Mastering Academic

Writing
Sharif Asif Rahman
Secretary, Khulna City Corporation
 Definition
Academic writing is a formal style of writing that uses evidence-based
arguments and logical reasoning to explain a subject. It's used in
scholarly publications, such as journal articles and books, and in
academic essays, research papers, and dissertations.
 Types of Academic Writing
The four main types of academic writing are
• Descriptive: Business Paper, Statistical Paper
• Analytical: Statistical Paper
• Persuasive: Business Promotion Paper
• Critical: Research Paper
Each of these types of writing has specific language features and
purposes.
Type of Definition
Academic Text
Essay A fairly short, self-contained argument, often using sources from a class
in response to a question provided by an instructor.
Research paper A more in-depth investigation based on independent research, often in
response to a question chosen by the student.
Thesis/ The large final research project undertaken at the end of a degree,
dissertation usually on a dissertation topic of the student’s choice.
Research propos An outline of a potential topic and plan for a future dissertation or
al research project.
Literature A critical synthesis of existing research on a topic, usually written in
review order to inform the approach of a new piece of research.
Lab report A write-up of the aims, methods, results, and conclusions of a lab
experiment.
Statement of It’s a short essay that highlights your educational background,
Purpose achievements, and goals.
 Checklist for Writing Papers
• Do I have a sufficient number of sources?
• Are a significant number of my sources critical sources (e.g., from academic journals)?
• Are my sources integrated smoothly into the paper?
• Is there a dialogue between my own analysis of the text and the research I'm
including?
• Is my own scholarly opinion strongly present in the research paper, rather than the
paper reading like a review of the opinions of other scholars?
• Have I cited all sources I draw from?
• If my paper is a revision, have I considered the changes I want to make, the comments
of my peers, and the instructor's comments towards the end of significantly improving
on the previous version of this paper?
 Steps of Academic Writing
• Discovery/Investigation. The first step in writing a successful paper in
college requires an active engagement with your sources. ...
• Prewriting
• Drafting
• Revising
• Editing
• Formatting, Inner-text Citation, and Works Cited.
 Two Parts of the Lecture

• Orientation with the Structures of Academic Writing

• Delving into the characteristics of academic writing

Structures of Academic
Writing
 Structure of Academic Writing
• Preface
• Declaration
• Acknowledgement
• Abstract/Executive Summary
• Glossary
• Introduction/ Background Information
• Literature Review
• Theoretical/Conceptual Framework
• Methodology
• Data Collection & Calculation/ Result
• Discussion
• Recommendations
• Conclusion
• References/Bibliography
• Appendices
 Abstract: Definition

An abstract is a short summary of your completed research. It is

intended to describe your work without going into great detail. Abstracts
should be self-contained and concise, explaining your work as briefly
and clearly as possible. Different disciplines call for slightly different
approaches to abstracts, as will be illustrated by the examples below, so it
would be wise to study some abstracts from your own field before you
begin to write one.
 What will “Abstract” Contain?
Motivation/problem statement: The overall purpose of the study and the research
problem(s) you investigated. Why is your research/argument important? What
practical, scientific, theoretical or artistic gap is your project filling?

Methods/procedure/approach: What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g.

analyzed 3 novels, completed a series of 5 oil paintings, interviewed 17 students)

Results/findings/product: Major findings or trends found as a result of your

analysis.
Conclusion/implications: a brief summary of your interpretations and
conclusions.
*Types of Abstract: a)Critical b)Descriptive c)Informative d)Highlight
 Executive Summary: Definition
An executive summary is a thorough overview of a research report,
policy paper, or other type of document that synthesizes key points for
its readers, saving them time and preparing them to understand the
study's overall content.

Executive summaries are used mainly when a research paper has been
developed for an organizational partner, funding entity, or other
external group that participated in the research or represents the
targeted audience of the paper's findings.
 Writing process of “Executive Summary”
Although the format may vary, the main sections of an executive
summary should include the following:

• An opening statement, with brief background information,

• The purpose of research study,
• Method of data gathering and analysis,
• Overview of findings, and,
• A description of each recommendation, accompanied by a
justification. Note that the recommendations are sometimes quoted
verbatim from the research study.
 Introduction: Definition

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular
topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research
being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background
information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the
research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining
briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem,
highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the
remaining structure and organization of the paper.
Pyramid of “Introduction”
5C of Introduction
• Comprehensive
• Cohesive
• Cognitive
• Congruent
• Coherent

Logical Flow
 Steps to Articulate “Introduction”
1. Establish an area to research by:
• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.
2. Identify a research niche by:
• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.
3. Place your research within the research niche by:
• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.
 What “Introduction” Should Include
• The key aims and objectives of your study,

• The research questions that you address,

• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon
being studied],

• The method(s) of investigation,

• The time period your study covers, and

• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.
 Witing “Introduction” Effectively Using
Cohesive Words
• Prior research has focused primarily on A, rather than on B...
• Prior research into A can be beneficial but to rectify X, it is important to examine B...
• These studies have placed an emphasis in the areas of A as opposed to describing B...
• While prior studies have examined A, it may be preferable to contemplate the impact
of B...
• After consideration of A, it is important to also distinguish B...
• The study of A has been thorough, but changing circumstances related to X support a
need for examining [or revisiting] B...
• Although research has been devoted to A, less attention has been paid to B...
• Earlier research offers insights into the need for A, though consideration of B would
be particularly helpful to address...
 Background information: Definition
Background information identifies and describes the history and nature of a well-
defined research problem with reference to contextualizing existing literature. The
background information should indicate the root of the problem being studied,
appropriate context of the problem in relation to theory, research, and/or practice,
its scope, and the extent to which previous studies have successfully investigated
the problem by noting in particular, where gaps exist that your study attempts to
address. Background information does not replace the literature review section of a
research paper; it is intended to place the research problem within a specific context
and an established plan for its solution.
 Literature Review: Definition
A literature review discusses published information in a particular subject area,
and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain time
period. A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it
usually has an organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis.

