SYNAPSE

Spatial summation occurs when several weak signals from

different locations are converted into a single larger one,
while temporal summation converts a rapid series of weak pulses
from a single source into one large signal
Synthesis of acetylcholine,
storage and degradation
Synthesis of Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is synthesized in
nerve terminals from acetyl
coenzyme A (acetyl CoA, which
is synthesized from glucose)
and choline, in a reaction
catalyzed by choline
acetyltransferase (CAT). The
presence of CAT in a neuron is
thus a strong indication that
ACh is used as one of its
transmitters. About 10,000
molecules of ACh are packaged
into each vesicle by a vesicular
ACh transporter.
A powerful hydrolytic enzyme, acetylcholinesterase (AChE) This enzyme is
concentrated in the synaptic cleft, ensuring a rapid decrease in ACh concentration
after its release from the presynaptic terminal. AChE has a very high catalytic
activity (about 5000 molecules of ACh per AChE molecule per second) and
hydrolyzes ACh into acetate and choline. As already mentioned, cholinergic nerve
terminals typically contain a high-affinity, Na +-choline transporter that takes up the
choline produced by ACh hydrolysis.
NEUROTRANSMITT
ER AND THEIR
FUNCTIONS
ACETYLECHOLIN
E
Acetylcholine is the chief neurotransmitter of the
parasympathetic nervous system, the part of the
autonomic nervous system (a branch of the peripheral nervous
system) that contracts smooth muscles, dilates blood vessels,
increases bodily secretions, and slows heart rate.
Acetylcholine (ACh), the first neurotransmitter discovered, is now known
to be a neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction, all autonomic
ganglia, at many autonomically innervated organs, and at many
synapses in the CNS. ACh is stored in vesicles at the ends of cholinergic
(acetylcholine-producing) neurons.
Effect on muscles

Human peripheral nervous systems require acetylcholine to excite the

activation of muscle function properly. Systems work by using acetylcholine
in smooth muscles, essential for muscle contraction. When something does
block acetylcholine, it can lead to muscle weakness and even paralysis in
some cases.

The activation of muscle function involves: a nerve impulse arriving at the

terminal of a motor neuron; ACh is released into the neuromuscular
junction; it combines with a receptor molecule in the postsynaptic
membrane of a muscle fiber, changing the permeability of the membrane,
causing channels to open that allow positively charged sodium ions to flow
into the muscle cell; if successive nerve impulses accumulate at a
sufficiently high frequency, sodium channels along the end-plate
membrane become fully activated, resulting in muscle cell contraction.
ORGAN SYSTEM
• In the eye, it determines miosis and accommodation of the lens in close
vision, inducing the contraction of the sphincter muscle of the pupil and the
ciliary muscle.
• Cholinergic neurons densely innervate the hippocampus, mediating the
formation of memory and learning.
• Acetylcholine slows the heart rate by activating the M2
muscarinic receptor (M2R) that, in turn, opens the acetylcholine-
activated potassium channel (IK,ACh) to slow the firing of the sinus
node
ORGAN SYSTEM
• In the gastrointestinal system (through stimulation of the vagus nerve) the
tone, the amplitude of contractions, and the secretory activity of the
stomach and intestine increase, sphincters are relaxed. Acetylcholine is
the most common neurotransmitter to induce gastrointestinal
smooth muscle contractions.
• In the respiratory system, it determines bronchoconstriction and stimulation
of the chemoreceptors of the aortic and carotid bodies, with consequent
reflex hyperapnea. Acetylcholine contracts airway smooth muscle
to control tone and regulate patency of the conducting
airways. In blood vessels, acetylcholine causes smooth muscle
relaxation and vasodilation. At mucosal glands and epithelial cells,
acetylcholine regulates mucus secretion and mucus clearance.
• In the urinary system, it causes contraction of the detrusor muscle of the
bladder, increasing the emptying pressure release of sphincters.
• In the exocrine glands, it stimulates the secretion of all the exocrine glands
that receive a parasympathetic innervation, including the lacrimal,
tracheobronchial, salivary, digestive glands, and the exocrine sweat glands.
Catecholamine

Catecholamines are made in the adrenal glands — small hormone

production factories that sit on top of the kidneys.
There are three main catecholamines:
•Dopamine
•Epinephrine (adrenaline)
•Norepinephrine
These hormones get released into the bloodstream when the body is
physically or mentally stressed. They cause biochemical changes that
activate the so-called fight-or-flight response. That’s the body’s natural
reaction to real or perceived stress.
Adrenaline

Adrenaline and noradrenaline are two separate but related chemical

messengers. They are produced in the centre (medulla) of the adrenal
glands and noradrenaline is also produced in some nerve cells (neurons)
of the central peripheral nervous system. They are released into the
bloodstream and serve as chemical mediators (hormone), and also
convey the nerve impulses to various organs (neurotransmitters).
Key actions of adrenaline include
1. Increasing the heart rate,
2. Increasing blood pressure,
3. Expanding the air passages of the lungs,
4. Enlarging the pupil in the eye
5. Decreasing the sensitivity to pain,
6. Improve vision, hearing and other senses,
7. Slowing digestion,
8. Redistributing blood to the muscles and altering the body’s
metabolism, so as to maximize oxygen and nutrients to the body
9. Increase blood glucose levels (primarily for the brain)
Dopamine

