Part II

Communication

• The word communication is used in common talk, usually to mean speaking or writing or
sending a message to another person.
• Communication is really much more than that. It involves ensuring that messages reach
the persons to whom they are sent, that the receivers understand and respond as we want
them to; and that we ourselves are able to understand, interpret, and respond to messages
that are sent to us.

What is Communication?

• Sillars (1988) defines communication as ‘the giving, receiving or exchange of information,

opinions or ideas by writing, speech or visual means-or any combination of the three-so
that the materials communicated is completely understood by everyone concerned.’
Communication

• Generally, communication can be defined as the purposeful transfer of information from one person to
another, or from one person to a group, or from one group to another.
• It is a purposeful transfer because whenever we communicate we have a certain goal to achieve, in other
words conscious or intended communication has a purpose. We communicate because we want to make
someone do something or take some action, or think or feel in a certain way.

 Is a two-way process in which the speaker must have a listener and the writer a reader to share experience
(Baselmi, 1979) .

From this three definitions we get three things.

1. Communication should always be a purposeful process.
2. Communication should be mutually shared.
3. In any communication cycle, the message communicated should be completely understood.
Effective communication

• Communication is effective only when the message is understood and when it

stimulates action or encourages a receiver to think in a new ways and give the sender
expected response.
• Effective communication produces the desired effect or result. All communications,
intentional or unintentional, have some effect. It serves its purpose for which it was
planned or designed.
Ineffective communication

• If there is no feedback or the expected response by the receiver to the

sender, communication is ineffective.

• Ineffective communication can be caused by certain barrier or noise in

the process of communicating and can interfere with sound business
solutions and can make problems worse.
Communication process

• Communication is a dynamic, transaction (two ways) process that can be broken into six phases:-
• 1ST phase- The sender has an idea: You conceive an idea and want to share it.
• 2nd phase- The sender encodes an idea: When you put your idea into a message that your receiver will
understand, your are encoding it.

• Encoding is how an idea is crafted into a message. It involves choices of words , sentences, needs and
different forms of conventions by which a message will be communicated. The message is normally
converted into a suitable form for transmission. For example, the message will take a different form if
the communication will be spoken or written. The basic question to ask at this level is “What has to be
communicated to Who and How?”
Cont…
• 3rd phase- The sender transmits the message: Physically to transmits your message to
your receiver, you select a communication channel
• 4th phase- The receiver gets the message: For communication to occur, your receiver
must first get the message.
Cont…
• 5th phase-The receiver decodes the message: Your receiver must
decode (absorb and understand) your message must then be stored in
the receiver’s mind.
• Decoding is the process where the Message is interpreted for its content.
It also means the Receiver thinks about the message's content and
internalizes the message. In this process , the receiver compares the
message to prior experiences or external stimuli.
• 6th phase-The receiver sends feedback: Feedback is the response or
return message which may be in words (spoken or written) sign or
behaviour, both conscious and unconscious.
Cont…
• Feedback is the final step in the communications process. Once the
message is understood (encoded) by the Receiver. The Receiver formats
an appropriate reply following the same series of events/steps and sends it
to the Sender of the original message.
“This is to say the communication process is cyclic”.
Elements of Communication
In order for any communication to take place there should be the following
basic elements;
• Sender/Source
• Message
• Channel
• Receiver
• Feedback
Consider the following Berlo’s SMCR Communication Model
Sender Message Channel Receiver
Knowledge content hearing knowledge
Com. Skills code Seeing Com. Skills
Social Systems treatment touching Social Systems
Attitude structure Smelling Attitude
tasting
feedback
FACTORS TO CONSIDER IN SELETING A MEDIUM/CHANNEL

• When choosing the channel/medium a sender needs to consider the following factors;
• The speed with which the message should be conveyed.
• Need for confidentiality
• Need for accuracy in transmission
• Need for reliability of the medium is an important factor.
• The type of audience you want to reach/ who is the receiver?
Cont…
• Cost of the medium
• Availability of a particular medium
• Feedback capacity of the medium/ do you need immediate feedback
• Availability of hard copy for record.
• Formality
• Intensity and complexity of the message is a major factor.
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

• You cannot state the kind of communication you are involved in and the number of
the types of communication that people involve in until you decide specific criteria for
your judgment. This means that the classification communication is not such a
straight forward task. It depends on the criteria used which obviously tend to vary and
overlap from one scholar to another.
• The table below will help you learn different criteria that scholars use to classify
communication and the respective kinds of communication.
Cont…