Some purposes of a literature review include: Establishing context for the

research, identifying gaps in existing research, evaluating the quality of existing
literature, synthesizing information from various sources, and guiding future
research directions.
 Construction of “Literature Review”
• Define your research scope: Identify the specific research question that your
literature review will address.
• Identify relevant literature: Search broadly for relevant sources, including
academic and professional journal articles, books, government reports, and
websites.
• Critically analyze the literature: Evaluate the quality of the literature and
describe, summarize, and evaluate each source.
• Categorize your resources: Identify themes, debates, and gaps in the literature.
• Acknowledge the work of others: Cite and reference your sources.
• Structure your review: Include an introduction, a body that discusses your
sources, and a conclusion.
 Structure “Literature Review” Logically
1. Narrow your topic and select papers accordingly
2. Search for literature
3. Read the selected articles thoroughly and evaluate them
4. Organize the selected papers by looking for patterns and by
developing subtopics
5. Develop a thesis or purpose statement
6. Write the paper
 Tailoring “Literature Review”
Literature Review can be written in sequential approaches stated below
• Chronological
• By Publication
• By Trend
• Thematic
• Methodological

Literature reveiw should depict

• Current Situation
• History
• Method
 Sample Literature Review
However, other studies have shown that even gender-neutral antecedents are more
likely to produce masculine images than feminine ones (Gastil, 1990). Hamilton
(1988) asked students to complete sentences that required them to fill in pronouns
that agreed with gender-neutral antecedents such as “writer,” “pedestrian,” and
“persons.” The students were asked to describe any image they had when writing
the sentence. Hamilton found that people imagined 3.3 men to each woman in the
masculine “generic” condition and 1.5 men per woman in the unbiased condition.
Thus, while ambient sexism accounted for some of the masculine bias, sexist
language amplified the effect. (Source: Erika Falk and Jordan Mills, “Why Sexist
Language Affects Persuasion: The Role of Homophily, Intended Audience, and
Offense,” Women and Language19:2).
Analytically Construct the “Literature
Review”
• Structure your sections by themes or subtopics, not by individual
theorists or researchers.

• Don’t emphasis on writer or researcher, rather prioritze on subject

• Prioritize analysis over description.

 Descriptive Literature Review
Student A: Smith (2000) concludes that personal privacy in their living quarters is the most
important factor in nursing home residents' perception of their autonomy. He suggests that the
physical environment in the more public spaces of the building did not have much impact on their
perceptions. Neither the layout of the building nor the activities available seem to make much
difference. Jones and Johnstone make the claim that the need to control one's environment is a
fundamental need of life (2001), and suggest that the approach of most institutions, which is to
provide total care, may be as bad as no care at all. If people have no choices or think that they have
none, they become depressed.
 Analytical Literature Review
Student B: After studying residents and staff from two intermediate care facilities in Calgary, Alberta,
Smith (2000) came to the conclusion that except for the amount of personal privacy available to
residents, the physical environment of these institutions had minimal if any effect on their perceptions of
control (autonomy). However, French (1998) and Haroon (2000) found that availability of private areas
is not the only aspect of the physical environment that determines residents' autonomy. Haroon
interviewed 115 residents from 32 different nursing homes known to have different levels of autonomy
(2000). It was found that physical structures, such as standardized furniture, heating that could not be
individually regulated, and no possession of a house key for residents limited their feelings of
independence. Moreover, Hope (2002), who interviewed 225 residents from various nursing homes,
substantiates the claim that characteristics of the institutional environment such as the extent of
resources in the facility, as well as its location, are features which residents have indicated as being of
great importance to their independence.
 Theoretical Framework: An Overview
Your theoretical framework defines the key concepts in your research, suggests
relationships between them, and discusses relevant theories based on your
literature review.
Theoretical framework is based on:
• Your problem statement
• Your research questions
• Your literature review
This three components will contribute to construct the theoretical framework.
 Conceptual Framework: An Overview
A conceptual framework illustrates the expected relationship between
your variables. It defines the relevant objectives for your research
process and maps out how they come together to draw coherent
conclusions.
 Research Methodology: An Overview
Your research methodology discusses and explains the data collection and analysis
methods you used in your research. A key part of your thesis, dissertation, or
research paper, the methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did
it, allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of your research and
your dissertation topic.

It should include:
• The type of research you conducted
• How you collected and analyzed your data
• Any tools or materials you used in the research
• How you mitigated or avoided research biases
• Why you chose these methods
 Strategies of Writing “Methodology”
Question with “What”
• What research problem or question did you investigate?
• And what type of data did you need to achieve this aim?
Question with “Why”
Describe where, when, and how
Describe your data collection methods
• Quantitative
• Qualitative
• Mixed
 Research Methodology: Quantitative methods
Survey
• How did you design the questionnaire?
• What form did your questions take (e.g., multiple choice, Likert scale)?
• Were your surveys conducted in-person or virtually?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• What was your sample size and response rate?
Experiment
• How did you design the experiment?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables?
• What tools did you use?
Existing data
• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g., date range)?
 Research Methodology: Qualitative methods
Interviews or focus groups
• How did you find and select participants?
• How many participants took part?
• What form did the interviews take (structured, semi-structured, or unstructured)?
• How long were the interviews?
• How were they recorded?
Participant observation
• What group or community did you observe? How long did you spend there?
• How did you gain access to this group? What role did you play in the community?
• How long did you spend conducting the research? Where was it located?
• How did you record your data (e.g., audiovisual recordings, note-taking)?
Existing data
• What type of materials did you analyze?
• How did you select them?
 Research Methodology: Mixed methods
Mixed methods research combines quantitative and qualitative
approaches. If a standalone quantitative or qualitative study is
insufficient to answer your research question, mixed methods may be a
good fit for you.
 How to Write a “Results” Section
A results section is where you report the main findings of the data collection and
analysis you conducted for your thesis or dissertation. You should report all relevant
results concisely and objectively, in a logical order. Don’t include subjective
interpretations of why you found these results or what they mean—any evaluation should
be saved for the discussion section.
Here are a few best practices:
• Your results should always be written in the past tense.
• While the length of this section depends on how much data you collected and analyzed, it
should be written as concisely as possible.
• Only include results that are directly relevant to answering your research questions. Avoid
speculative or interpretative words like “appears” or “implies.”
• If you have other results you’d like to include, consider adding them to an appendix or
footnotes.
• Always start out with your broadest results first, and then flow into your more granular
(but still relevant) ones. Think of it like a shoe store: first discuss the shoes as a whole,
then the sneakers, boots, sandals, etc.
 Reporting quantitative research “Results”
A reminder of the type of analysis you used (e.g., a two-sample t test or simple
linear regression). A more detailed description of your analysis should go in your
methodology section.
A concise summary of each relevant result, both positive and negative. This can
include any relevant descriptive statistics (e.g., means and standard deviations) as
well as inferential statistics (e.g., t scores, degrees of freedom, and p values).
Remember, these numbers are often placed in parentheses.
A brief statement of how each result relates to the question, or whether the
hypothesis was supported. You can briefly mention any results that didn’t fit with
your expectations and assumptions, but save any speculation on their meaning or
consequences for your discussion and conclusion.
 Tables & Figures in Depicting “Results”
• Tables are used to communicate exact values, giving a concise
overview of various results
• Graphs and charts are used to visualize trends and relationships, giving
an at-a-glance illustration of key findings
 Reporting qualitative research “Results”
In qualitative research, your results might not all be directly related to specific
hypotheses. In this case, you can structure your results section around key
themes or topics that emerged from your analysis of the data.

