion is still passive
because the solute moves down its
concentration gradient
• Some transport proteins, however, can move
solutes against their concentration
gradients
The Need for Energy in
Active Transport
• Active transport moves substances
against their concentration gradient
• Active transport requires energy, usually in
the form of ATP
• Active transport is performed by specific
proteins embedded in the membranes
• Active transport allows cells to maintain
concentration gradients that differ from their
surroundings
• The sodium-potassium pump is one type
of active transport system
Maintenance of
Membrane Potential by
• Ion Pumps
Membrane potential is the voltage difference
across a membrane (differences in the
distribution of positive and negative ions across a
membrane)
• Two combined forces, collectively called the
electrochemical gradient, drive the diffusion of
ions across a membrane:
- A chemical force (the ion's concentration
gradient)
- An electrical force (the effect of the
membrane potential on the ion's movement)
Cotransport: Coupled
Transport by a Membrane
Protein
• Cotransport occurs when active transport of a
solute indirectly drives transport of another
solute
• Plants commonly use the gradient of
hydrogen ions generated by proton pumps to
drive active transport of nutrients into the cell
• Small molecules and water enter or leave the cell
through the lipid bilayer or by transport proteins
• Large molecules, such as polysaccharides and
proteins, cross the membrane via vesicles (bulk
transport)
Bulk Transport: Exocytosis
• In exocytosis, transport vesicles migrate to the
membrane, fuse with it, and release their contents
• Many secretory cells use exocytosis to export their
products
Bulk Transport: Endocytosis
• In endocytosis, the cell takes in macromolecules
by forming vesicles from the plasma membrane
• Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis, involving
different proteins
3. Which of the following amino acids would
most likely be present in the outer side of a
transmembrane domain of an integral
membrane protein?

A. A CHARGED AMINO ACID


LIKE
b. LYSINE
a polar amino acid like serine
c. a special amino acid like glycine
or praline
d. a hydrophobic amino acid like
valine
e. any of the above, with no
4. Assume that each of the following items experiences a
similar magnitude of energy difference driving their
diffusion across a pure lipid bilayer. If ranked in order
from fastest to slowest, which of the following items
would likely be second in terms of how much of it crosses
the bilayer in a given time?

a. molecular oxygen (first because a gas)


b. Sucrose (needs active transport)
c. Insulin (ligand for receptor signaling)
d. Glucose (needs active transport)
e. Water (second from channels & size)
5. Consider various transport systems in a
hypothetical cell (see figure). Which one of these
systems would both be a passive system and not
alter the membrane potential through its operation?

A
B
C
D
E

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