Radioactivity

Dr. Surya Prakash G. Ponnam

Assistant Professor
Dept. of Molecular Biology &
Biotechnology
Tezpur university
E-mail: surya_p@tezu.ernet.in
 Introduction

Radioactivity, property exhibited by certain types of

matter of emitting energy and subatomic particles
spontaneously.

An unstable nucleus will decompose spontaneously, or

decay, into a more stable configuration.
Band of Stability
The nuclei of naturally occurring heavy elements like U, Th, Ra, Po
are unstable and keep on emitting invisible rays or radiations and
as a result of this give more stable elements.

These unstable elements (U, Th, Ra, Po) are called as Radioactive
elements.

The respective property of energy emission is termed as

Radioactivity.
 Definition

The phenomenon by which the nucleus of an atom of

an unstable element undergoes spontaneous and
uncontrollable disintegration (or decay) and emits
radiation as α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma) rays.
 Stable isotope abundance

 Atom percent
atom percent of 13C = [13C/(12C + 13C)]100
 Fractional abundance
fractional abundance of 13C,
13
F= 13C/(12C + 13C)
 Isotope ratios
carbon isotope ratio, 13R = 13C/12C

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 d- notation

• The δ-value of the heavier isotope h of an

element E in a sample is defined by

• Where-
 Rsample is the measured isotope ratio of the
heavier isotope over the lighter for the sample
 Rstandard is the measured isotope ratio for the
corresponding international reference material
(RM)
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 d- notation

 Expressed as parts per thousand or ‰ (per mille)

 Samples with –ve d-value => depleted in heavier
isotope
 Samples with +ve d-value => enriched in heavier
isotope
 For standards, d-value = 0

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Few Standards

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 Units of Radioactivity

S.I. unit = Becquerel (Bq)

Other well-known unit is CURIE (Ci)

1 Ci = 3.7x1010 radioactive decays per second.

= 3.7x1010 Bq.
= 37x109 Bq.
= 37 GBq.
 Different types of Nuclei

ISOTOPE ISOTONES ISOBARS ISOMERS

A
z XN
Same Same Same A Same
Z N A, Z, N

A= Mass number= Z+N

Different Different Different Different
N Z Z, N Spin levels
Z= Number of protons.
1
1 H0 2
1 H1 31H2 2
1 H1 3
2 He1 14
7 N7 14
C
6 8
60
Co 60M
Co

M=Metastable state
N= Number of neutrons.
 ALPHA (α) Particles
Produced by Alpha decay of radioactive nuclei.
Consists of 2 protons and 2 neutrons.
Identical to He nucleus= 42He2
Positively (+2) charged particles.
Deflects towards the negative plates.
Less penetrating power.
Strongly ionizing radiation.
Also ionizes biological molecules.
Induce mutations in biological organism.
Few Examples : Uranium-238, Thorium-227, Plutonium-
238 , Radon-218
 BETA (β) Particles
High energy and speedy electrons.
Negatively (-1) charged particles.
Deflects towards the positive plates.
Penetration power is higher than α.
Less ionizing affinity than α.

Few Examples : Carbon-14 , Phosphorous-32 , Nickel-63 ,

Potassium-40.
 GAMMA (γ) Rays
Not particle, only radiations.
EM Radiations with high Energy.
Chargeless. No deflection.
Highest penetration capacity.
Poor ionizing power.
Velocity is approximately to that of light.
 Few Examples : Radium-226 , Caesium-137 , Iodine-131
 Comparison amongst α, β and γ radiations

α β γ
Charge two positive One negative No charge

Speed & Nature High speed He nucleus High speed electrons High speed EM radiations

Penetration power Low Moderate High

(100 times more than α) (100 times more than β)
Effect of Electric and Deflection towards (-)ve end Deflection towards (+)ve end No deflection
Magnetic field