For each theme, start with general observations about what the data showed.
You can mention:

• Recurring points of agreement or disagreement

• Patterns and trends
• Particularly significant snippets from individual responses
 Results vs. discussion vs. conclusion
Your results section should objectively report your findings,
presenting only brief observations in relation to each question,
hypothesis, or theme. It should not speculate about the meaning of
the results or attempt to answer your main research question.

Detailed interpretation of your results is more suitable for your

discussion section, while synthesis of your results into an overall
answer to your main research question is best left for your
conclusion.
 How to Write a “Discussion” Section
Step 1: Summarize your key findings
Step 2: Give your interpretations
Step 3: Discuss the implications
Step 4: Acknowledge the limitations
Step 5: Share your recommendations
Don’t introduce new results
Don’t make inflated claims
Don’t undermine your research
 “Conclusion” Writing
• Step 1: Answer your research question
• Step 2: Summarize and reflect on your research
• Step 3: Make future recommendations
• Step 4: Emphasize your contributions to your field
• Step 5: Wrap up your thesis or dissertation

Your conclusion should be shorter and more general than your discussion.
Concentrate on making broad statements that sum up the most
important insights of your research.
 Building your research
“Recommendation”
There are many different ways to frame recommendations, but the easiest is perhaps to follow the
formula of research question → conclusion → recommendation. Here’s an example.
Recommendation setup example
Research question
How can teachers at your local preschool ensure that social skills that contribute to maintaining peer
relationships are promoted in children aged 1 to 4?
Conclusion
An important condition for controlling many social skills is mastering language. If children have a
better command of language, they can express themselves better and are better able to understand
their peers. Opportunities to practice social skills are thus dependent on the development of language
skills.
Recommendation
The investigation revealed that mastering language is an important prerequisite for mastering social
skills. On this basis, future research should examine the ability of language development programs to
expand the language skills of children aged 1 to 4.
 Referencing in Academic Writing:
Reasoning
• Give the original author credit for their own ideas and work

• Validate your arguments

• Enable the reader to follow up on the original work if they wish to

• Enable the reader to see how dated the information might be

• Prove to your tutors/lecturers that you have read around the subject

• Avoid plagiarism
 Types Referencing styles
• Parenthetical citations: Usually the author’s last name and the
publication date, plus a page number if relevant (author-date).
Sometimes the publication date is omitted (author-page).

• Numerical citations: You include a number in brackets or in

superscript, which corresponds to an entry in your numbered reference
list.

• Note citations: You include a full citation in a footnote or endnote,

which is indicated in the text with a superscript number or symbol.
 Appendices in Academic Writing
An appendix is a supplementary document that facilitates your reader’s
understanding of your research but is not essential to your core
argument. Appendices are a useful tool for providing additional
information or clarification in a research paper, dissertation, or thesis
without making your final product too long. It consists-

• Supplementary results
• Statistical analyses
• Further information on surveys or interviews
 How to format “An Appendix”

• Always start each appendix on a new page.

• Assign it both a number (or letter) and a clear title, such as “Appendix A.
Interview transcripts.” This makes it easier for your reader to find the
appendix, as well as for you to refer back to it in your main text.

• Number and title the individual elements within each appendix (e.g.,
“Transcripts”) to make it clear what you are referring to. Restart the
numbering in each appendix at 1.
 How to refer to “An Appendix”
• Example 1. Referring to an entire appendix
The interview (see Appendix A) revealed that …
Appendix B presents the correspondence exchanged with the
fitness boutique.

• Example 2. Referring to an appendix component

These results (see Appendix 2, Table 1) show that …
Table 1 in Appendix 2 presents an overview of the correspondence
with the fitness boutique.
Characteristics of
Academic Writing
 Characteristics of Academic Writing
• Structured: Academic writing is structured, balanced, objective, and
critical.
• Evidence-based: Academic writing uses evidence-based arguments
and logical reasoning.
• Precise: Academic writing uses precise word structure and excellent
grammar.
• Concise: Academic writing is direct and concise, using standard
English.
• Avoids slang: Academic writing avoids regional dialects or slang
terms, which can be open to interpretation.
 Qualities of Academic Writing

Academic writing is… Academic writing is not…

Focused and well structured Personal
Well sourced Long-winded
Clear and precise Emotive and grandiose
Formal and unbiased
Correct and consistent
 Academic Language: Focused and well
structured
An academic text is not just a collection of ideas about a topic—it
needs to have a clear purpose. Start with a relevant research question
or thesis statement, and use it to develop a focused argument. Only
include information that is relevant to your overall purpose.

