Introduction to World

Religions and Belief

Abrahamic Religions
JUDAISM
LESSON 1
What is Judaism?
 Learning Objectives
Examine the History of Judaism
Identify the core teaching, beliefs and practices of Judaism
Analyze other related issues of Judaism
 Judaism
-Judaism is an ancient monotheistic religion that traces its origin as an organized belief
system during the Bronze Age in West Asia. The religion of the Jewish people. Judaism is one
of three Abrahamic religions that also include Christianity and Islam. It is the religion
professed by the Jews known as the "people of the Book" in reference to their sacred text
written covering nearly a thousand years and formalized as a canon of teaching by the end of
the first century C.E. It is quite difficult to study key events in the historical foundation of
Judaism without discussing the history of the Jewish people from the time of the Hebrews'
mass departure from Egypt or the Exodus. During the 20th century, the growth in their
population has remained sluggish for quite a long time as it grew to only 25% after the
catastrophic event called Holocaust.
-According to a 2014 report, there were around 14 million Jewish people representing 0.2%
of the entire world population. The largest concentration of Jews can be found in Israel, North
America (United States and Canada), and Central Europe. Other countries with sizable Jewish
population include France, United Kingdom, Russia, Argentina, Germany, and Australia.
 Historical Background
-It is quite difficult to separate the history of Judaism from the history of the Jews
themselves (Partinder 1971).
-The ancestors of the Jews were groups of Semites called Hebrews whose origin
can be traced in the desert lands of Arabia (Brown 1975). The origin of the Jewish
people and the beginning of Judaism are recorded in the first five books of the
Hebrew Bible, the Pentateuch.
-As a religion and culture, Judaism has three notable founding figures or patriarchs,
namely; Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob. These biblical patriarchs are the physical and
spiritual forebears of the Jewish people and their narratives can be found in
Genesis 12-50 of their scripture.
-Judaism is anchored upon God's revelation to Abraham that He is the creator and
ruler of the universe, and that He loves His creatures and demands righteousness
from them (Losch 2001). God chose Abraham and his family from all the people
living on earth as recorded in Genesis 12. After a series of tragic events involving
humankind, God entered into a covenant with Abraham promising him that he
would become the father of a great nation and would possess vast tracts of land.
Abraham, in return, must remain devoted to the covenant. He would become the
embodiment of uprightness and holiness to the world. Later on, he was succeeded
by his son Isaac, his grandson Jacob, and Jacob's twelve sons (Hopfe 1983).
-These patriarchs are depicted as nomads in biblical stories. According to tradition,
Abraham's original name was "Abram" who was born in the city of Ur of the
Chaldeas around 1800 B.C.E. Questioning the folly of idol worship, Abram left his
home and family to heed the call of God on route to Canaan situated on the
western side of the Fertile Crescent. The Jewish people believe that they
descended from a tribe in Canaan located in the eastern Mediterranean presently
occupied by Israel, Jordan, and Syria (Bowker 1997).
-A covenant has been established between God and Abram, and Abram must prove
his worth to this agreement by way of tests of faith throughout his lifetime. While
Abram and his wife Sarai were initially childless, Abram bore a son to Sarai's
Egyptian handmaid Hagar. He was named Ishmael who is considered as the ancestor
of the Arabs. However, Ishmael was not the heir to God's promise. God changed
Sarai's name to "Sarah," meaning “princess" or "noblewoman”. Later in life, the old
Abram and Sarah had a son named Isaac, the heir to God's covenant and the
ancestor of the Jewish people. Abram's name was changed to "Abraham" or the
"the father of many nations. Abraham's story is narrated in Genesis 11-25 of the
Hebrew Bible.
-The most difficult trial given to Abraham came when God commanded that he
sacrifice its own son Isaac at an altar in Mount Moriah. Abraham obeyed by be a fire
and tying up Isaac. With Abraham's obedience being put to the lost, an angel
stopped him and he was eventually reunited with his son. A ram was instead
sacrificed In place of Isaac Later on, Isaac married Rebecca who bore him twin sons,
Jacob and Esau Always in constant strife, the younger Jacob bought Esau's birthright
and tricked his father Isaac into giving him Esau's blissing as the eldest son (Bowker
1997). Jacob fled to his uncle's house to escape Esau's fury.