CRITERIA KIND OF COMMUNICATION

• Number of individuals and • Intrapersonal communication.

size of a group • Interpersonal communication

 Small group communication
 Large group communication
 Public communication
 Mass communication
Cont…

CRITERIA KIND OF COMMUNICATION

• Channel • Verbal communication
 Oral/ spoken
 Written
• Nonverbal communication
Cont…

Cont… Cont…
• Power relation • Vertical communication
 Top-down
communication/Downwards
 Down-top
communication/Upwards
• Horizontal communication
COMMUNICATION IN AN
ORGANIZATION SETTINGS
• The specific objectives of downward communication and of upward
communication are usually different though both have the broad
objectives or information and / or persuasion
Cont…
• The main objectives of communication are information and persuasion;
other objectives are aspects of these two broad objectives.
• Information consists of facts and figures and data arranged in patterns
which are usefully for difference purposes
OBJECTIVES OF DOWNWARDS
COMMUNICATION
• Instructions and orders
• Education and training
• Motivation
• Raising Morale
• Advice
• Counseling
• Warning
• Appreciation
OBJECTIVES OF UPWARD COMMUNICATION

• A good deal of communication also moves upward from subordinates to

superior. In fact, companies encourage such upward communication.
• Managers need to know what is going on in all parts of the organisation
besides, it creates and maintains a good atmosphere if people are
encouraged to express their views.
Objectives of upward
communication
• Request
• Application
• Appeal
• Demand
• Representation
• Complaint
• Suggestion
OBJECTIVES OF HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION

• Communication between people of the same status is mainly for exchange

of information (Can communicate from one department to another).
• The main purpose of horizontal communication co-ordination
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL MESSAGES
• Task coordination
• Problem solving
• Sharing information
• Conflicts Resolution
• Building Report
 Forms of Communication
Communication takes different forms which can be broadly divided into two.

1. Verbal Forms

Written Spoken/Oral
-letters -planned informal talk
-memo -unplanned exchange
-informal note -interview
-press release -telephone call
-forms -group meeting
-notice -committee meeting
-reports -formal presentation
-electronic means (fax, telex, emails, telemessage etc.)
-newsletters, committee documents etc.
 Non verbal
Communication
• Non Verbal is communication without words, it is an
important form of communication, without saying a single
word, you can express your feelings with body language-
gestures, facial expression and body movements or position
etc.

• Non verbal communication can add emphasis and depth to

spoken words and can even tell you whether or not to believe
a speaker. “ACTION SPEAKS LOUDER THAN WORDS”.

• Non-verbal message may reinforce or contradict the verbal

message.
 Forms of Non verbal Communication
• Different ways of communicating nonverbally:
Facial expression and gestures e.g. rolling, shrinking, winking
and twinkling of the eyes, frowning, twisting the lips, wobbling the
head, fidgeting in the seat, fumbling the pockets, biting the nails etc

Auditory symbols e.g. sirens and whistles, Bells and buzzers

Touching behavior/physical: contact governed by relatively strict

customs that establish who can touch whom and how

Vocal characteristics/Paralanguage: Voice carries both

intentional and unintentional messages.
 Cont…

Use of Time and Space e.g. punctuality, occupying the best

space
Silence: multiple meaning to both sender and receiver.
the employees talking, boss arrived unexpected suddenly
become silent, is it respect???, or fear ????.
An employee requests a raise in salary and the boss remains
silent, does it signify refusal???
Colour e.g. outfit, valentine colours, funeral, outings etc
The use of symbols and signs, diagrams, graphs, charts,
bolding
 Oral vs. Written Communication
Advantages and Disadvantages

ORAL COMMUNICATION WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

• It is direct and easy to get immediate • It can be stored
feedback • It is accurate and precise: It is usually
• It allows interactions formulated with great care.
• It make use of body language • It facilitate the assignation of responsibilities
• It is permanent and therefore people can
• In most of the cases (e.g., when it is
make reference
within the organization) oral
communication saves money also. • It can be revised
• It is effective for relatively simple ideas • It can be used to transfer information which
is bulky, complex, or confidential
• Most effective for messages with visual •
It ensures accuracy when message is passed
or hands on elements from one person to another/ It ensures
• The informal plane on which oral transmission of information in a uniform
communication is mostly carried out manner.
helps to promote friendly relations • It can be quoted as legal evidence in case of
between the parties communicating any disputes
with each other. • It has a wide access
 Oral vs. Written Communication
Advantages and Disadvantages
ORAL COMMUNICATION
WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

