THE FUNDAMENTALS OF

COOLING WATER TREATMENT

S.P.Acharya
O&M-Chemistry
NTPC VSTPS

02/05/2025 1
Outline :
PART - I Introduction &
Terminology
PART - II WATER PARAMETERS
PART - III Issues & Control
PART - IV VSTPS Stage-4 & Stage-5
PART - V Performance parameters &
frequency

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 CW TREATMENT
PART - I
Introduction & Terminology

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 Introduction
 For power plant ,cooling water system is one of
the vital installation. It works as heat sink for
turbine. Most of the heat losses occur in cooling
water system and cooling tower. Hence, the
efficiency of cooling water system is essential to
maintain the overall efficiency of power plant.
Due to large volume of water circulation, quality
of water, cycle of concentration and mode of
operation may cause corrosion, scaling and
fouling in the operating system.

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 Cooling Tower Process
Evaporation
Loss
Hot Water

Heat exchanger

Cooling Tower Air

Cold
Water SUMP
Make-up
Water
BlowDown

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Types of cooling water system

1. Once-through
2. Closed Re-circulating
3. Open Re-circulating
(Evaporative cooling towers)
TERMS ASSOCIATED
WITH COOLING TOWER

Drift (D) : Drift is a form of blow down that

occurs due to entrainment of water
droplets in the air leaving the cooling
tower. Drift typically ranges from about
0.05% to 0.3% of the recirculation rate
depending upon the type and efficiency of
the cooling tower.
Make up (MU): Water added to Circulating
water system to replace water lost from
the system by evaporation, drift, blown
down, and leakages.
 TERMS ASSOCIATED
WITH COOLING TOWER

Cycle of concentration (COC)

Number of times the circulating water is
concentrated in cooling tower is known as
Cycle of conc. The maximum (COC)
depends upon the effectiveness of
corrosion and scale inhibitor programs
and on the quality of make up water.

Blow Down (BD)

Some water must be continually removed
from cooling water system to prevent
excessive build up of the dissolved solids.
This is known as blow down.
 Evaporation (E), Blow down (BD), Drift (D) and Make
Up (MU) constitute the water balance around the
cooling tower.
Recirculation rate = No. of pumps running!

Evaporation rate M3/Hr = Recirculation Rate M3/Hr * delta T

675
 Blowdown M3 / Hr = Evaporation M3/Hr
(COC - 1)
Delta T = Inlet to CT - Outlet to CT
Drift + Windage Loss M3/Hr = 0.05 to 0.2 % of
Recirculation Rate.
 MU = E + BD + D
 Cycle Of Concentration(COC)
COC or the Cycles Of Concentration is an abbreviation,
used when talking about cooling water or cooling tower
water. The COC specifies, how often a fresh water added
into the loop, can be used or pumped around, before the
water has to blown down or bleed off from the cooling
tower.

Mg+2 Conc in Circulating water

COC = ------------------------------------------------
Mg+2 Conc in Make up water

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 COC Continue...

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 CW TREATMENT

PART - II
WATER PARAMETERS

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 Water chemistry of cooling water at
VSTPS Stage - IV & V
Expected CW quality at COC 7
S. No Parameter Unit Make up Water
7.5-7.6
1 pH -- 9.1
169
2 Cond µmhos/cm 1120
<10
3 Turbidity NTU 105
44
4 Ca Hardness ppm as CaCO3 315
24
5 Mg Hardness ppm as CaCO3 154
68
6 Total hardness ppm as CaCO3 469
48
7 M alk. ppm as CaCO3 364
12
8 Chloride ppm as Cl 77
10
9 Silica ppm as SiO2 84
--
10 RSI -- 4.1
--
11 LSI -- +2.5

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WATER IMPACT ON COOLING SYSTEM
PARAMETER
Hardness Certain calcium salts e.g CaCO3 and CaSO4 exhibit an
(A measure of the inverse solubility in water. Magnesium is not a
combined calcium and problem unless the silica levels are also high. This
magnesium could result in magnesium silicate scale in the heat
exchangers calcium carbonate becomes less soluble
concentrations)
with increasing temperature
Ca++ + 2(HCO3)-- ® CaCO3¯ + H2O + CO2­

Alkalinity Bicarbonates normally represent the major portion of

(Alkalinity is a measure the measured alkalinity, although under certain
of water’s ability to conditions, appreciable amounts of carbonate and
hydroxide alkalinity may also be present. Alkalinity is
neutralize acids.)
an important means of predicting calcium carbonate
scale potential.
 Alkalinity And Water Chemistry
Ca++ + 2(HCO3)-- ® CaCO3¯ + H2O + CO2­
pH
100
H2O +CO2  HCO3 -  CO3—

PERCENT
High pH changes the
CO2 + HCO3 - + CO3-- +
equilibrium in favor of 50
carbonate therefore favour H2CO3 CO3-- OH-
CaCO3 scales
0
TEMPERATURE 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Dissociation of HCO3- to CO3-- is greater at higher
temperature. Moreover CaCO3 exhibits inverse
solubility with temperature. \ scaling increases with
increase in temperature.
WATER IMPACT ON COOLING SYSTEM
PARAMETE
R
Silica Can produce difficult-to-remove scale deposits.
Pretreatment or side stream filtration is often required if
the silica levels are above 150 ppm (as SiO2).
Sulphate Combines with calcium to form calcium sulphate,has quite
high solubility but form very scale
Phosphate Provides mild steel corrosion protection as anodic
inhibitor (with calcium greater than 1,000 mg/l and
phosphate greater than 20 mg/l) there is a potential for
calcium phosphate scaling in the heat exchangers,
especially at high heat loads and low cooling water flow
rates. Phosphate also act as a nutrient for biofilms.
Zinc Assist phosphates in reducing mild steel corrosion rates
and pitting tendencies. Levels between 0.5 mg/l to 2.0
mg/L are beneficial, but levels above 3.0 mg/l can
contribute to deposits.
Fluoride At 10 ppm or more can combine with calcium to cause
CaF2
scale formation
 CW TREATMENT
PART - III
Issues & Control

