BCH 314 (Carbohydrates Metabolism)

Lecture Notes

By
Esienanwan Esien Efiong, PhD
 Course lecturers

Dr. Mohammad Bawa (Coordinator)

&
Dr. Esienanwan Esien Efiong
 General overview of lecture

•Degradation and digestion of carbohydrate-( sugars)

•Storage polysaccharides and cell walls.
•Introduction to metabolism.
•Metabolism of carbohydrates: glycolysis, TCA cycle,
Gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis/ Glycogenolysis
•Reactions of sugar
Learning outcomes

At the completion of this course, students are expected to:

1.Explain the degradation and digestion of carbohydrates, the enzymes and pH value required.
2.Have vast and detailed knowledge of various metabolic pathways such as glycolysis, TCA cycle,
Gluconeogenesis, glycogenesis/ glycogenolysis
3.Understand the entry of fructose, galactose and other hexoses into the glycolytic pathway.
4.Account for the net gain of ATP in glycolysis
5.Acquire knowledge about storage carbohydrates and cell walls
6.Identify different reactions of sugars
Textbooks for further reading

(1)Biochemistry by Lubert Stryer

(2) Lehninger, A. L. Principles of Biochemistry
(3)Biochemistry by Voet and Voet
(4)Harper, H.A. Review of Physiological Chemistry
Metabolism
This is the chemical processes that occur within living cells which are
necessary for the maintenance of life. Metabolism can be categorized as
anabolism and catabolism.

•Anabolic reactions results to synthesis of complex molecules from simple

compounds. Energy is required for synthesis of compounds I.e it an endergonic
reaction.

•Catabolic reactions results to break down of large molecules Such as

polysaccharides, protein into small molecules like, CO2, NH3, H2O. These reactions
liberated energy, thus, there are exergonic reactions.
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

Digestion of CHO is accomplished by the enzymes of digestive fluids, saliva,

pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.

1. Digestion of carbohydrate begins in the mouth: salivary glands secrete saliva

containing α- amylase (ptyalin), water 99.5% and glycoprotein as food
lubricant.
•α- amylase hydrolysis starch to dextrin and maltose.
• pH of α- amylase = 5.8 – 7.1
• When pH is less than 4.0, the enzyme becomes inactive
2. Stomach- no digestion occurs in the stomach. Here, amylase is inactive because
the pH of stomach is 1 - 2 which is very acidic
3. Small intestine: This is the major site of carbohydrate digestion. Here, pancreatic
amylase hydrolyze dextrin into maltose. The optimum pH of amylase is 7.1
4. Intestinal mucosal: T h e mucosal cell membrane of the small intestine is bound by
enzymes. This is the site for disaccharides hydrolysis.

Maltose---- Glucose + Glucose in the presence of maltase

Sucrose--- Glucose + Fructose in the presence of Sucrase
Lactose---- Glucose + Galactose in the presence of lactase
Absorption of Carbohydrates
 ABSORPTION OF CARBOHYDRATES

•Absorption of sugars occurs in the small intestine.

•The interior wall of the small intestines is covered with tiny
finger-like projections called the ‘villi’ which play important role
in the absorption of digested food.
•The villi are coated with epithelial cells that are responsible for
nutrients absorption from the lumen of intestines. The epithelial
cells of the villi are lined with microvilli.
•Embedded in the microvilli are digestive enzymes needed to further
breakdown sugars.
•These include invertase (which breaks down sucrose), maltase (which breaks
down maltose) and lactase (which breaks down lactose), giving rise to
monosaccharides.
•The monosaccharides are the absorbed by the epithelial cells and transported to
the capillaries of the villi from the capillaries, they enter the blood stream. —
• They are then transported to various tissues such as liver, kidney, muscles for
metabolism.
 Fate of glucose after absorption

In the liver, glucose undergoes various chemical changes depending on the

body’s physiological need.
1. Body need for energy: glucose oxidized completely to CO2,

H2O and energy by glycolysis and citric acid cycle.