Ionizing power Greater Ionizing power lower lowest

Luminescence Produces Phosphorescence Phosphorescence

Fluorescence &
Phosphorescence
 GEIGER–MÜLLER COUNTER
 This is an instrument used for measuring ionizing radiation
used widely in such applications as radiation dosimetry,
radiological protection, experimental physics and the nuclear
industry.
 It detects ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta
particles and gamma rays using the ionization effect produced
in a Geiger–Müller tube; which gives its name to the
instrument .
 The original detection principle was discovered in 1908, but it
was not until the development of the Geiger-Müller tube in 1928
that the Geiger-Müller counter became a practical instrument.
 It has been very popular due to its robust sensing element and
relatively low cost.
 Limitations: In measuring high radiation rates and the energy
of incident radiation.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
 A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger-Müller tube, the sensing element which detects
the radiation, and the processing electronics, which displays the result.
 The tube is filled with an inert gas such as helium, neon, or argon at low pressure, to
which a high voltage is applied.
 The tube briefly conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of incident
radiation makes the gas conductive by ionization.
 The ionization is considerably amplified within the tube by the Townsend Discharge
Effect to produce an easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to the processing
and display electronics.
This large pulse from the
tube makes the G-M
Counter relatively cheap
to manufacture, as the
subsequent electronics is
greatly simplified.

 The electronics also

generates the high
voltage, typically 400–600
volts, that has to be
applied to the Geiger-
Müller tube to enable its
operation.
 Types of radiation readout
Counts
The counts display is the simplest and is
the number of ionizing events displayed
either as a count rate, commonly "counts
per second“ , or as a total over a set time
period (an integrated total). The counts
readout is normally used when alpha or
beta particles are being detected.
Radiation Dose
 It is displayed in a unit such as the
“Sievert” which is normally used for
measuring gamma or X-ray dose rates.
 TYPES OF GEIGER–MULLER COUNTER
There are two main
types
Windowless
End Window Type
This general type is distinct from the
 For alpha particles, low energy beta dedicated end window type, but has
particles, two main sub-types, which use different
radiation interaction mechanisms to
and low energy X-rays, the usual form is obtain a count.
a cylindrical end-window tube.
 This type has a window at one end 1. Thick walled
covered in • Used for high energy gamma detection
a thin material through which low- 2. Thin walled
penetrating
• High energy beta detection interacts
radiation can easily pass. directly with the gas, Low energy
 The other end houses the electrical gamma and X-ray detection
connection to the anode.
 APPLICATIONS

The first historical uses of the Geiger principle were for the detection
of alpha and beta particles, and the instrument is still used for this
purpose.
Geiger counters can be used to detect gamma radiation.
GM counters are very useful for detecting nuclear particles.
In measuring cosmic ray intensities and recording cosmic ray events.
 Scintillation Counters

PRINCIPLE

When light radiations strike fluorescent material

it produces flashes of light called scintillations.
These are detected with the help of
photomultiplier tube.
 Instrumentation
A scintillation counter apparatus consists of a scintillator, a
photo-multiplier tube (PMT), an amplifier, and a multichannel
analyzer.
 Construction and Working
T is a tube made of glass or quartz coated with
some photosensitive material. This is called
photo cathode.
When photons fall on cathode photo-electrons
are emitted.
Facing photo cathode C there is a series of
secondary electrons emitting surfaces D1,D2,D3
called dynodes.
 First dynode is at positive potential of about 80
to 100 volts with respect to photo cathode C.
 Successive dynodes are kept at similar positive
potential with respect to dynodes immediately
preceding them.
When an energetic photo electron emitted by photo cathode is accelerated by
potential difference of about 100 v to first dynode then this single electron
having kinetic energy of 100eV collides with surface of dynode which emit 2 or
more electron these secondary electrons accelerated to second dynode which is
maintained at a potential of + 100v w.r.t first at the surface electron
multiplication takes place by secondary emission.

A single photo electron emitted by photo cathode approximately produces 106

electrons.

In photomultiplier there are 10 dynodes and there 10 stages of electron

multiplications. The secondary electrons emitted by last dynode are collected at
anode A.


 Few Applications
As Hand-held radiation survey meters
Personal and environmental monitoring
for radioactive contamination
Medical imaging
National and homeland security
Border security
Nuclear plant safety
 Autoradiography
Autoradiography is a bio-analytical technique used
to visualize the radioactively labeled substances or
molecules or fragments of molecules.