-Later on, Jacob returned home and reconciled with Esau. A close encounter with
an angel merited him a change of name from Jacob to "Israel" which means "the
one who wrestled with God." The Jewish people are referred to as the "children of
Israel Among four different women, Jacob fathered twelve sons and one daughter
The twelve sons who became the ancestors of the tribes in Israel were Reuben
Simeon, Levi, Judah, Zebulun, Issachar, Dan, Gad, Asher, Naphtali, Joseph, und
Benjamin After being sold to slavery by his jealous brothers, Joseph was brought to
Egypt where his ability to see and interpret visions earned him a place in the court
as a vizier, a position next only to the pharaoh. As famine struck Canaan, Jacob and
his family were forced to settle in Egypt.
-While the book of Genesis ends with a great nation emerging from Abraham's
descendants, the book of Exodus begins with them crying out for deliverance from
Egyptian bondage (Hopfe 1983). They were not in Canaan as initially promised but
were under enslavement in Egypt. As centuries passed and the descendants of
Israel grew in number, the alarmed pharaoh decreed that all male children be put
to death by Throwing them to the river.
-A woman from Levi's tribe, Jochebed, secretly placed her youngest child in a
woven basket and sent him down the Nile River. The pharaoh's daughter, Bithia,
found the child, rescued him, and reared him as her own. Jochebed volunteered to
nurse the child, now named Moses, who was raised within the Egyptian royal
family.
-At the age of forty, Moses killed an Egyptian in defense of a slave and fled to the
Sinal desert where he spent the next forty years as a shepherd (Hopfe 1983). On
Mount Horeb, Abraham's God revealed himself to Moses as he spoke through a
burning bush that was not consumed. Revealing God's name as "Yahweh," he
commended Moses to return to Egypt and demand the release of Israelites from
slavery. After his initial refusal, the Egyptian pharaoh conceded after the ten
miraculous and horrific plagues were inflicted by God upon Egypt and its people
most especially the plague on the firstborn. While the firstborn sons of every
Egyptian household would die, sons of Israelites would be saved if they marked
their door posts with the blood of lamb killed in sacrifice. In that fated night, the
lamb must be cooked and eaten with bitter herbs and unleavened bread This is
known as the Passover an Important Jewish festival.
-The Israelites were banished from Egypt with Moses leading than across the Red
Sea (Yam Suph or "Sea of Reeds” in some accounts). When the pharaoh changed
his mind and began to pursue the fleeing Israelites, Moses parted the Red Sea that
allowed them to cross the water and reach the dry lands of Sinal. Meanwhile, the
pursuing Egyptian chariots were drowned after the waters receded. This event
called Exodus became part of Jewish history that manifested Yahweh's intervention
to deliver his chosen people (Hopfe 1983).
-Another significant event in Jewish history was the giving of the Ten
Commandments at Mount Sinai. These supreme laws, which are basic to the Jewish
people, were communicated to the Israelites through Moses during their time in
the wilderness. Moses eventually united the different tribes into one group and
consecrated to the worship of the one living god (Brown 1975). Forty years after
the Exodus, Moses died in the desert within reach of the "Promised Land."
Socio-Political Dynamics of
Judaism
-The Old Testament gives us ideas on socio-political dynamics of Judaism.
Understanding the Jewish concepts on politics and society would help us understand
the historical development of Judaism as one of the world's religions and see its
relevance in contemporary times.
-The Jewish concept of leadership based on the Old Testament directs us to certain
types of leadership, one of which is kingship as the ideal form of government. This can
be deduced from the chronicles of the Kings of Israel and Judah, as well as in the Book
of Deuteronomy, which stated, "Let me put a king over me like all the nations that are
around me (Deut. 17: 14-15). In relation to the idea of kingship, the concept of
"covenant" between the ruler and the ruled is equally important as well in Judaism. Just
as God the Father entered into a covenant with His people (such as the covenant
between God and Abraham), the same should also be true for the King and his subjects.
Thus, socio-political dynamics can also be described as following the model of tribal
federation in which various tribes and institutions shared political power. Although they
practice communal living, there were certain people who hold important positions in
society with regard to their roles in Judaism, such as the rabbi who functions as a
 Sacred Scriptures
-The Jewish people have been called the "people of the Book" in reference to the Hebrew Bible
(Tanakh or Mikra) that has been the authority, guide, and inspiration of the many forms of Judaism
that have evolved throughout the different periods of time and in various places (Parrinder 1971).
