Geothermal

Energy
 Geothermal Energy

As you descend deeper into the Earth’s crust,

underground rock and water become hotter. This heat
can be recovered using different geothermal
technologies depending on the temperature. But the
heat resources in geothermal reservoirs are not
inexhaustible.
 THERMAL GRADIENT

THE ADJECTIVE GEOTHERMAL COMES FROM THE

GREEK WORDS GEO (EARTH) AND THERMOS (HEAT). IT
COVERS ALL TECHNIQUES USED TO RECOVER THE
HEAT THAT IS NATURALLY PRESENT IN THE EARTH’S
SUBSURFACE, PARTICULARLY IN AQUIFERS, THE ROCK
RESERVOIRS THAT CONTAIN GROUNDWATER.
 THERMAL GRADIENT

ABOUT HALF THIS THERMAL (OR “HEAT”) ENERGY

COMES FROM THE RESIDUAL HEAT PRODUCED WHEN
THE PLANET WAS FORMED 4.5 BILLION YEARS AGO AND
ABOUT HALF FROM NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY.
THERMAL GRADIENT
• THE TEMPERATURE OF GEOTHERMAL WATER
INCREASES WITH DEPTH, DEPENDING ON THE
THERMAL GRADIENT — THE AVERAGE RATE AT WHICH
THE TEMPERATURE RISES WITH DEPTH — OF THE
REGION WHERE IT IS FOUND.
 THE AVERAGE VALUE OF THE GRADIENT
WORLDWIDE IS 3°C PER 100 METERS OF DEPTH,
BUT IT VARIES BETWEEN 1°C AND 10°C PER 100
METERS DEPENDING ON THE PHYSICAL
CONDITIONS AND GEOLOGY OF THE REGION.
 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
Geothermal technologies differ with the temperature of geothermal water,
which determines what can be done with it:

• At 20°C to 90°C, geothermal heat and water are used

for geothermal heating. This is called low-temperature
geothermal energy (see Close-Up – “Low-Temperature
Geothermal Energy: Heating”).
 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

• At 90°C to 160°C, the water is used on the surface in

liquid form. It transfers its heat to another fluid, which
vaporizes at low temperature and drives a turbine to
generate power. This is called medium-temperature
geothermal energy (see Close-up – "HighTemperature
Geothermal Energy: Power”).
 The Different Types of
Geothermal Energy
• AT TEMPERATURES ABOVE 160°C, THE WATER
TURNS INTO STEAM WHEN IT REACHES THE
EARTH’S SURFACE. IT DRIVES TURBINES TO
GENERATE POWER. THIS IS CALLED HIGH-
•
TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY.
 The Different Types of
Geothermal Energy

• THE DIFFERENT TEMPERATURE RANGES

ARE GENERAL, AND PRACTICES MAY VARY
ACCORDING TO THE ECONOMIC CONDITIONS OF THE
PARTICULAR LOCATION.
•
 AVAILABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCES

• THIS HEAT VARIES IN DIFFERENT AREAS. THE

AVERAGE GEOTHERMAL HEAT FLOW — THE
ENERGY AVAILABLE FOR ANY GIVEN SURFACE AREA
AND PERIOD — ON THE SURFACE IS LOW.
 AVAILABILITY OF GEOTHERMAL
RESOURCES

• IT AVERAGES 0.06 WATTS PER SQUARE METER

PER YEAR, OR 3,500 TIMES LESS THAN THE
SOLAR ENERGY FLOW RECEIVED IN A SINGLE
YEAR BY THE SAME SURFACE AREA.
 Availability of Geothermal
Resources
• THIS IS WHY PRIORITY IS GIVEN TO USING HEAT
RESOURCES IN THOSE AREAS THAT ARE MOST
LIKELY TO PROVIDE SIGNIFICANT AMOUNTS OF
ENERGY. THESE “GEOTHERMAL RESERVOIRS”
ARE FOUND IN ALL THE EARTH’S SEDIMENTARY
BASINS,
 Availability of Geothermal
Resources

