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NETWORK PROTOCOLS
TCP/IP Model
SCTP- Stream Control Transmission Protocol
ARP-Address Resolution RARP-Reverse Address ICMP-Internet Control IGMP-Internet Group
Protocol Resolution Protocol Message Protocol Message Protocol Network layer 1.Logical Address “The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the Sender and Receiver” IPv4 Addressing:- The Internet addresses are 32 bits in length; this gives us a maximum of 232 addresses. IPv6 Addressing:- Internet uses 128-bit addresses that give much greater flexibility as 2128 in address allocation.
2. Routing “To provide routing mechanism to route or switch the packets to their final destination” Dotted-decimal notation and binary notation for an IPv4 address Example
Find the error, if any, in the following IPv4 addresses.
Solution a. There must be no leading zero (045). b. There can be no more than four numbers. c. Each number needs to be less than or equal to 255. d. A mixture of binary notation and dotted-decimal notation is not allowed. Finding the classes in binary and dotted-decimal notation
Find the class of each address.
a. 00000001 00001011 00001011 A C 11101 111 A b. 11000001 10000011 00011011 E 11111111 c. 14.23.120.8 d. 252.5.15.111 Q. If a destination IP address is 206.175.162.21, what would be NetID ?
Know that it is a Class C address & that its binary equivalent is: 11001110.10101111.10100010.00010101
We also know that the default standard Class C
subnet mask is: 255.255.255.0 and that its binary equivalent is: 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 Class less allocation- A block of 16 addresses granted to a small organization
Restriction : three restrictions on classless
address blocks: 1. The addresses in a block must be contiguous, one after another. 2. The number of addresses in a block must be a power of 2 (I, 2, 4, 8, ... ). 3. The first address must be evenly divisible by the number of addresses. CIDR (Classless Inter Domain Routing) Masking
Example- A block of addresses is granted to a small organization. We know that one of the addresses is 205.16.37.39/28. What is the first address in the block? Solution The binary representation of the given address is 11001101 00010000 00100101 00100111 If we set 32−28 rightmost bits to 0, we get Example
We know that one of the addresses
is 205.16.37.24/28. What is the last address in the block? Solution The binary representation of the given address is 11001101 00010000 00100101 00011000 If we set 32 − 28 rightmost bits to 1, we get The11001101 00010000 number of addresses in the block00100101 can be found by00011111 using the formula 232−n or n is the number of leftmost bits used for netID. 205.16.37.31 Subnetting-Division of a network into subnets For example, division of a Class B address into several Class C addresses Some of the host IDs are used for creating subnet IDs 140 15 1 0 Class B Network Subnet 1 140 15 2 0 140 15 0 0 Subnet 2 140 15 3 0 Subnet 3
Subnet ID 140 15 1 0
140 15 1 1 ….. 140 15 1 254
First Host ID Last Host ID
Subnetting Structure 195 175 25 0 Sub Last Subnet ID Net Octet 1 0000000 195.175.25. 0 0 11100000 2 0010000 195.175.25. 0 32 3 0100000 195.175.25. 0 64
specifies hexadecimal colon notation. In this notation,128 bits is divided into eight sections, each 2 bytes in length the application layer is a user process while the lower three layers are usually implemented in the kernel (the operating system) An internet consisting of two networks: an Ethernet and a token ring, connected with a router IANA ranges- The lANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority) has divided
the port numbers into three ranges: well known, registered,
and dynamic (or private)
o Well-known ports. The ports ranging from 0
to 1023 are assigned and controlled by lANA. o Registered ports. The ports ranging from 1024 to 49,151 are not assigned or controlled by lANA. They can only be registered with lANA to prevent duplication. o Dynamic ports. The ports ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 are neither controlled nor Socket address
The combination of an IP address and a port number
is called a socket address
The IP header contains the IP addresses; the UDP or TCP
header contains the port numbers A NAT(Network address translation) implementation- NAT enables a user to have a large set of
addresses internally and one address, or a small set of addresses, externally
Mitigating Dos Attacks With A Null (Or Blackhole) Route On Linux A Guide On How To Lessen The Damage of A Dos Attack by Using A Null Route in Linux Written by Benjamin Cane On 2013/01/14
Mitigating Dos Attacks With A Null (Or Blackhole) Route On Linux A Guide On How To Lessen The Damage of A Dos Attack by Using A Null Route in Linux Written by Benjamin Cane On 2013/01/14