A coherent structure is crucial to organize your ideas. Pay attention to

structure at three levels:
• The structure of the whole text
• Paragraph structure
• Sentence structure
Overall I. Always include an introduction and a conclusion.
structure II. Divide longer texts into chapters or sections with clear headings.
III. Make sure information is presented in a logical order.
Paragraph I. Start a new paragraph when you move onto a new idea.
structure II. Use a topic sentence at the start of each paragraph to indicate what
it’s about, and make clear transitions between paragraphs.
III. Make sure every paragraph is relevant to your argument or question.
Sentence I. Use transition words to express the connections between different
structure ideas within and between sentences.
II. Use appropriate punctuation to avoid
sentence fragments or run-on sentences.
III. Use a variety of sentence lengths and structures.
 Forging good titles
The title is the first thing your reader will see, and most readers will
make their first judgements of your work based on it.

Informative: Clearly convey the topic of your paper

Striking: Have to entice the audience to read
Appropriate: Understandable & Meaningful
Tips
Use key terms
Identify the context
 Title templates
Striking: Informative – The Specter of Wall Street: “Bartleby, the Scrivener” and the Language of
Commodities (American Literature)
Informative: Striking – Carbon capture and storage: How green can black be? (Science)
General: Specific – The issues of the sixties: An exploratory study in the dynamics of public opinion
(Public Opinion Quarterly)
“Quotation”: Discussion (social studies) – “I’d rather not talk about it”: Adolescents’ and young
adults’ use of topic avoidance in stepfamilies (Journal of Applied Communication Research)
“Quotation”: Discussion (literary studies) – “I Would Prefer Not To”: Giorgio Agamben, Bartleby
and the Potentiality of the Law (Law and Critique)
Simple and precise – Methodological issues in the use of Tsimshian oral Traditions (Adawx) in
Archaeology (Canadian Journal of Archaeology)
Topic: Method – Mortality in sleep apnea patients: A multivariate analysis of risk factors (Sleep)
Topic: Significance – LC3 binds externalized cardiolipin on injured mitochondria to signal
mitophagy in neurons: Implications for Parkinson disease (Autophagy)
Technical and very specific – Single-shot quantum nondemolition measurement of a quantum-dot
electron spin using cavity exciton-polaritons (Physical Review)
 How to Write and Format Headings
The goal of using headings in a document is not only to divide
information, but also to allow easy navigation of the document.

To test for overall heading clarity, ask yourself the following: from
reading your headings in sequence, would an informed reader
understand…

• The content of the document as a whole?

• The specific content of each section?
• How each section fits with the others?
 Headings vs. titles
Headings: Entire document Title: Only a chapter or section
Higher-level: one word Lower-level headings: more specific
terminology for clarification

* Using descriptive headings

GPS Profile of GPS technology Function of GPS in aviation GPS before 1999
* Avoiding Repetitive headings
* Technical terms in headings
* Capitalization, formatting and sequencing
 Few Techniques of Heading
Option 1: All significant words capitalized Option 2: Only first words capitalized
Chapter 3 Literature Review Chapter 3 Literature review
Section 3.1 History of Coffee Drinking Section 3.1 A history of coffee drinking
Section 3.2 Emerging Coffee Markets in North America Section 3.2 Emerging coffee markets in North America
Section 3.2.1 High School and College Students Section 3.2.1 High school and college students
Section 3.2.2 Commuting Workers Section 3.2.2 Commuting workers
Section 3.3 Competitors in the Hot Beverage Sector Section 3.3 Competitors in the hot beverage sector

Option 3: Capitalization varies by level

Chapter 3 Literature Review(level 1)
Section 3.1 A history of coffee drinking (level 2)
Section 3.2 Emerging coffee markets in North America
Section 3.2.1 High school and college students (level 3)
Section 3.2.2 Commuting workers
Section 3.3 Competitors in the hot beverage sector
 Academic Language: Well Sourced
Academic writing uses sources to support its claims.
Sources used as evidence.
Many of your sources will be written by other academics;
Use credible and appropriate source
Citing Wikipedia is typically discouraged. Don’t rely on websites
for information; instead, use academic databases and your university
library to find credible sources.

Cite your source

Elsewhere, it has been argued that the method is “the best currently available”
In-text citation
List of Reference
(Smith, 2019,
in thep. 25).
end
Reference list Smith, J. (2019). Statistical analysis methods (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Norton.
Your Source of
Information for
Research
Subject Primary Source Secondary Source Tertiary Source
Criminal Justice Data gathered on prison conditions Research report on prison Directory of prison facilities
conditions
Economics U.S. Bureau of the Census Working paper about Statistical Abstract of California
population datasets demographic changes in
California
Education Focus group interview of teachers Journal article about teaching Handbook of effective teaching
methods methods
Environmental Studies Fieldwork data measuring glacial Book on the impact of World atlas
melting climate change
International Relations De-classified diplomatic cables Journal article examining A specialized encyclopedia about
between the United States and Japan foreign relations between the the history of Japanese foreign
U.S. and Japan affairs
Law Testimony in a hearing before Television news report on the Congressional committee website
Congress Congressional hearing
Political Science Public Papers of the Presidents of Biography of a president Encyclopedia about American
the United States presidents
Psychology Clinical notes of patient treatment Journal article about a Mental Measurements Yearbook
goals and plans psychological condition
Public Administration Meeting minutes of the Housing Journal article on the housing Statistical compendium of housing
Authority of the City of Los Angeles crisis in Los Angeles county prices
Social Work Counts of homeless people in Los Report on access to shelter Directory of organizations devoted
Angeles for the homeless to helping the homeless
Sociology Interviews of anti-war protesters Journal article about anti-war Textbook on social movement
activism among young adults theories
 Technique of Acadmic Writing:
Sandwiching
• Claim
• Evidence
• Analysis
 Avoiding repetition at the sentence level
• Use a variety of different transition words
• Vary the structure and length of your sentences
• Don’t use the same pronoun to reference more than one antecedent (e.g. “They
asked whether they were ready for them”)
• Avoid repetition of particular sounds or words (e.g. “Several shelves sheltered
similar sets of shells”)
• Avoid redundancies (e.g “In the year 2019” instead of “in 2019”)
• Don’t state the obvious (e.g. “The conclusion chapter contains the paper’s
conclusions”)
When repitation not problem
• Restating Key points, Key variables & Research questions
Transition Words &
Phrases
Additive transition words
Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases
Addition We found that the mixture was indeed, furthermore, moreover, additionally,
effective. Moreover, it appeared to have and, also, both x and y, not only x but
additional effects we had not predicted. also y, besides x, in fact
Introduction Several researchers have previously such as, like, particularly, including, as an
explored this topic. For instance, Smith illustration, for example, for instance, in
(2014) examined the effects of … particular, to illustrate, especially, notably
Reference The solution showed a high degree of considering x, regarding x, in regard to x, as
absorption. Considering this result, it is for x, concerning x, the fact that x, on the
reasonable to conclude that … subject of x
Similarity It was not possible to establish a similarly, in the same way, by the same token,
correlation between these in like manner, equally, likewise
variables. Similarly, the connection
between x and y remains unclear …
Clarification The patient suffered several side that is (to say), namely, specifically, more
effects, namely increased appetite, precisely, in other words
decreased libido, and disordered sleep.
Adversative transition words
Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases
Conflict The novel does deal with the theme of but, however, although, though, equally, by way of
family. However, its central theme is more contrast, while, on the other hand, (and) yet,
broadly political … whereas, in contrast, (when) in fact, conversely,
whereas
Concession Jones (2011) argues that the novel reflects even so, nonetheless, nevertheless, even though, on
Russian politics of the the other hand, admittedly, despite x,
time. Although, this is correct, other notwithstanding x, (and) still, although, in spite of
aspects of the text must also be x, regardless (of x), (and) yet, though, granted x
considered.
Dismissal It remains unclear which of these regardless, either way, whatever the case, in
hypotheses is correct. In any case, it can any/either event, in any/either case, at any rate, all
be inferred that … the same
Emphasis The chemical is generally thought to have above all, indeed, more/most importantly
corrosive properties. Indeed, several
studies have supported this hypothesis.
Replacement The character of Godfrey is often viewed (or) at least, (or) rather, instead, or (perhaps) even,
as selfish, or at least self-absorbed. if not
Causal transition words

Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases

Consequence Because Hitler failed to respond to therefore, because (of x), as a result (of x), for this reason, in view
the British ultimatum, France and of x, as, owing to x, due to (the fact that), since, consequently, in
the UK declared war on Germany. consequence, as a consequence, hence, thus, so (that), accordingly,
so much (so) that, under the/such circumstances, if so
Condition We qualified survey responses as (even/only) if/when, on (the) condition that, in the case that,
positive only if the participant granted (that), provided/providing that, in case, in the event that,
selected “agree” or “strongly as/so long as, unless, given that, being that, inasmuch/insofar as,
agree.” Otherwise, results were in that case, in (all) other cases, if so/not, otherwise
recorded as negative.
Purpose We used accurate recording to, in order to/that, for the purpose of, in the hope that, so that, to
equipment so that our results would the end that, lest, with this in mind, so as to, so that, to ensure
be as precise as possible. (that)
 Sequential transition words

Function Example sentence Transition words and phrases

Enumeration This has historically had several first, second, third…
consequences: First, the conflict is not
given the weight of other conflicts in
historical narratives. Second, its causes are
inadequately understood. Third, …
Initiation To begin with, I want to consider the role in the first place, initially, first of all, to begin with, at
played by women in this period. first
Continuation Subsequently, I discuss the way in which subsequently, previously, eventually, next, before x,
the country’s various ethnic minorities were afterwards, after x, then
affected by the conflict.
Conclusion Finally, I consider these two themes in to conclude (with), as a final point, eventually, at last,
combination. last but not least, finally, lastly
Resumption To return to my main argument, it is clear to return/returning to x, to resume, at any rate
that …
Summation Patel (2015) comes to a similar as previously stated/mentioned, in summary, as I have
conclusion. In summary, the four studies argued, overall, as has been mentioned, to summarize,
considered here suggest a consensus that briefly, given these points, in view of x, as has been
the solution is effective. noted, in conclusion, in sum, altogether, in short
 Common mistakes with transition words

•Transition words are often used incorrectly. Make sure you understand
the proper usage of transition words and phrases, and remember that
words with similar meanings don’t necessarily work the same way
grammatically.

•Misused transition words can make your writing unclear or illogical.

 Confused use of “therefore”
“Therefore” and similar cause-and-effect words are used to state that something is
the result of, or follows logically from, the previous. Make sure not to use these
words in a way that implies illogical connections.

(X)We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to
10. Therefore, the average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.

The use of “therefore” in this example is illogical

(√) We asked participants to rate their satisfaction with their work from 1 to 10. The
average satisfaction among participants was 7.5.
 Starting a sentence with also, and, or so
While the words “also,” “and,” and “so” are used in academic writing,
they are considered too informal when used at the start of a sentence.

(X)Also, a second round of testing was carried out.

To fix this issue, we can either move the transition word to a different
point in the sentence or use a more formal alternative.

(√)A second round of testing was also carried out.

(√)Additionally, a second round of testing was carried out.
 Transition words creating sentence
fragments
Words like “although” and “because” are called subordinating conjunctions. This
means that they introduce clauses which cannot stand on their own. A clause
introduced by one of these words should always follow or be followed by another
clause in the same sentence.

(X)Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. Although other
researchers disagree.
(√) Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed, although other
researchers disagree.
(√) Smith (2015) argues that the period should be reassessed. However, other
researchers disagree.
 And vs. as well as/Use of and/or
Using “and” suggests that the things you’re listing are of equal importance, while “as well as” introduces
additional information that is less important.

(X)Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf, as well as presenting my analysis of To the
Lighthouse.
(√)Chapter 1 discusses some background information on Woolf and presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse.
(√)Chapter 1 presents my analysis of To the Lighthouse, as well as discussing some background information on
Woolf.

Note that in fixed phrases like “both x and y,” you must use “and,” not “as well as.”
(X)Both my results as well as my interpretations are presented below.
(√)Both my results and my interpretations are presented below.