Composed over a period of almost a thousand years, collections within the Bible became
established in its full canonical form by the end of the first century CE. (Parrinder 1971).
According to the Jewish tradition, the Hebrew Bible is divided into three principal sections, namely
the Torah, Nevi’im, and Ketuvim. The foundational text Torah ("Teaching") is composed of the first
"Five Books" or the Pentateuch traditionally believed to have been authored by Moses through
divine instruction in Sinai. There include Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
Apart from containing basic laws for Jewish self-understanding, the Pentateuch also narrates the
history, religious statues, and moral regulations for individuals and society, ceremonial rites and
creation stories by Yahweh, and the origin and growth of mankind (Braswell 1094). Meanwhile, the
Nevi’im ("Prophets") is subdivided into Earlier Prophets, Later Prophets, and twelve minor prophets.
Prophets served as spokespersons who criticize the hypocritical practices of Jewish rituals. They
were specifically chosen by God to preach his message to the people. Lastly, the Ketuvim
("Writings") form the third section of the Tanakh that contains works on poetry, temple ritual,
private prayer, philosophical explorations, and other canonical works.
In the strictest sense, Torah refers to the "Five Books of Moses." However, it can
also pertain to the entire Hebrew Bible known as the Old Testament to non-Jews
but Tanakh (or the "Written Torah") to the Jews. Broadly speaking. Torah could
mean the whole body of Jewish laws and teachings.
Another sacred writing of Judaism is the Talmud (or the "Oral Torah") which means
"study. All studies and interpretations done by Jewish rabbis or teachers of the
Torah are contained in the Talmud. In short, the Talmud is an authoritative
collection of rabbinic interpretations of the sacred scriptures. It contains materials
of law and moral codes. Around the second century C.E., this oral law was compiled
and written down as Mishnah or a restatement of the law by a respected opinion.
The next few centuries witnessed the writing of an additional strand of
commentaries in Jerusalem and Babylonia about the Mishnah. Known as Gemara,
it includes legends, folklores, and sayings (Brasswell 1994). The Mishnah and
Gemara comprise the Talmud that was completed in the 5th century C.E. Serving as
the foundation for all Jewish laws codes, the whole Talmud contains 63 tractates
that is often printed over 6.200 pages long. Apart from being a book of law, the
Talmud is also a fountain of religious thought and inspiration similar to the
Pentateuch (Jurji 1948)
The Pentateuch is the single most important scripture for the Jewish people that
became the source of their inspiration and direction for centuries. It became the
foundation of other essential Jewish writings, such as the Talmud and Mishnah.
With all these codified laws and legal materials, Judaism has become a religion of
the law and the Jews as the chosen people have shown obedience to God's
covenant throughout their long and tumultuous history (Hopfe 1983).
 Beliefs and Doctrines
In Judaism, actions are more significant than beliefs. However, while Judaism has
no dogma, there is definitely a place for belief within the religion since it focused
on the worship of one god, the practice of good deeds and the love of learning
(Brasswell 1994). For the Jews, there is one everlasting god who created the
universe in its entirety and remains the master of it (Parrinder 1971).
Human beings were created by God who provided them the capacity to decide
what is right and wrong, and gave them the freedom and responsibility for their
own actions (Losch 2001). Humans have the ability to restrain their evil intentions
because of their propensities for both good and evil (Parrinder 1971). For Jews, all
human beings are created equal. While God can communicate with humans
through revelations, humans can also commune to him by means of prayers and
meditations.
With regard one's Jewishness, a Jew is someone whose mother is a Jew, although
some sectors recognize the children of Jewish fathers as Jews, too. While a Jew may
not lose one's technical status as a Jew by converting to another religion, he or she
loses the religiosity emanating from his or her Jewish identity. A person may also
convert to Judaism, but he or she has to undergo numerous rituals.