It uses X-ray or photographic film to detect relative

positions and intensities of radio labeled bands in a
gel or blot.
 Methodology
 Living cells are briefly exposed to a ‘pulse’ of a specific radioactive compound.
 The tissue is left for a variable time.
 Samples are taken, fixed, and processed for light or electron microscopy.
 Sections are cut and overlaid with a thin film of photographic emulsion.
 Left in the dark for days or weeks (while the radioisotope decays). This exposure
time depends on the activity of the isotope, the temperature and the background
radiation (this will produce with time a contaminating increase in ‘background’
silver grains in the film).
 The photographic emulsion is developed (as for conventional photography).
 Counterstaining e.g. with toluidine blue, shows the histological details of the tissue.
The staining must be able to penetrate, but not have an adverse affect on the
emulsion.
 Alternatively, pre-staining of the entire block of tissue can be done (e.g. with
Osmium on plastic sections coated with stripping film [or dipping emulsion] as in
 Important Applications

 Auto-radiography is used to determine receptor distribution and localization while studying neuro-
degenerative disorders.
 Application of auto-radiography in electrophoretic transfer of proteins from polyacrylamide gels to nitro-
cellulose sheets during blotting.
 To study cytogenesis of the fore-brain.
 Applications in radio-pharmaceutical research
 Applications in radio-immuno-electro-osmophoresis to study viruses.
 In imaging and analyzing rock porosity.
 As a tool for genetic studies.
 For comparison of complex mixtures of proteins.
 Applications in microbial ecology.
 Determining gross absorption and utilization of foliar applied nutrients etc.
 Applications in Medicine & Molecular
Biology

Tracer
Radiation therapy
Isotope dilution analysis
Radio-activation analysis

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 Molecular Biology

• Chemical compounds are labelled or tagged with

a radioisotope to study the growth and metabolism of
animals and plants.
• P-32 is used to label nucleic acid to visualize DNA
separations by autoradiographic techniques
• S-32 is used to label proteins for detection/ separation
by autoradiographic techniques

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 Medical Imagining using
Tracers

Radioactive tracer is bound to Monoamine oxidase, Red shows highest

concentration
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Few Radionuclides used as Tracers in
Medicine
Radioisotopes Uses

Technetium-99 To detect damaged tissues in the

heart, liver, and lungs
Thallium-201 to study heart tissue, as it gets
concentrated in healthy heart
tissue
Iodine-131 To monitor goitre and treat
thyroid conditions
Sodium-24 To locate obstructions to the flow
of blood

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 Use of radionuclides in cancer
treatment
• Use of high-energy radiation to damage the DNA of
cancer cells
• Two types-
External beam radiation therapy
 Internal radiation therapy (Brachytherapy)
• Cobalt-60 and cesium-137 are widely used to treat
cancer

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 Isotope dilution analysis

• Dilution of an unknown amount of non-radioactive

substance with a known specific activity by a known
amount of isotope

• From the reduction in specific activity, we can determine

the amount of the non-radioactive isotope present.

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Where-
• M – Amount of radioisotope
• S – Specific Activity radioisotope
• Mx – Amount of non-radioactive isotope
• Sx – Reduced activity of non-radioactive
isotope due to dilution

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 Radio-activation analysis

To analyze trace amount of suitable element

Method-
Simultaneous irradiation of sample and standard
to produce a radioisotope of the element
Determination of mass of the unknown sample by
comparing the specific activity of the two
Used in the measurement of lead in hair and
nail

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Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry

• Chromatographic
separation of compound
mixtures
• Combustion or pyrolysis
of the separated analytes
into a measurement gas
(CO2, N2, H2)
• Transfer to IRMS by a
carrier gas like He
• Detection of isotope ratio
using mass spectrometric
principle 8
 Thank you for your Kind attention

I sincerely acknowledge all the online content contributor’s

whose slides, pictures, videos and any other information that
has been used to make this lecture effective to my students.
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