The combination of transition words “and/or” should generally be avoided in academic writing.
(X)Participants were asked whether they used the bus and/or the train.
(√)Participants were asked whether they used the bus, the train, or both.
 Archaic transition words
Words like “hereby,” “therewith,” and most others formed by the combination of
“here,” “there,” or “where” with a preposition are typically avoided in modern
academic writing. Using them makes your writing feel old-fashioned and strained
and can sometimes obscure your meaning.
(X) Poverty is best understood as a disease. Hereby, we not only see that it is
hereditary, but acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s health.
These words should usually be replaced with a more explicit phrasing expressing
how the current statement relates to the preceding one.
(√) Poverty is best understood as a disease. Understanding it as such, we not only
see that it is hereditary, but also acknowledge its devastating effects on a person’s
health.
 Academic Language: Clear and precise

It’s important to use clear and precise language to ensure that your reader
knows exactly what you mean. This means being as specific as possible and
avoiding vague language:

(X)People have been interested in this thing for a long time.

(√)Researchers have been interested in this phenomenon for at least 10

years.
 Academic Language: Clear and precise
Avoid hedging your claims with words like “perhaps,” as this can give
the impression that you lack confidence in your arguments. Reflect on
your word choice to ensure it accurately and directly conveys your
meaning:

(X)This could perhaps suggest that…

(√)This suggests that…
Informal sentence starts
Taboo Example Alternative
Plus Plus, the participants were in agreement on the (Moreover/Furthermore/What is more), the
third question participants were in agreement on the third question
So So, it can be concluded that the model needs Therefore, it can be concluded that the model needs
further refinement further refinement
And And the participants were all over the age of 30 The participants were all over the age of 30
Besides Besides, we asked all the participants to sign an Additionally, we asked all the participants to sign an
agreement agreement

Too vague

Taboo Example Alternative

Stuff People are concerned about their stuff People are concerned about
their (belongings/possessions/personal effects)
Thing The report presents many things The report presents
many (details/findings/recommendations)
A while This topic has interested researchers for a while This topic has interested researchers for more than 30
years
 How to Write More Concisely | Tips to
Shorten Your Sentences
Avoid inflated phrases
Avoid redundancies
Avoiding repetition at the paper level
Don’t restate points you’ve already made
Don’t use the same heading more than once
Avoiding repetition at the sentence level
 Academic Language: Formal & Unbiased
• To avoid bias, it’s important to represent the work of other researchers and the results of
your own research fairly and accurately. This means clearly outlining your methodology
and being honest about the limitations of your research.

• The formal style used in academic writing ensures that research is presented consistently
across different texts, so that studies can be objectively assessed and compared with
other research.

Because of this, it’s important to strike the right tone with your language choices. Avoid
informal language, including slang, contractions, clichés, and conversational phrases:
(X) Also, a lot of the findings are a little unreliable.
(√) Moreover, many of the findings are somewhat unreliable.
 Some Common Mistakes to Avoid
Too informal
Taboo Example Alternative
A bit The interviews were a The interviews were (difficult/somewhat
bit difficult to schedule difficult) to schedule
A lot of, a couple of A lot of studies (Many/several/a great number
of/eight) studies
Isn’t, can’t, doesn’t, The sample isn’t The sample is not
would’ve (or any
other contraction)
Kind of, sort of The findings were kind The findings were (somewhat
of significant significant/significant to some degree)
Til, till From 2008 till 2012 From 2008 (until/to) 2012
You, your You can clearly see the One can clearly see the results/
(i.e., the second-person results The results can clearly be seen
point of view)
 Use of Specialist language or jargon
Specialist language or jargon is common and often necessary in academic writing, which
generally targets an audience of other academics in related fields. However, jargon should
be used to make your writing more concise and accurate, not to make it more complicated.
A specialist term should be used when:

• It conveys information more precisely than a comparable non-specialist term.

• Your reader is likely to be familiar with the term.
• The term is commonly used by other researchers in your field.

The best way to familiarize yourself with the kind of jargon used in your field is to read
papers by other researchers and pay attention to their language.
 Use of Jargons Etc. in Academic Writing
•Jargon (i.e., “insider” terminology that may be difficult for readers from other
fields to understand)
•Clichés (i.e., expressions that are heavily overused, such as think outside of the
box and at the end of the day)
•Everyday abbreviations (e.g., approx., ASAP, corona, stats, info)
•Slang (e.g., cops, cool)
•Gender-biased language (e.g., firemen, mankind)
•Generally unnecessary (e.g., redundant expressions that do not add meaning, such
as compete with each other instead of simply compete)
Exceptions
Reflective reports and personal statements sometimes have a less formal tone. In these types of
writing, you may not have to follow these guidelines as strictly. The preface or acknowledgements
of a dissertation also often have a less formal and more personal voice than the rest of the
document.
 Academic Language: No Personal POV
• Avoid personal narration
• Always avoid addressing the reader directly with the second-person
pronoun “you.”

(X)As a teacher, you must treat your students fairly.

(√)As a teacher, one must treat one’s students fairly.
(√)Teachers must treat their students fairly.
 Academic Writing:Use of First Person
The use of the first-person pronoun “I” used to be similarly discouraged in
academic writing, but it is increasingly accepted in many fields. If you’re unsure
whether to use the first person, pay attention to conventions in your field or ask
your instructor.
When you refer to yourself, it should be for good reason. You can position yourself
and describe what you did during the research, but avoid arbitrarily inserting your
personal thoughts and feelings:

In my opinion…
I think that…
I like/dislike…
I argue that…
I conducted interviews with…
I hope to achieve…
 Avoid Long Winded Description
Many students think their writing isn’t academic unless it’s over-complicated and
long-winded. This isn’t a good approach—instead, aim to be as concise and direct as
possible.
If a term can be cut or replaced with a more straightforward one without affecting
your meaning, it should be. Avoid redundant phrasings in your text, and try replacing
phrasal verbs with their one-word equivalents where possible:
Interest in this phenomenon carried on in the year 2018.
Interest in this phenomenon continued in 2018.
Repetition is a part of academic writing—for example, summarizing earlier
information in the conclusion—but it’s important to avoid unnecessary repetition.
Make sure that none of your sentences are repeating a point you’ve already made in
different words.
 Avoid Emotive and grandiose Language
An academic text is not the same thing as a literary, journalistic, or marketing text. Though
you’re still trying to be persuasive, a lot of techniques from these styles are not appropriate in an
academic context. Specifically, you should avoid appeals to emotion and inflated claims.
Though you may be writing about a topic that’s sensitive or important to you, the point of
academic writing is to clearly communicate ideas, information, and arguments, not to inspire
an emotional response. Avoid using emotive or subjective language:
(X)This horrible tragedy was obviously one of the worst catastrophes in construction
history.
(√)The injury and mortality rates of this accident were among the highest in construction
history.
Students are sometimes tempted to make the case for their topic with exaggerated, unsupported
claims and flowery language. Stick to specific, grounded arguments that you can support with
evidence, and don’t overstate your point:
(X)Charles Dickens is the greatest writer of the Victorian period, and his influence on all
subsequent literature is enormous.
(√)Charles Dickens is one of the best-known writers of the Victorian period and has had a
significant influence on the development of the English novel.
Too exaggerated
Taboo Example Alternative
Always, Researchers always argue that Researchers (frequently/commonly/ typically) argue
never that
Perfect The perfect solution to the (An ideal solution/one of the best solutions) to the
problem problem
Really, so, This theory is really important This theory is (important/critical/crucial)
super

Too subjective
Taboo Example Alternative
Beautiful, ugly, wonderful, horrible, A review of the literature A review of the literature yielded
great, boring yielded many great articles many relevant articles
Obviously, naturally, of course The results obviously indicate The results clearly indicate

Taboo Example Alternative

Literally The students literally did not understand The students did not understand
Would of, had of The study would of considered The study would have considered
 Academic Language: Correct and
consistent
How to use different types of voice effectively.
Effective praphrasing to avoid plagiarism
Using verb tenses in different sections
Capitalization of terms and headings
Spelling and punctuation differences between UK and US English
Active vs. Passive Constructions | When to
Use the Passive Voice
Active voice: The dog bites the bone.
Passive voice: The bone is bitten by the dog.
In a passive construction, the actor does not have to be named at all.
Passive construction: The bone is bitten.

Writers are often advised to avoid the passive voice, but it is not a
grammatical error. In academic writing, this type of sentence structure is
sometimes useful or necessary. However, overusing it can make your
writing unclear or convoluted.
 Avoiding the passive voice
In most cases, it’s best to use active sentence constructions where possible. Sometimes
the passive voice makes a sentence less clear by obscuring the actor.

(X)The decision was made to close the factory.

Who made the decision? To properly understand what occurred, we need to know who
was behind the action. This is possible in the passive voice, but the sentence becomes
convoluted.

(√)The decision was made by the CEO to close the factory.

An active construction is preferable for clarity and concision.
(√)(√)The CEO made the decision to close the factory.
 Using Active Voice for Precision
If you write a passive sentence, consider carefully whether leading with the actor would
strengthen your point.

This is also relevant when discussing previous research: active constructions that specify
who is responsible for findings can make your writing more credible and convincing.

(X)Evidence has been found of nonhuman primates engaging in ritualistic behaviour.

(√)Smith (2015) found evidence of nonhuman primates engaging in ritualistic behaviour.
(√)Several recent studies have found evidence of nonhuman primates engaging in
ritualistic behaviour.
 Using the passive voice Where Needed
Avoid dangling modifiers: By providing students the opportunity to interact with
each other, they become more interested and motivated.
Thirty votes were counted in favour of the amendment: Subject of an action is
unknown or unimportant
More research is required to understand this phenomenon: No particular
actor:general sense of necessity or obligation.

Some types of academic writing do not In these cases, the passive voice can be used
permit the use of first-person pronouns. for referring to your own actions.
Active voice with first-person pronouns Passive voice to avoid first-person pronouns
I gathered data through an online survey. Data was gathered through an online survey.
We recorded the measurements at 9am The measurements were recorded at 9am
every day for three weeks. every day for three weeks.
 Avoiding Plagiarism
• Only include the information that’s relevant to our argument
• Introduce the information with the signal phrase
• Retain key terms
• Structure sentences in our own way instead of copying the structure of
the original
• Start from a different point, presenting information in a different order

Paraphrasing: Read→Note→Write→Compare→Cite
 Examples of plagiarism Why is it wrong?

Copying parts of a text word for word, without quotation marks It makes it seem like these are your own
words.
Paraphrasing a text by changing a few words or altering the It makes it seem like you came up with the
sentence structure, without citing the source idea, when in fact you just rephrased someone
else’s idea.
Giving incorrect information about a source If readers can’t find the cited source, they
can’t check the information themselves.
Quoting so much from a source that it makes up the majority of Even with proper citations, you’re not making
your text an original contribution if you rely so much on
someone else’s words.
Reusing work you’ve submitted for a previous assignment, Even though it’s your own work, the reader
without citing yourself should be informed that it’s not completely
new but comes from previous research.
Submitting a text written entirely by someone else (e.g., a paper Not doing the work yourself is academically
you bought from a ghostwriter) dishonest, undermines your learning, and is
unfair to other students.
 Quote Analysis— The Easy Way! Just Remember WPAE!

• Writing the quote

• Paraphrase
• Analysis
• Evaluation
 Ways to introduce quotes
* When (event in book) happened, (character) states, "..."
Ex: When Lady Macbeth kills herself, Macbeth states, "Life's but a
walking shadow, a poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and
then is heard no more (V.V.19-20).

*(Character) explains: "..." (citation).

*(Your own words) "direct quotes from book" ...

Ex: Macbeth pines over his miserable fate, calling life a "walking shadow"
(citation).
 Ways to paraphrase
Directly look at quote and replace the text with your words. It is vitally
important to maintain the same meaning:

Ex: In other words, Macbeth compares his existence to the condition of

being a mere ghost. He goes on to compare people to actors who worry about
their brief moment in the spotlight only to cease to exist before he realizes
his life is over.
 Ways to analyze
Look at the subtle parts of the quote, and explain why the author used
them in his writing--Tone, diction, mood, figurative language
(metaphors, similes, imagery, alliteration, onomatopoeia,
personification...there are A LOT).