 Articles of Faith
Perhaps the closest approach in having an acceptable creed in Judaism was
proposed by the eminent medieval Jewish philosopher Moshe ben Maimon (also
known as Rambam or Moses Maimonides) during the latter part of twelfth century
C.E as an appendix to his commentary on the Mishnah. According to Moshe ben
Maimon, the minimum requirements of Jewish belief as listed in his thirteen
principles of faith are as follows:
Jewish Principles of Faith
• God exist • The Written Torah and the Oral
• God is one and unique
Torah were given to Moses
• God is incorporeal
• There will be no other Torah
• God is eternal
• God knows the thoughts and deeds of
• Prayer is directed to God alone and to men
no other
• God will reward the good and punish
• The words of the prophets are true the wicked
• Moses’ prophecies are true, and • The Messiah will come
Moses was the greatest of the
• The dead will be resurrected
prophets.
These statements of belief were eventually constructed as credo with every article
beginning with "I believe" and then later versified, set to music, and included in
prayer books (Jurji 1946). Though controversial when first formulated and evoked
much criticism or even disregarded for many centuries, these principles are
generally accepted nowadays by the Jewish community.
 The Ten Commandments
The Ten Commandments are a set of absolute laws given by God to Moses at the
biblical Mount Sinal that shall govern the life of every Israelite. Most scholars
consider this period as the official beginning of Judaism as an organized and
structured belief system. These laws are
 The 10 Commandments in Deuteronomy 5;6-
21
I am the LORD your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt out of the house of bondage. You shall have
no other gods before me.
"You shall not make for yourself a carved image any likeness of anything that is in heaven above or that is in the
earth beneath or that is in the water under the earth you shall not bow down to them nor serve them. For I. the
LORD your God, am a jealous God visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and fourth
generations of those who hate Me. but showing mercy to thousands to those who love Me and keep My
commandments.
"You shall not take the name of the LORD your God in vain, for the LORD will not hold him guiltless who takes
His name in vain.
Observe the Sabbath day, to keep it holy as the LORD your God commanded you. Six days you shall labor and
do all your work, but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the LORD you God in it you shall do no work you nor your
son, nor your daughter, nor your male servant nor your female servant, nor your ox, nor your donkey nor any of
your cattle, nor your stranger who is within your gates. that your male servant and your female servant may rest
as well as you. And remember that you were a slave in the land of Egypt, and the LORD your God brought you
out from there by a mighty hand and by an outstretched arms therefore the LORD your God commanded you to
keep the Sabbath day.
"Honor your father and your mother, at the LORD your God has commanded you that your days may be long and
that it may be well with you in the land which the LORD your God is giving you.
"You shall not murder”
"You shall not commit adultery “
“You shall not steal “
“You shall not bear false witness against your neighbor”
“You shall not covet your neighbor's wife and you shall not desire your neighbor's house, he field, his mate
servant, his female servant, his ox ha donkey or anything that is your neighbor’s.”
Inscribed on two stone tablets, these commandments present God's complete and
enduring standard for morality These include instructions to venerate only one god,
to honor one's parents, and to observe the Sabbath as a holy day. Meanwhile some
proscribed acts that are pointed out in the commandments include idolatry.
infidelity, murder, theft, and deceit. For more than three thousand years, the Ten
Commandments have been embraced by almost tow thirds of the entire world
population.
Apart from the Ten Commandments that form the theological basis of other
commandments, there are also 613 mitzvot or laws found within the Torah (as
identified by Rambam) that guide the Jewish people in their daily living.
Traditionally. there are 248 positive and 365 negative commandments within the
Torah (Parrinder 1971). These include laws about the family, personal hygiene, diet,
as well as duties and responsibilities to the community.
 Worship and Observances
The Jewish community utilizes a lunar calendar with twelve months, each
beginning at the new moon of 29 or 30 days. Every festival and Sabbath
commences and terminates at dusk (or sunset) rather than midnight in adherence
to the biblical pattern. The Jewish calendar is followed in observance of festivities,
holidays, and community and family celebrations (Brasswell 1994). Jewish holidays
are special days observed to commemorate key events in Jewish history and other
events that depict the special connections with the world, such as creation,
revelation, and redemption.
 Sabbath
The most important day in the Jewish calendar is the Sabbath (or Shabbat) which
commemorates God's completion of the creation of the universe and his rest after
the six-day toil (Parrinder 1971). This is the fourth law within the Ten
Commandments. It begins a few minutes before sunset on Friday and runs until an
hour after sunset on Saturday or almost 25 hours to be precise. At Friday sundown,
Sabbath candles are lighted and kiddush ("sanctification") is recited over wine of
grape juice. Children are then blessed by their parents. Jews must abstain from
work and must study the Torah. Some work prohibitions include lighting fires, using
money, and writing. The Sabbath ends through the symbolic ritual of havdalah
("division") done by dousing wine on candles and smelling sweet spices.