• It is not permanent, records • It does not allow interactions

cannot be kept
• It is limited to those who know how
• It cannot be revised/ there is no
chance of revising what is to be to read and write, the literates/ it is
spoken. selective
• Possible loss of accuracy when • Delayed or nonexistent feedback
message passes through several
people.
• Quick clarification is not possible
• Can be denied incase of any • It is costly
dispute/ oral messages do not • What has been written can be used
have any legal validity unless are
taped and made a part of
as evidence in case of dispute
permanent record. • Since it keeps permanent records,
• It is not appropriate for it does not allow alteration
information which is bulky, • No use of body cues
complex or confidential
 Benefits of effective communication

Effective business communication has the following

benefits;
• Stronger decision making and faster problem solving.
• Earlier warning of potential problems
• Increased productivity and steadier work flow
• Stronger business relationships
• Clearer and more persuasive marketing messages
• Enhanced professional emerge for both employers and
companies
• Lower employee turnover and higher employee satisfactions
• Better financial results and higher returns for investors.
Cont...
Better quality documents
Lesser misunderstanding
Increased awareness among employees
Improved customer relations
Healthier business relationships
 Barriers to effective Communication

• Communication is not always successful; several things can

prevent the message from reaching the intended recipient or
from having the desired effect on the recipient.

• In order to bring about effective communication carefully

manipulation of the five elements of communication is needed.

• The following can hinder/interfere/bring noise or

communication breakdown:

Perception: people’s individual interpretation of the sensory

world around them.
 Barriers to Effective Communication

Language/linguistic barrier. This can appear in various ways:

The use of foreign language
The use of jargons or technical terms/words
The use of slangs or street words/language or expressions
The use of ambiguous words/terms or sentences.
• The manager likes the company than the personnel.
• The manager likes the company more than he/she likes the
personnel.
• The manager likes the company more than the personnel like it.
Mishandling of punctuation marks
The use of unknown abbreviations
Accent/ pronunciation
Dialect
 Barriers to Effective Communication

Psychological: all about mental agitation

Total failure to communicate which can be brought by;
Social distance or Geographical distance/ physical
distractions
Organisational barrier: structure and the size
Inappropriate medium
Vague purpose
Inability to understand non-verbal cues/ways
Lack of knowledge or interest in the subject
Information overload
Cultural differences
 Inter and Intra Personal
Communication
• Intrapersonal communication is communication within oneself
for the purpose of clarifying ideas, or analysing a situation and
to reflect upon or appreciate something.

• It stays within a person’s mind, but it is the basis of all other

communication. It can be called Inner Monologue

• The aspects of Intrapersonal communication are:

 Self-Concept
Perception
Expectation
Motivation
 Cont…
• Self Concept – determines how person sees himself/herself and is
oriented towards others. How we think about and evaluate ourselves

• Perception – organisation, identification and interpretation of sensory

information inorder to present and understand the environment

• Expectation – Future oriented messages dealing with long term roles

or life scripts

• Motivation - Intrinsic and extrinsic factors that stimulate desire and

energy in a person to be continually to do something or to make an
effort to attain a goal
 Cont…
Intrapersonal Communication is of three types
1.Internal discourse (thinking, concentration,
analysis, prayers, meditation)

2.Solo vocal communication ( speaking aloud to

yourself)

3.Solo written communication (writing for yourself;

personal journal or diary)
 Interpersonal communication

What is interpersonal communication?

Is a face-to-face communication though which people exchange
information, opinions, feelings and meaning through verbal and non-verbal
messages. Interpersonal communication is not just about what is actually
said – the language used - but how it is said and the non-verbal messages
sent through tone of voice, facial expressions, gestures and body language.
People often use speech and non-verbal behaviour to communicate varied
messages.
 Cont…
Even if, for instance, a person appears in a particular dress,
he/she
might not be intentionally communicating but the dress may still
communicate a lot to others around. Thus, interpersonal
communication does
not necessarily focus on the intended messages in actual
communication but
also it considers the unintended ones.
 Interpersonal Communication
Much research has been done to try to break down interpersonal
communication into a number of elements in order that it can be more easily
understood.
 The Communicators
 The Message
 Noise
 Context
 Channel
 Feedback
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication

 The Communicators
For any communication to occur there must be at least two individuals
involved. Sending and receiving messages is always done simultaneously;
while one person is talking the other is listening - but while listening they are
also sending feedback in the form of smiles, head nods etc. In other words, the
communicators are in an interactive process.