• BUT HIGH-TEMPERATURE GEOTHERMAL ENERGY IS

MOST LIKELY TO BE FOUND NEAR VOLCANOES. IN
VOLCANIC AREAS, GEOTHERMAL HEAT FLOW CAN
REACH 1 WATT PER SQUARE METER.
 Geothermal reservoirs tend to be depleted with use,
some faster than others. Their replenishment capacity
depends on:

• Heat sources within the Earth’s crust, mainly

radioactivity and residual heat.
• Energy from outside the reservoir (solar heat) for very
low-temperature applications using heat pumps.
Ensuring that these reservoirs will be reheated is
especially crucial for geothermal heat pumps: External
factors, such as low winter temperatures, cool the
subsurface, meaning that less heat is available to be
harnessed.
• THE CIRCULATION OF GROUNDWATER THAT
IS REHEATED ON CONTACT WITH HEAT
SOURCES LOCATED AWAY FROM THE
RESERVOIR BEFORE RETURNING TO THE
RESERVOIR.
 • Therefore, these heat resources must be replenished to
use a reservoir in a sustainable manner. This involves
capping the amount of heat used and putting a time limit on
the operation of the site.
 • In addition, the availability of geothermal energy is
geographically limited. Significant losses occur when heat is
transported over long distances. This can cause problems,
because production sites cannot always be located close
enough to the place of consumption to meet energy needs.
 HOW IS HEAT FROM INSIDE THE EARTH TAPPED AS A
SOURCE OF ENERGY FOR HUMAN USE?

 Thermal energy, contained in the earth, can be used

directly to supply heat or can be converted to mechanical or
electrical energy.
 Source: https://www.fix.com/assets/content/15694/geothermal-energy.png)
(Source: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sanjeev-Gupta
7/publication/339918736/figure/fig1/AS:910528234930179@1594098256642/
Geothermal-Reservoir-7.png)
 High-Temperature Geothermal Energy: Power

 Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy

harnesses extremely hot water and steam from beneath
the Earth to generate electricity in dedicated power plants.

(Source: http://www.energy.ca.gov/geothermal/images/geysers_unit_18.jpg)
 Global Resources
 Global high-temperature geothermal energy resources used for
power generation are found in a relatively few countries, in areas
characterized by volcanic activity. They are mainly located in Asia,
the Pacific islands, the African Great Lakes region, North
America, the Andean countries of South America, Central
America and the Caribbean.
 Global Resources

 • Around 20 countries in the world produce geothermal power, for a

total installed capacity of 10.93 GW. It plays an essential role in some
countries like the Philippines, where it accounts for 17% of electricity
produced, and Iceland, where it represents 30%. Global installed
capacity is projected to double by 2020.
Medium-Temperature Geothermal Power Plants

 • Geothermal water at temperatures of 90 to 160°C can be used

in liquid form to generate power; this is called medium-
temperature geothermal energy.

 • This technology involves power plants that harness groundwater

via geothermal wells. This type of power plant is built near aquifers
located at depths of 2,000 to 4,000 meters. In volcanic areas
(“hotspots”), where the subsurface holds more heat, the water
used by the power plants is sometimes found closer to the surface,
at depths of less than 1,000 meters.
 In these plants, water that has been pressurized to stop it boiling
circulates through a heat exchanger. This equipment contains
pipes filled with geothermal water that are in contact with pipes
filled with another fluid, generally a hydrocarbon. When it comes
into contact with the water-filled pipes, the fluid heats up, boils and
vaporizes. The steam obtained drives a turbine that generates
power. In the process, the steam cools, returning to its liquid state
before being reused in another production cycle.
High-Temperature Geothermal Energy in Volcanic Areas

 If the geothermal water is hotter than 160°C, it can be used

directly in the form of steam to drive turbines and generate
power. This is called high-temperature geothermal energy. This
principle was applied as long ago as 1913 in the world’s very
first geothermal power plant, in Larderello, Italy.
 High-Temperature Geothermal Energy in Volcanic Areas

This type of power plant uses water from water tables in volcanic regions, at
depths of 1,500 to 3,000 meters. On very rare occasions, the water is present in
the reservoir in the form of steam. In 95% of cases, the water is liquid. The drop
in pressure experienced by the liquid in the wells as it flows to the surface
causes some of the liquid to become vapor.
 At the surface, the liquid water is separated from the dry steam in a
separator. The dry steam is fed to the turbine, while the liquid water
can be vaporized again by reducing its pressure even further. The
residual liquid water is injected back into the reservoir.