 The Days of Awe
• Tishri is the seventh month in the ecclesiastical year of the Jewish calendar. The
first ten days of Tishri are called the "Days of Awe" (Yamim Noraim) wherein the
first two days comprise the New Year (Rosh Hashanah) and the tenth day as the
Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur), Rosh Hashanah marks the start of the ten-day
period of penitence leading to the Yom Kippur and is distinguished from other
days by blowing a ram's horn trumpet (shofar) in the synagogue and eating
apples dipped in honey which is symbolic for a sweet new year. Using the shofar,
a total of one hundred notes are sounded each day. All Jews must undergo self-
reflection and make amends for all the sins they have committed. Rosh Hashanah
is also a day of judgement wherein God assesses one's deeds and decides what
lies ahead of him or her in the following year. These deeds are recorded
in the "Book of Life" and sealed on Yom Kippur. Work is not
permitted during the Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur.
Yom Kippur is the most sacred and solemn day in the Jewish calendar that brings
the period of repentance to its conclusion. The eve of the day is called Kol Nidrei
("all vows") which are the opening words of a prayer. The words and music of the
Kol Nidrei are said to be the most powerful single item in the Jewish liturgy. A day
of fasting and praying for absolution of one's sins, it provides every Jew an
opportunity for both personal and communal repentance (Parrinder 1971). One
must also refrain from eating and drinking, even water. Additional restrictions
include washing and bathing, using perfumes, wearing leather shoes, and engaging
in sexual relations. Symbolizing purity, it is customary for the Jews to wear white
during the holiday. An entire day must be spent in the synagogue while reciting
prayers. Another blowing of the ram's horn ends the final prayer service.
 Pilgrimage Festivals
During the olden days, the Torah commanded the ancient Israelites to go in
Jerusalem on three pilgrimage festivals and participate in the worship at the
Temple Also called the Shalosh Regalim, these are Pesach (Passover), Shavuot
(Weeks or Pentecost), and Sukkot (Tabemacles). These lestivals spiritualize human
he and marge nature and history in a divine pattern (Jurji 1946)
Pesach is an eight-day festival that originally marked the beginning of the barley
harvest (Perrinder 1971). Its 197 principal purpose is to commemorate and
recreate the Exodus of the Jews from Egypt. A festive meal (seder) is celebrated
wherein the story of Exodus is narrated by the heads of the family to the children.
 Pilgrimage Festivals
Shavuot is a two-day festival that was originally a celebration of the wheat harvest.
Presently, it is now being held to commemorate the revelation of the Torah to
Moses at Mount Sinai.
Sukkot is a nine-day festival commemorating the autumn harvest and the forty
years of the Israelites' stay in the desert wilderness subsisting solely on the bounty
of God. Temporary booths or structures (sukkah) are built in homes with a roof
through which one can see the stars in the sky. This is an attempt to recreate
Israelite life in the desert.
 Other Important Days
There are many feasts and festivals celebrated by the Jewish people. The family
assumes the principal responsibility for worship, religious education, and moral
behavior (Braswell 1994). Rituals and ceremonies are done both at home and in the
synagogue
Other important events in the Jewish calendar include the Hanukkah, Purim, and
the Independence Day of the State of Israel. Hanukkah ('Festival of Lights" or
"Feast of Dedication") is a celebration to commemorate the victory of Jewish
fighters against the Seleucid Empire in 165 B.C.E. Purim ("Feast of Esther)
celebrates the deliverance of the Jews during the Persian Empire, specifically from
the vizier Haman who wanted to annihilate all Persian Jews as recorded in the Book
of Esther.
 Halakha
Because Judaism is also a comprehensive way of life, Jewish people follow a set of
rules and practices that govern their everyday living. Collectively called halakha
which translates as "the path that one walks," these are Jewish religious laws
derived from the "Written Torah" and "Oral Torah“ including the 613 mitzvot.
Jewish laws contain directions on how to revere God and treat other people and
animals. Halakha instructs Jews what to do as they wake up in the morning, what
foods to eat, what clothes to wear, who to marry, and how to observe Sabbath and
holy days. When properly observed, halakha increases one's spirituality as even
mundane acts become essential to his or her existence.