Ex: The metaphors Shakespeare uses, comparing life to a "walking

shadow" and man to "a poor player" emphasize the fleeting nature of
life. Shadows are gone as soon as they appear, and actors only assume their
character: the people they represent have no true meaning.
 Ways to evaluate
Show the importance of the quote with respect to your argument and
your thesis. Explain the significance...Tell the reader why they bothered
to read your essay. This is where you tie your thoughts together in a nice
bow.

Ex: Here, Macbeth realizes that his pitiful existence, from the moment he
decided to kill King Duncan to the moment when his beloved wife killed
herself, has been consumed by his reckless ambition. This directly shows
the damaging power of ambition. If Macbeth had been content with his
previous title, which was prestigious enough, a host of tragedy would
have been avoided.
 Full text
When Lady Macbeth kills herself, Macbeth states, "Life's but a walking shadow, a
poor player that struts and frets his hour upon the stage and then is heard no more"
(V.V.19-28). In other words, Macbeth compares his existence to the condition of
being a mere ghost. He goes on to compare people to actors who worry about their
brief moment in the spotlight only to cease to exist before they realize it is over. The
metaphors Shakespeare uses, comparing life to a "walking shadow" and man to "a
poor player" emphasize the fleeting nature of life. Shadows are gone as soon as they
appear, and actors only assume their character: the people they represent have no
true meaning. Here, Macbeth realizes that his pitiful existence, from the moment he
decided to kill King Duncan to the moment when his beloved wife killed herself, has
been destroyed by his reckless ambition. This directly shows the damaging power of
ambition, a major theme of the play. If Macbeth had been content with his previous
title, which was prestigious enough, a wealth of tragedy would have been avoided.
 Tense tendencies in academic texts
Abstract or Summary
Present simple: for facts and general truisms; to say what the paper does
• This thesis examines the ways that ecological poetry relates to political
activism.
• Our research suggests better economic policies.

Present perfect: for past events or research still relevant to the present
• Thinkers have examined how ecological poetry relates to political activism.
• Other economists have suggested different economic policies.
 Tense tendencies in academic texts
Introduction
Present simple: to say what the paper does and why it is important
• This research is relevant to how we understand the role of poetry.
• Effective economic policies help societies to prosper.

Past simple: to provide historical background

• In his time, Thoreau concerned himself with living in harmony with
nature.
• Ronald Reagan’s policies changed America’s political landscape.
 Tense tendencies in academic texts
Theoretical Framework
Present simple: to describe theories and provide definitions
• In lyric poetry, the speaker presents his perspective on a given situation.
• “Reaganomics” refers to the economic policies of Reagan administration.

Literature Review
Present perfect: for past research still relevant to the paper’s current research
• Research has shown that the AI market for education will grow to $1.2 billion in
2024.
Past simple: to describe specific steps or actions of past researchers
• Tan et al. investigated whether an algorithm could predict student engagement.
 Tense tendencies in academic texts
Methods and Results
Past simple: for events that began and ended in the past, such as an experiment
• We conducted semi-structured interviews with the participants.
• We found that participants had much to say about their workplaces.
• A multivariate linear regression was used.

Present simple: to describe a tool’s function (which does not change over time)
• Multivariate linear regressions are relevant to use for sets of correlated
random variables.
 Tense tendencies in academic texts
Conclusions or Discussion
Present simple: for interpretations of data
• The results indicate a steady increase in net gain for x and y companies.
• We cannot conclude that this growth will continue on the basis of this study.

Limitations
Past simple: for details about how the study happened
• The sample size was adequate for a qualitative analysis, but it was not big
enough to provide good grounds for predictions.
 Tense tendencies in academic texts
Recommendations and Implications
Modal auxiliary to indicate lack of a certain outcome
• Modal auxiliary: Responses to the survey suggest that many more people in this
profession may be unsatisfied with their vacation time.

Simple future with hedging word: for thoughts on what future studies might focus
on, and for careful predictions
• Modal auxiliary: Future research should conduct more sustained investigations of
this phenomenon.
• Simple future with hedging word: The results of the study indicate that the
glaciers will likely continue to melt.
 Editing and Proofreading
Step 1: Content Revising an early draft of a text, often making significant changes to the content
editing and moving, adding or deleting entire sections (also known as developmental or
substantive editing).
Step 2: Line editing Revising the use of language to communicate your story, ideas, or arguments as
effectively as possible.
This might involve changing words, phrases and sentences and restructuring
paragraphs to improve the flow of the text.
Step 3: Copy editing Polishing individual sentences to ensure correct grammar, a clear sentence
structure, and stylistic consistency, often following the rules of a specific style
guide (such as APA or MLA).
Copy editors don’t change the content of a text, but if a sentence or paragraph is
ambiguous or awkward, they can work with the author to improve it.
Step 4: Proofreading Carefully checking for any remaining errors, such as misspelled words,
misplaced punctuation, and stylistic inconsistencies.
 Motto of Academic Writing
"Write to EXPRESS, not to IMPRESS."

Above all, write actively, clearly, and concisely.

 Nine Basic Ways to Improve Your Style in
Academic Writing
1. Use ACTIVE VOICE
2. Mix it up in terms of PUNCTUATION
3. Vary your SENTENCE STRUCTURE
4. Closely related to this, avoid CHOPPINESS
5. Avoid REPETITION.
6. Be CONCISE
7. Use the VOCABULARY that you know.
8. But also work on expanding your VOCABULARY.
9. Keep language FORMAL and avoid language of everyday speech.
I avoid informal terms and contractions.
I avoid second-person pronouns (“you”).
I avoid emotive or exaggerated language.
I avoid redundant words and phrases.
I avoid unnecessary jargon and define terms where needed.
I present information as precisely and accurately as possible.
I use appropriate transitions to show the connections between my ideas.
My text is logically organized using paragraphs.
Each paragraph is focused on a single idea, expressed in a clear topic sentence.
Every part of the text relates to my central thesis or research question.
I support my claims with evidence.
I use the appropriate verb tenses in each section.
I consistently use either UK or US English.
I format numbers consistently.
I cite my sources using a consistent citation style.