 Medium and high-temperature geothermal energy is used in a wide

variety of applications. In industry, for example, geothermal water
and steam can be used to wash and dry wool. They can also be
used to manufacture pulp or treat biomass.
(Source:https://water.usgs.gov/edu/graphics/wuhytypicalplant.gif)
Water Resources on Earth
Specific Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:

1. describe how water is distributed on earth;

2. identify the various water resources on earth.
 Mineral Exploration

 Water is a simple compound, made of two atoms of hydrogen

and one atom of oxygen bonded together. More than any other
substance on the Earth, water is important to life and has
remarkable properties. Without water, life could probably not
even exist on Earth. When looking at Earth from space, the
abundance of water on Earth becomes obvious —
see Figure 1. On land, water is also common: it swirls and
meanders through streams, falls from the sky, freezes into
snow flakes, and even makes up most of you and me. In
this section, we’ll look at the distribution of water on Earth,
and also examine some of its unique properties.
Figure 1. Earth, the Blue Marble, can be seen in this photograph to be mostly covered with liquid
water(Source)https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/800px-
The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg)
Distribution of Water on earth

As Figure 1 makes clear, water is the most abundant

substance on the Earth’s surface. About 71% of the Earth’s
surface is covered with water, most of which is found in the
oceans.
In fact, 97.5% of Earth's water, nearly all of it, is in the
Earth’s oceans. This means that just 2.5% of Earth's water is
fresh water, water with low concentrations of salts. Most
freshwater is
found as ice in the vast glaciers of Greenland and the
immense ice sheets of Antarctica. That leaves just 0.4%
of Earth’s water that is freshwater that humans can easily
use. Most liquid freshwater is found under the Earth’s
surface as groundwater, while the rest is found in lakes,
rivers, and streams, and water vapor in the sky.
Figure 2. Distribution of water resources on Earth. (Note that the size of the smaller
segments has been exaggerated for clarity.)
Where and in what forms is water available on Earth?

The world’s water exists naturally in different forms and

locations: in the air, on the surface, below the ground and in
the oceans.
Just 2.5% of the Earth’s water is freshwater, and most is
frozen in glaciers and ice sheets. About 96% of all liquid
freshwater can be found underground. The remaining small
fraction is on the surface or in the air.
Knowing how water cycles through the environment can help
in determining how much water is available in different parts
of the world. The Earth’s water cycle (Figure 2)

is the global mechanism by which water moves from the air to

the Earth (precipitation) and eventually back to the
atmosphere (evaporation).
The principal natural components of this cycle are
precipitation, infiltration into the soil, runoff on the
surface, groundwater discharge to surface waters and
the oceans, and evapotranspiration from water bodies,
the soil, and plants.
“Blue water”— the water in rivers, lakes, and aquifers—
can be distinguished from “green water” — which feeds
plants and crops, and which is subsequently released into
the air. This distinction may help managers focus on those
areas which green water feeds and passes through, such as
farms, forests, and wetlands.
Figure 3. Schematic of the hydrologic cycle components in present day
setting
How does water move from the atmosphere to the ground and back?

About 10% of the Earth’s freshwater that is neither frozen nor

underground is found in the atmosphere. Precipitation, in the
form of rain or snow, for instance, is an important form of
available freshwater. About 40% of precipitation has
previously evaporated from the oceans; the rest from land.
The amount of precipitation varies greatly around the world,
from less than 100 mm a year in desert climates to over 3,400
mm a year in tropical settings.
In temperate climates, about a third of precipitation returns to
the atmosphere through evaporation, a third filters into the
ground and replenishes groundwater and the remainder flows
into water bodies. The drier the climate, the higher the
proportion of precipitation that returns to the atmosphere and
the lower the proportion that replenishes groundwater.
A large part of the freshwater that returns to the atmosphere
passes through soil and plants. Reliable figures are available
only for some regions. Soil moisture is important for plant
growth. Finding out how much moisture soil contains is
important for such activities as farming and “river flow
forecasting”,
and for understanding climate and natural and water
systems. Satellite data are increasingly complementing
measurements of soil moisture taken on the ground to
provide a broader and more up-to-date picture to decision-
makers.
 How much freshwater is found at the Earth’s surface?