 Synagogues
Synagogues are Jewish temples of worship, instruction, and community fellowship
that contain separate rooms designed for specific activities, such as praying and
studying. in Orthodox Judaism, men and women sit separately at the synagogues;
in Reform Judaism, they sit altogether in temples.
Similar to a Christian church, synagogues have seats facing an elevated platform
with one or two lecterns or chair. The central feature at the platform (bimah or
tebah) and the holiest spot inside a synagogue is the ark where the Torah scrolls
are kept. Reminiscent of the original Ark of the Covenant, an ark inside a temple is
normally placed in a manner that when people face the ark, they are facing in the
direction of Jerusalem. An ornate curtain (parochet) veils the ark while a lamp or
lantern (ner tamid) burns before it symbolizing the constantly lit six-branched
lampstand (menorah) in the Temple of Jerusalem (Braswell 1994).
While a Jewish layman may lead a prayer service during Sabbath if there are 10
adult rules present (minyan), the religious leader is oftentimes a trained rabbi. He
delivers sermon and interprets the Torah. The rabbi serves as a pastor,
administrator, and counselor.
 The Temple
Around 1003 B.C.E., David conquered Jerusalem and made it his capital. Bringing with him the “Ark
of the Covenant”, David intended to build a temple to become the first and fixed place of worship
for the Jews. However, God told David that It would be one of his sons who will have the privilege of
accomplishing this task.
The Hebrew Bible acknowledged Solomon, David's son, as the builder of the First Temple in
Jerusalem around 1000 B.C.E. which was also known as Solomon’s Temple. Within the temple, the
most important room was the "Holy of Holies" where ilaha illa Allah: Muhammadon rasul Allah."
These are the very first words uttered into an infant's ear and perhaps the last words given to a
dying Muslim. The shahada asserts that Allah is the only divinity and that he has relayed his will
through Muhammad (Bowker 1997).
To be accepted into the Islam fold, one must recite the kalima or phrase with two wilnesses. The
first half of the kalima is known as tawheed ("the unity") which is the most important statement of
Muslim faith. The second half is called risallah ("acceptance of prophethood") which implies
acceptance of prophets as messengers of god (Horrie & Chippindale 2003). For a Muslim to deny
any part of the shahada is tantamount to the crime of reversion to Islam that is punishable under
Quranic Law.
 Obligatory Prayer (Salat)
Just as the body requires food for its daily sustenance, prayers are done for spiritual
development so that a Muslim's character and conduct remain sound and healthy
(Aziz 1993). Facing in the direction of Mecca or qiblah, Muslims must offer prayers
or salat five times each and every day---before sunrise (as-subh), noon (az zuhr),
mid-afternoon (al-asr), immediately after sunset (al-maghreb), and before
midnight (al-isha) (Horie & Chippindale 2003). In a mosque or masjid ("place of
prostration") where Muslims offer prayers in congregation, man and women pray
separately. A structure of masjid can range from a simple desert prayer ground
(musalla) or just any space whereby rules of ritual purity are properly observed.
Each prayer session begins when the strong-voiced muezzin or caller recites the
call to prayer (adhan) from the tallest point of a mosque, often a minaret. A
minaret is a tall structure or thin tower that is used to call the people to prayer. The
adhan composed of rhythmic Arabic phrases devised by Muhammad himself, is
often recorded and broadcast through speakers (Home & Chippindale 2003). Quite
regrettably, muezzins have been slowly replaced by amplified voices and tape
recordings (Jomier 1999).
Before any prayer commences, an elaborate ritual washing (wudu) must be
performed to remove any impurities and unclean substances from the body or
clothes of the faithful. Most mosques are frequently equipped with facilities for
washing hands, feet, and face before prayer (Hopfe 12983). Clean and potable
water must be given any person who comes to a mosque (Horrie & Chippindale
2003). Muslim men often pray in mosques while women pray at their homes.
