مستوى أول عام
مستوى أول عام
مستوى أول عام
Chapter 1
© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.5
FIMBRIA
E
Nucleoid
Ribosomes
Plasma
membrane
Bacterial
chromosome Cell wall
Capsule
0.5 μm
Flagella (b) A thin section
(a) A typical
rod-shaped through the
bacterium bacterium Bacillus
coagulans (TEM)
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by
having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded
by a
membranous nuclear envelope
– Membrane-bound
organelles
– Cytoplasm in the region between the
plasma
membrane
• Eukaryotic and
cells nucleus
are generally much
larger than
prokaryotic
cells
© 2011 Pearson
• The plasma membrane is a selective
barrier
that allows sufficient passage of
oxygen,
• nutrients,
The generalandstructure
waste toofservice the
a biological
volume of
membrane
is a double layer of
every cell
phospholipids
© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.6
Outside of cell (A) TEM OF A
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
Inside of cell
0.1 μm
Carbohydrate side
chains
Hydrophilic
region
Hydrophobic
region
Hydrophilic
region Phospholipid Proteins
Microvilli
Golgi apparatus
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion Lysosom
e
Figure
6.8c Nuclear Rough
envelope endoplasmic
NUCLEUS reticulum Smooth
Nucleolus endoplasmic
reticulum
Chromatin
Ribosomes
Central
vacuole
Golgi
apparatus Microfilaments
Intermediate CYTOSKELETO
filaments N
Microtubule
s
Mitochondrion
Peroxisome
Plasma Chloroplast
membrane
Cell wall Plasmodesmata
Wall of adjacent cell
Concept 6.3: The eukaryotic cell’s
genetic instructions are housed in the
nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes
• The nucleus contains most of the
DNA in a
eukaryotic
• cell
Ribosomes use the information from the
DNA
maketo
proteins
© 2011 Pearson
The Nucleus: Information
Central
• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s
genes
and is usually the most conspicuous
• organelle
The nuclear envelope encloses the
nucleus,
separating it from the
• cytoplasm
The nuclear membrane is a double
membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid
bilayer
© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.9a
NUCLE
Nucleolus
US
Chromatin
Nuclear envelope:
Inner membrane
Outer membrane
Nuclear pore
Rough ER
Pore
complex
Ribosome
Close-up
of nuclear Chromatin
envelope
• Pores regulate the entry and exit of
molecules
from the
• nucleus
The shape of the nucleus is maintained
bynuclear
the lamina, which is composed of
protein
© 2011 Pearson
• In the nucleus, DNA is organized into
discrete
units called
• chromosomes
Each chromosome is composed of a single
DNA
molecule associated with
• proteins
The DNA and proteins of
chromosomes are
together called
• chromatin
Chromatin condenses to form
discrete
chromosomes as a cell prepares to
• divide
The nucleolus is located within the
nucleus andof ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
is the site
synthesis
© 2011 Pearson
Ribosomes: Protein Factories
© 2011 Pearson
Figure
6.10
0.25
ΜM
Free ribosomes in cytosol
Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes bound to ER
Large
subunit
Small
subunit
TEM showing ER
and Diagram of a ribosome
ribosomes
Concept 6.4: The endomembrane
system
regulates protein traffic and
performs
• Components of the endomembrane
metabolic
system functions in the cell
– Nuclear envelope
– Endoplasmic
reticulum
– Golgi apparatus
– Lysosomes
– Vacuoles
– Plasma membrane
• These components are either
continuous or
connected via transfer by vesicles
© 2011 Pearson
The Endoplasmic Reticulum:
Biosynthetic
Factory
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts
for
more than half of the total membrane in
• many
The ER membrane is continuous with the
eukaryotic
nuclear
envelop cells
• eThere are two distinct regions of
ER
–
– Smooth ER,surface
Rough ER, which lacks
is studded with
ribosomes
ribosomes
ER lumen
Cisternae Transitional ER
Ribosomes
Transport vesicle
200
Smooth Rough ER
nm
ER
FUNCTIONS OF SMOOTH ER
• The smooth ER
– Synthesizes lipids
– Metabolizes
carbohydrates
– Detoxifies drugs and
poisons
– Stores calcium ions
• The rough ER
– Has bound ribosomes, which secrete
glycoproteins (proteins covalently bonded
to carbohydrates)
– Distributes transport vesicles, proteins
surrounded by membranes
– Is a membrane factory for the cell
cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 μm