About three-quarters of the world’s freshwater is frozen in

ice sheets and glaciers. Most remains inaccessible, located
in the Arctic, Antarctica or Greenland. Land-based glaciers
and permanent snow and ice, however, supply water in
many countries, releasing water in amounts that vary
seasonally and over longer time periods. Because of
climate change, glaciers are now being more closely
monitored.
Surface waters, including lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers,
streams and wetlands hold only a small volume of the
Earth’s total fresh water (0.3%). Still they represent about
80% of the renewable surface water and groundwater that
is available in a given year. These water bodies perform
many functions in the environment, and provide people with
the prime source of drinking water, energy and recreation,
as well as a means of irrigation and transport.
Lakes and other reservoirs counteract fluctuations in river flow
from one season to the next because they store large
amounts of water. Lakes contain by far the largest amount of
fresh surface water. But the hydrology of only about 60% of
the largest lakes has been studied in detail, leaving much to
be learned.
River basins are a useful “natural unit” for the management of
water resources, though they often extend across national
borders. International river basins have drainage areas
covering about 45% of the Earth’s land surface (excluding the
polar regions). Some of the largest basins are the Amazon,
which carries 15% of all water returning to the oceans,
and the Congo-Zaire Basin, which carries one-third of all
river water in Africa.
River flows can vary greatly from one season to the next and
from one climatic region to another. In tropical regions, large
flows are witnessed year round, whereas in drylands, rivers
are often ephemeral and only flow periodically after a storm.
Drylands make up about 40% of the world’s land area and
have only 2% of all water runoff. Past data records for river
flow and water levels help to predict yearly or seasonal
variations, though it is difficult to make accurate longer-term
forecasts.
Some records in industrialized countries go back up 150 to
200 years. By contrast, many developing countries started
keeping records only recently and data quality is often poor.
Wetlands, including swamps, bogs, marshes, and lagoons,
cover 6% of the world’s land surface and play a critical role in
the conservation of water resources. Many wetlands were
destroyed or converted to other uses during the last century.
Those that remain can play an important role in supporting
ecosystems, preventing floods, and increasing river flows.
How much freshwater can be found underground?

Ninety-six percent of liquid fresh water can be found

underground. Groundwater feeds springs and streams,
supports wetlands, helps keep land surfaces stable, and
is a critical water resource.
About 60% of the water that is taken from the ground is used
for farming in arid and semi-arid climates, and between 25%
and 40% of the world’s drinking water comes from
underground. Hundreds of cities around the world, including
half of the very largest, make significant use of groundwater.
This water can be especially useful during shortages of
surface water.
Groundwater aquifers vary in terms of how much water they
hold, their depth, and how quickly they replenish themselves.
The variations also depend on specific geological features.

Much of the water underground is replenished either very

slowly or not at all, and is thus termed “non-renewable”. The
largest aquifers of non-renewable water are found in North
Africa, the Middle East, Australia, and Siberia.
There is some debate about how and when to use this
water. Many aquifers that contain non-renewable
groundwater resources are shared by more than one
country and need to be managed in common for the benefit
of all administrative entities concerned.
If the infiltration of precipitation recharges the aquifer, the
groundwater is considered “renewable” and can be used
for irrigation, domestic and other purposes. While most
renewable groundwater is of a high quality and does not
require treatment, it should be analyzed before it is used
to avoid possible health impacts.
However, few countries measure the quality of
underground water or the rate at which it is being
withdrawn. Monitoring is being improved in Europe and
India, but remains minimal in many developing countries,
and is deteriorating in many industrialized ones. This
makes it hard to manage underground water resources
sustainably.
THE END