To pray, a Muslim stands on clean ground without shoes or wearing clean on
(Jorrier 1999). A special carpet may be provided to provide the person a clean
surface Nevertheless, aside from salat, a Muslim can address a prayer to Allah at
any given time in any circumstance using any words one chooses (Aziz 1993)
 Poor Tax (Zakat)
Muslims who live above the subsistence level must pay zakat or the poor tax to aid
the underprivileged Muslims. Affluent Muslims must share their wealth to the
example, services were permitted to be conducted in mixed Hebrew and English,
no longer conducted solely in the Hebrew language. Moreover, women were also
accorded equality in terms of sitting together with men in synagogues and allowing
them to become rabbis unlike in other denominations.
Largely developed in the 20th century. Conservative Judaism seeks to conserve
the traditional elements of Judaism while at the same time allowing for
modernization that is less radical than Reform Judaism. The application of new
historical methods of study in the light of contemporary knowledge but within the
limits of Jewish law may be applied to safeguard Jewish traditions. Gradual change
in law and practice is allowed only if such occurrence is in harmony with Jewish
traditions. Because Conservative Judaism falls hallway between the two other
major Jewish denominations, it is sometimes described as traditional Judaism
without fundamentalism.
Hasidism or Hasidic Judaism emerged in Germany during the twelfth century.
It was largely a spiritual movement that gives prime importance to asceticism and
experience as a result of love and humility before God. During the eighteenth
century. a modern Hasidic movement was started in Poland by Baal Shem Toy
(Master of the Good Name) as a reaction to the excessive legalistic nature of
Judaism during that time.
Lastly, Kabbalah is another mystical form of Judaism that attempts to penetrate
deeper into God's essence itself. While Kabbalists believe that God moves in
mysterious ways, they also hold that genuine knowledge and understanding of that
inner process is achievable. In the end, the most fulfilling relationship with God can
be accomplished. One important commentary on the Torah that underpinned
Kabbalah is the Zohar ("Splendor" or "Radiance") that first appeared in Spain in the
thirteenth century.
SELECTED
ISSUES
 Women In Judaism
Women's role in the Jewish religion is determined by the Tanakh, the "Oral Torah,"
and Jewish customs. Mishnah instructs that women must follow nearly all the
negative commandments except trimming the beard and viewing a dead body.
Women must also follow all positive commandments not structured by time but
are exempted from those that are restricted by time. The reason here is quite
simple, that is, to release women from laws that they find difficult or impossible to
perform given their traditional domestic roles, such as giving birth, taking care of
the family, and accomplishing household chores. In addition, women have the right
to be consulted on matters concerning marriage. Judaism offers tremendous
respect to roles given to women as wives and mothers. Even Jewishness or the
question of the Jewish self-identification is pass down through the mother.
Conservative Judaism has acted upon several areas that enable women to actively
participate in Jewish rituals thereby minimizing legal disparity between men and
women. For example, women can now read the Torah in public and be counted as
part of a minyan.
 Meanwhile, Orthodox Judaism, there exist different roles for men and women in
their religious lives. For example, it is sufficient for any woman to understand the
practical nature of the Torah, but she is traditionally excused from furthering her
education beyond that knowledge. In addition, she is dissuaded from studying the
Talmud and other complex Jewish writings up until the twentieth century. However,
provision fer education for Jewish women has progressed rapidly in the past
century. One interesting phenomenon in Judaism is the concept of agunot or
married women who wish to divorce their husbands but whose husbands decline
to do so. In Orthodox Judaism, only the husbands are given this privilege.
Lastly, Reform Judaism affirms that men and women should be equal in terms of
performing their duties within the Jewish community. Prayer books have been
revised in order to avoid words and pronouns that appear male in character, Jewish
patriarchs and matriarchs must be placed side by side whenever they are
mentioned In prayer books. While men and women generally sit separately in most
synagogues, Reform has allowed women to sit together with men.
 Jewish Diaspora and Zionist
Movement
In the 16th and 17th centuries, there had been calls to persuade the Jews to return
to Palestine. During the late 18th century, the Haskalah (“Jewish Enlightenment”)
movement promoted Jewish assimilation to Western secular culture (Parrinder
1971). In the early 19th century, the idea of Jewish returning to Palestine was kept
alive by Christian millenarians or believers of divine intervention that will ultimately
bring a new world order. However, these movements failed in their objectives. In
1881, a state-supported mob attack or pogrom against the Jews occurred in Ukraine.
While a pogrom was aimed to persecute religious, racial or national minorities, this
violent riot became frequently directed at Jews. From 1881 1884, over 200 pogroms
occurred in the Russian Empire. As a result. Russian Jews emigrated to the US and
Western Europe (Perry 1988).