 The Message
Message not only means the speech used or information conveyed, but also the
non-verbal messages exchanged such as facial expressions, tone of voice,
gestures and body language. Non-verbal behaviour can convey additional
information about the spoken message. In particular, it can reveal more about
emotional attitudes which may underlie the content of speech.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication

 The Noise
It refers to anything that distorts the message, so that what is received
iscdifferent from what is intended by the speaker. The use of
complicated jargon, inappropriate body language, inattention,
disinterest, and cultural differences can be considered 'noise' in
the
context of interpersonal communication. In other words, any
distortions or inconsistencies that occur during an attempt to
communicate can be seen as noise.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication
 The Context
All communication is influenced by the context in which it takes place. Apart
from looking at the situational context of where the interaction takes place, for
example in a room, office, or perhaps outdoors, the social context also needs to
be considered, for example the roles, responsibilities and relative status of the
participants. The emotional climate and
participants‘ expectations of the interaction will also affect the communication.

 Channel
The channel refers to the physical means by which the message is transferred
from one person to another. In face-to-face context the channels which are used
are speech and vision, however during a telephone conversation the channel is
limited to speech alone.
 Elements of Interpersonal Communication
 Feedback
Feedback consists of messages the receiver returns, which allows the sender to
know how accurately the message has been received, as well as the receiver's
reaction. The receiver may also respond to the unintentional message as well
as the intentional message.

Types of feedback range from direct verbal statements, for example "Say that
again, I don't understand", to indirect non- Verbal cues, for example a thumb
up sign to agree or like something, to subtle facial expressions or changes in
posture that might indicate to the sender that the receiver feels uncomfortable
with the message. Feedback allows the sender to regulate, adapt or repeat the
message in order to improve communication.
 Intra and Inter Personal Communication in Johari Window Model

What is Johari Window?

Is a simple useful tool for understanding and training self-awareness, personal
development, improving communication, interpersonal relationships, group
dynamics, team development and intergroup relationships within the context of
communication.

The Model was developed by two American Psychologists- Joseph Luft and Harry
Ingham in the 1950’s calling it
• Joseph + Harry Jo-Harry (Johari)

• It inspire us to be authentic, open and genuine and more open in interpersonal

communication

• This is the two way model which gives us square, thus why it called WIndow
 The four Johari Window perspectives

• Called 'regions' or 'areas' or 'quadrants'.

• Each contains and represents the information - feelings, motivation, etc – in terms
of whether the information is known or unknown by the person, and whether the
information is known or unknown by others in a team.

• Open area, Open self, Free area, Free self, or 'the Arena‘: what is known by
the person about him/herself and is also known by others
 Cont…
• Blind area, Blind self, or 'blindspot’: what is unknown
by the person about him/herself but which others know.

• Hidden area, Hidden self, Avoided area, Avoided self

or 'façade’: what the person knows about him/herself that
others do not know.

• Unknown area or Unknown self: what is unknown by

the person about him/herself and is also unknown by
others.
 Johari Window
Perspectives
Know to Not know to
self others
Know Open Blind
to Arena Y-axis
others
Not Hidden Unknown
known to
others

X-axis
 Open Area
• I know you, you know me
• There is no secret between an individuals
• I’m very willing in conversation
• I’m aware of all this I’m willing to communicate
willingly openly
 Hidden Area/ Façade/Masked
Window
• I know but you don’t
• Here we’are keeping information private under wraps e.g
fear and other issue
• May be you have something in your past, your would not
rather to talk about about
• Here your not sharing your person information e.g hope
and dream
• You keep secret because you don’t want to be criticized
• You decide to keep secrecty whenever you are talking to
others it goes to Open Arena
Blind sport
• I don’t know you do
• We may not realize certain things about ourselves but
others do
• It could be positive or negative
• You can use this to figure out what other people think
to help you to grow
 Unknown
• In this window, I don’t know you don’t know

This is the information which nobody knows at least not yet

Qn?
How do we know this square even exists?