2. Excess glucose may be converted to glycogen, deposit in
liver, muscle tissues by glycogenesis.
3. To maintain glucose blood level, liver glycogen reconverted to
glucose enters blood by glycogenolysis.
4. Excess glucose after conversion to glycogen, convert to fatty
acids stored in adipose tissue as triglycerides (lipogenesis).

5. Small amounts of glucose may be utilized for the synthesis of

ribose and deoxyribosee for synthesis of nucleic acids.

6. In muscle contraction, only partial degradation of glucose may take

place, resulting in formation of lactic acid disposed off by the liver.
The metabolism of carbohydrate may be subdivided in the following
categories.

The first of which is glycolysis.

 Glycolysis

•The major function of carbohydrates in metabolism is as a fuel to be oxidized and provide

energy for other metabolic processes. The carbohydrate is utilized by cells mainly as
glucose.
•The 3 principal monosaccharides resulting from digestive processes are glucose, fructose
and galactose.
• Much of the glucose is derived from starch which accounts for over half of the fuel in the
diets of most humans.
1. It is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose (C6H12O6), into pyruvate.
2. The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP and
NADH.
3. Glycolysis is an oxygen independent metabolic pathway, said to be anaerobic.
4. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
5. The glucose in the blood circulation, when enter the cell become phosphorylated
given by ATP (Activation by phosphate group).
6. This phosphorylation occurs on the cell membrane by the action of two enzymes.
a) specific enzyme (glucokinase) in the liver.
b) nonspecific enzyme (hexokinase), in the liver and other extrahepatic cells
7. Glu-6- P is an important compound for several metabolic pathways. The reaction is irreversible.
Questions:

Describe how a carbohydrate-rich meal is digested and absorbed

Explain why digestion of carbohydrate doesn’t occur in the stomach

• The glycolytic reaction is divided into 2 Phases

• The 6-carbon glucose is broken down into two moles of 3-carbon pyruvate via 10
enzyme-catalyzed sequential reactions.

• These reactions are grouped under 2 phases, phase I and II.

Phase I or Preparatory of Investment Phase

A. This consists of the first 5 steps.

•In these reactions, glucose is enzymatically phosphorylated by ATP (first at carbon 6 and later at
carbon 1) to yield fructose 1,6-diphosphate which is then split in half to yield 2 moles of the 3-
carbon compound, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
•The first phase of glycolysis, thus, results in cleavage of the hexose chain.
•This phase requires an investment of 2ATP moles to activate (or prime) glucose and prepare it for
its cleavage into two 3- carbon pieces.
•Besides glucose, other hexoses such as D-fructose, D-galactose and D-mannose may also
convert into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
Phase II or Payoff Phase
• The last 5 reactions of glycolysis constitute this phase.
• This phase represents the payoff of glycolysis, in which the energy liberated
during conversion of 3 moles of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 2 moles of
pyruvate is converted by the coupled phosphorylation of 4 moles of ADP to ATP.
• Although 4 moles of ATP are formed in phase II, the net overall yield is only 2
moles of ATP per mole of glucsoe oxidized, since 2 moles of ATP are invested in
phase I.
• The phase II is, thus, energy conserving.
• The net profit is 2ATPs and 2NADH per glucose.

The overall reaction is:

• Glucose + 2ADP + 2NAD+ + 2Pi → 2pyruvate + 2ATP + 2NADH + 2H2O + 4H+
Summary of the glycolysis
 REACTIONS OF GLYCOLYSIS

Mnemonics for remembering the reactants and product of the glycolytic pathway

Go Get Five Flowers Dark Green Blue 4Ps

QUESTION: Highlight the steps of glycolysis, stating their enzymatic reactions.

•Energy production: The net of ATP molecules during glycolysis is equal to (8).

•QUESTION: Discuss the net gain of ATP in glycolysis

•Formation of lactate from pyruvate is the major steps in RBCs, lens and cornea, kidney,
medulla, and leukocytes.