Dopamine is a neurotransmitter. It’s made in your brain and acts as a chemical

messenger, communicating messages between nerve cells in your brain and your brain
and the rest of your body.
Dopamine is involved in controlling movement. Insufficient production
of dopamine in a part of the brain can lead to Parkinson’s disease.
Parkinson’s disease is a non curable nervous system disorder that
affects movement and is known for causing uncontrollable tremors.
As a hormone, dopamine is released into your bloodstream. It plays a small role in
the “fight-or-flight” syndrome. The fight-or-flight response refers to your body’s
response to a perceived or real stressful situation, such as needing to escape danger.
Dopamine also:
•Causes blood vessels to relax (at low doses, it acts as a vasodilator) or constrict (at
high doses, it acts as a vasoconstrictor).
•Increases sodium (salt) and urine removal from your body.
•Reduces insulin production in your pancreas.
•Slows gastrointestinal (GI) (gut) content movement and protects your GI lining.
•Dopamine also plays a role in the digestive system, helping to make
sure the contents of the gastrointestinal tract don’t pass through too
quickly.
• In the immune system, dopamine dampens inflammation, normally
helping to prevent the sort of runaway immune response seen in
autoimmune diseases.
Dopamine is known as the “feel-good” hormone. It gives you a sense of pleasure.
It also gives you the motivation to do something when you’re feeling pleasure.
Dopamine is part of your reward system. As humans, our brains are hard-wired to
seek out behaviors that release dopamine in our reward system. When you’re
doing something pleasurable, your brain releases a large amount of dopamine.
You feel good and you seek more of that feeling.
This is why junk food and sugar are so addictive. They trigger the release of a
large amount of dopamine into your brain, which gives you the feeling that you’re
on top of the world and you want to repeat that experience.

Dopamine creates feelings of pleasure. Certain drugs, such as cocaine,

can cause large amounts of dopamine to flood the system, producing
euphoric effects or a “high” that leave the user wanting more.
As these drugs are abused over time, dopamine’s pleasurable effects on
the brain lessen.
To regain these pleasurable effects, a user must increase the amount of
drug taken. This phenomenon is called “tolerance.”
GABA GAMMA AMINO BUTYRIC ACID
Glutamate

What is glutamate?
Glutamate is a neurotransmitter. Neurotransmitters are “chemical messengers.” Their
job is to send messages between nerve cells (neurons) in your brain.
In your brain, glutamate is the most abundant excitatory neurotransmitter. An
excitatory neurotransmitter excites or stimulates a nerve cell, making it more likely
that the chemical message will continue to move from nerve cell to nerve cell and not
be stopped. Glutamate is essential for proper brain function.
Glutamate’s functions include:
•Learning and memory. By interacting with four different receptors, glutamate has
more opportunities to continue to have messages successfully and quickly sent
between nerve cells. This fast signaling and information processing is an important
aspect of learning and memory. Glutamate also allows nerve cells to build associated
information, which is a foundation of memory.
•Energy source for brain cells. Glutamate can be used as an energy source when
glucose levels — the main source of energy — are low.
•Chemical messenger. Glutamate allows chemical messages to be sent between nerve
cells.
•Sleep-wake cycle manager. According to animal studies, glutamate levels are high
when you’re awake and during the rapid eye movement (REM) phase of sleep.
•Pain signaler. Higher levels of glutamate are associated with an increase in pain levels.
Serotoni
n
Serotonin is a chemical that carries messages between nerve cells in the brain and
throughout your body. Serotonin plays a key role in such body functions as mood, sleep,
digestion, nausea, wound healing, bone health and blood clotting

Serotonin plays a role in many of your body’s functions:

•Mood: Serotonin in your brain regulates your mood. It’s often called your body’s natural
“feel good” chemical. When serotonin is at normal levels, you feel more focused,
emotionally stable, happier and calmer. Low levels of serotonin are associated with
depression. Many medications used to treat anxiety, depression and other mood
disorders often target ways to increase the level of serotonin in your brain.
•Digestion: Most of your body’s serotonin is in your GI tract where it helps control your
bowel function and plays a role in protecting your gut. Your gut can increase serotonin
release to speed digestion to rid your body of irritating foods or toxic products. Serotonin
also plays a part in reducing your appetite while eating.
•Nausea: Nausea is triggered when serotonin is released into your gut faster than it can
be digested. The chemical message is received by your brain, which you perceive as
nausea. Many drugs used to reduce feelings of nausea and vomiting target specific
serotonin receptors in your brain.
•Sleep: Serotonin, together with another neurotransmitter dopamine, plays a role in the
quality of your sleep (how well and how long you sleep). Your brain also needs serotonin
to make melatonin, a hormone that regulates your sleep-wake cycle.
•Wound healing: Serotonin is released by platelets in your blood to help heal wounds. It
also causes the tiniest blood vessels, arterioles, to narrow, which slows blood flow and
helps clots to form. This is an important process in wound healing.
•Bone health: Serotonin levels may play a role in the density of your bones. High levels of
serotonin in your gut may play a role in making bones weak, which can lead to bone
breaks (fractures) and osteoporosis.