Golgi apparatus)
Cisternae
trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi
Golgi apparatus) apparatus
LYSOSOMES: DIGESTIVE COMPARTMENTS
• A lysosome is a membranous
sac of hydrolytic enzymes that
can digest macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze
proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and
nucleic acids
• Lysosomal enzymes work best in the
acidic environment inside the
lysosome
Lysosome
Digestive
enzymes
Lysosome
Plasma membrane
Digestion
Food vacuole
(a) Phagocytosis
Figure
6.13b
Vesicle containing
two damaged 1 μm
organelles
Mitochondrion
fragment
Peroxisome
fragment
Lysosome
Peroxisome
Mitochondrion Digestion
Vesicle
(b) Autophagy
Vacuoles: Diverse
Maintenance Compartments
• A plant cell or fungal cell may have
one or several vacuoles, derived from
endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Plasma
membrane
Figure 6.15-
2
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Plasma
trans Golgi membrane
Figure 6.15-
3
Nucleus
Rough ER
Smooth ER
cis Golgi
Plasma
trans Golgi membrane
CONCEPT 6.5: MITOCHONDRIA AND
CHLOROPLASTS CHANGE ENERGY FROM
ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular
respiration, a metabolic process that uses
oxygen to generate ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae,
are the sites of photosynthesis
• Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
INTERMEMBRANE
SPACE
Outer
membrane
DNA
Inner
Free membrane
ribosomes
in the Crista
mitochondrial e
Matrix
matrix
0.1 μm
(a) Diagram and TEM of mitochondrion
• Chloroplast structure includes
– Thylakoids, membranous sacs,
stacked to form a granum
– Stroma, the internal fluid
• The chloroplast is one of a group of
plant
organelles, called plastids
10 μm
ROLES OF THE
CYTOSKELETON: SUPPORT AND
MOTILITY
• The cytoskeleton helps to support the
cell and maintain its shape
• It interacts with motor proteins to
produce motility
• Inside the cell, vesicles can travel
along “monorails” provided by the
cytoskeleton
• Recent evidence suggests that the
cytoskeleton may help regulate
biochemical activities
(b)
COMPONENTS OF THE CYTOSKELETON
10
μm
25 nm
α β Tubulin
dimer
Table
6.1b
10 μm
Actin subunit
7 nm
Table
6.1c
5 μm
Keratin proteins
Fibrous subunit (keratins
coiled together)
8−12
nm
MICROTUBULES
CENTROSO Microtubule
ME
Centrioles
0.25 μm
Longitudinal
section of
one
centriole
0.5 μm 0.1 μm
(a) Longitudinal section Triplet
of motile cilium
0.1
μm
Triplet
MICROTUB
ULE ATP
DOUBLETS
Dynein protein
Cross-linking proteins
ATP
between outer doublets
1 3
2
Anchorage
in cell
Plasma membrane
Microfilaments
(actin
filaments)
Intermediate
filaments
0.25 μm
• Microfilaments that function in cellular
motility contain the protein myosin in
addition to actin
MUSCLE
CELL 0.5 μm
Actin
filament
Myosin
filament
Myosin
head
(a)
Myosin
motors
in
muscle
cell
contracti
Figure
6.27b
CORTEX (OUTER
CYTOPLASM): GEL WITH
ACTIN NETWORK 100 μm
Inner cytoplasm:
sol
with actin
subunits
Extending
pseudopodi
um
(b) Amoeboid movement
Figure
6.27c
Chloroplast 30
(c) Cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells μm
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENTS
Collagen EXTRACELLULAR
FLUID
Proteoglycan
complex
Integrins
Plasma
membrane
CYTOPLASM
Micro-
filaments
Figure
6.30b
POLYSACCHA
RIDE
MOLECULE
Carbohydrates
Core
protein
Proteoglycan
molecule
Proteoglycan
complex
CELL JUNCTIONS
CELL
WALLS
Interior
of cell
Interior
of cell
0.5 μm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
TIGHT JUNCTIONS, DESMOSOMES, AND
GAP JUNCTIONS IN ANIMAL CELLS
TEM
0.5 μm
Tight junction
Intermediate
filaments
D
e
s
m TEM
o 1
s Gap μm
o junction
m
e
Ions or small
molecules
Space
between cells
TEM
Extracellular
Plasma membranes matrix
of adjacent cells 0.1 μm
Chapter 7
Membrane Structure
and Function
Function: The plasma
membrane exhibits selective
permeability, allowing some
substances to cross it more
easily than others
Hydrophilic
head
WATER
•Peripheral proteins usually on inner side of membrane & held their by Ionic
{with charged lipid head) or hydrophobic (with a second hydrophobic
protein) Interaction
•Hydrophobic & hydrophilic regions of integral proteins
• Freeze-fracture studies of the plasma
membrane supported the fluid mosaic model
• Freeze-facture is a specialized
preparation technique that splits a
membrane along the middle of the
phospholipid bilayer
LE 7-
4
A
B
C
D
E