At the end of the nineteenth century, the Hungarian journalist and political activist
Theodor Herzl founded the Zionist movement that advocated the return of Jews to
Eretz Yisrael or "Land of Israel”. The term zion, also a Jewish synonym for Jerusalem,
came from the name of a mountain where Solomon's Temple in Jerusalem was
located. Originally secular in nature, supporters of this movement are called Zionists.
The Zionists believed that Jews as the chosen people of God will be reunited from
dispersion or exile back to their rightful homeland. The dispersion of Jewish
communities outside Israel that have continually occurred since ancient history is
called diaspora. Leon Pinsker, another Zionist pioneer and activist, published his
work Auto-Emancipation in 1882 that urged the Jewish people to strive for
independence and appealed for the establishment of a Jewish colony in Palestine.
Eventually, Zionist activities in the US became influential in garnering American
congressional and professional support that led to the creation of the state of Israel
in 1984. Since that time of establishment, the Zionist movement has come to
promote the development and protection of Israel.
 Holocaust
The term Holocaust is of Greek origin that means "sacrifice by fire" In history.
Holocaust pertains to the methodical, bureaucratic, and state sponsored
persecution and execution of around six million Jews undertaken by the Nazi
regime and its collaborators from 1933 to 1945. For the Hitler-led Nazis, the
Germans were racially superior and considered themselves as the master race as
compared to the Jews who were seen as inferior people. Hitler's police chief,
Heinrich Himmler, also believed in Aryan superiority leading to the enslavement
and extermination of "non-Aryans" and the inferior race (Perry 1988). He was one
of the German officials directly responsible for the holocaust.
Another high-ranking German official, Reinhard Heydrich, became the chief
planner of the Nazis to wipe out the Jews in Europe (Perry 1988). Other groups that
were considered inferior were the Romani (or gypsies), some Slavic peoples (such
as the Poles and Russians), and even the physically and mentally handicapped
Nonetheless, the Jews were perceived as the major threat to the German racial
community that had to be exterminated en masse especially since there were over
nine million Jews in Europe by 1933.
From 1941 up until 1945, Heydrich's plan called the "Final Solution to the Jewish
Problem" was implemented by the Nazis with the main objective of annihilating
European Jews through genocide or murder of an entire group of people (Parrinder
1971). It came to be known as holocaust. Jews were arrested, brought to death
camps. became victims of mass shootings, and placed in gas chambers, while
others were beaten, starved, and tortured to death. Still others became subjects of
ruthless medical experiments (Perry 1988). Apart from the six million Jews who lost
their lives, around 200,000 Romani and 200,000 disabled patients became victims
of Nazi policies. The Nazis also targeted Jewish children for extermination to create
a biologically pure Aryan society. The killing of Jewish children aimed to prevent the
emergence of a new generation of European Jews. As a result, about one and a half
million children were murdered all across Europe.
 Anti-Semitism
The term anti-Semitism pertains to hostility towards and discrimination against the
Jewish people that was strongly felt in France, Germany, Poland, and Russia in the
late nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The term was popularized in Germany
around 1870s. The most common manifestations of anti-Semitism were the many
Violent riots or pogroms undertaken against the Jews. The planned extermination
of the entire Jewish race during the time of the holocaust was the most extreme
form of anti-Semitism. Other forms of anti-Semitic activities include the
persecution and massacre of Jews throughout history.
Political parties that were anti-Semitic in character were founded in Germany,
France, and Austria. Quite notable was the Nazi Party formed in 1919 that provided
political articulation to theories of racism and achieved popularity through
dissemination of anti-Jewish propaganda. Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf (My Struggle)
called for the removal of Jews from Germany. These deplorable activities continued
with the Nazi's rise to power as the party that called for economic boycotts against
the Jews, burned Jewish books and enacted laws that were anti-Jew. On the night
of November 9, 1938, coordinated deadly attacks were carried out by the Nazis
that destroyed synagogues and shop windows of Jewish-owned stores throughout
Germany and Austria. More than a thousand synagogues were burned and over
seven thousand Jewish businesses were destroyed or damaged. The event was
known as Kristallnacht or "Night of Broken Glass," referring to the shards of broken
glass that littered the streets.
Thank you!