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 Problems in cooling
water system operation
CORROSION
SCALE
FOULING
MICROBIOLOGIC
AL GROWTH

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CONSEQUNCES OF CORROSION,
SCALE, FOULING &
MICROBIOLOGICAL GROWTH
LOSS OF HEAT TRANSFER
REDUCED EQUIPMENT LIFE
EQUIPMENT FAILURE
INCREASED MAINTENANCE COST
PRODUCTION LOST
PROFIT LOSS

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 What is corrosion?
Corrosion is the deterioration of
materials/ components due to
interaction with the environment.

The interaction can be of the

following types-
Physical : Metals in liquid metals
Chemical : Iron at high temperature
in air
Electrochemical : Iron in water
 Common examples
Rusting of iron and steel
Pitting and cracking in stainless steel
components
Wall thinning of metallic pipes and tubes
due to flowing liquids – erosion corrosion
Green patina formation over copper alloy
objects
Electric Power Industry Transmission pipelines HighwayBridges

Pulp& Paper Defense Petrochemical Industry

No industry
is exempted
Nuclear Power Industry
Factors Affecting
Corrosion
CHEMICAL PHYSICAL
pH Relative Areas
Dissolved Salts Temperature
Dissolved Gases Velocity
Suspended Solids Heat Transfer
Microorganisms Metallurgy
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02/05/2025 24
 Types of Cooling Water Corrosion
 General Corrosion: Metal loss occurs
uniformly over the entire surface.

 Localized or Pitting Corrosion: Extremely

localized type of corrosion resulting in pits or
holes in the metal.

 Galvanic Corrosion: Different metals in

contact in a system creating a difference in
potential
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EFFECT OF pH & TEMPARETURE ON CORROSION
RATE

Corrosion
Corrosion

pH Temp.
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Methods to control Corrosion
Use corrosion resistant alloys
Apply chemical corrosion
inhibitors
Use “sacrificial anodes” : Mg
Adjust(Increase ) system pH
Apply protective coating

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 Corrosion Inhibitors
Cathodic:- Zinc, poly/Meta/Pyro
phosphate,Organic phosphorous
compounds providing controlled
depsition.

 Anodic :- Molybdate,
orthophosphate, Nitrate, Silicates
and Chromate in the past.
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 Zinc
Zinc is strong corrosion inhibitor by making
a film protection over metal surface.
Zinc is amphoteric in nature.
Zn corrosion inhibitor is pH sensitive.
De-zincification has been found to occur with
water having pH of over 8.2

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Working of Corrosion Inhibitor
Corrosion inhibitor imposing a non-
conducting barrier between the
metal and the electrolyte in the form
of a thin adherent layer or scale on
the metal surface, insulating it from
the electrolyte.
Combination of both cathodic and
anodic corrosion inhibitors give
best protection at economical use
level.This is called Synergetic effect.
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02/05/2025 31
 SCALING
Scaling is the formation of thin,plate like
piece,lamina or flake that peels off from a
surface of mechanical system in contact with
water, as form the skin.
Factors affecting the scaling:-
 Scaling increases with increase in pH
 Scaling increases with increase in
temperature.
 Alkanity,conductivity,Proportion of suspended
Effects
solids of of
& flow Scaling
water :-
Reduce heat transfer efficiencies
Increase Tube failures
Increase operational cost
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 SCALING

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Scale occurring in CW system:-
Most Less
common Frequent
Calcium Carbonate Iron Oxide
Calcium Sulphate Zinc Phosphate
Calcium Phosphate Calcium Fluoride
Magnesium Silicate Iron Carbonate
Silica Aluminium Oxide

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Methods to control scaling:-
Polyphosphate dosing- This dosing at
threshold treatment(2 ppm) is used to distort
the crystal lattice in calcium carbonate &
slow down crystallization and results in soft
sludge rather than a hard scale.

Organo Phosphonates :-
I) AMP-Amino methlene trisphosphonic
acid
II)PBTC-Phosphonobutane-1,2,4-
Tricarboxylic caid
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PBTC-Phosphonobutane-1,2,4-Tricarboxylic caid

(a) PBTC is an effective CaCO3 inhibitor

under conditions of high hardness and
alkalinity.
(b) It is essentially immune to decomposition
by oxidizing biocides at normal biocide levels.
This makes PBTC the ideal choice in water
systems treated with oxidizers for
microbiological control.
(c) PBTC possesses high calcium tolerance 36
02/05/2025
 Worknig mechanism of PBTC
The key effect on the scale inhibition effect is the
negatively charged functional groups in the organic
scale inhibitor molecules. These negatively charged
groups and the positively charged calcium ions in
the insoluble calcium salts can exert a strong
Coulomb electrostatic effect on each other.
If the distance of the functional group is close to that
of the isomorphic ion, the electrostatic attraction
will cause a strong adsorption action. This hinders
the further accumulation of calcium ions and
carbonate ions and then inhibits the growth of
calcium carbonate crystals.
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FOULING
Organic and Inorganic material , other than
scale, that coat the heat transfer surfaces and
block flow through pipes.

 Examples of Foulants

Sand/leaves

Others factors:
Insects Broken fills
Corrosion product

Trash
02/05/2025 38
Affects of Fouling:-
Foulants form deposits in hot and/or low flow
areas of cooling systems
Shell-side heat exchangers are the most
vulnerable to fouling
Deposits ideal for localized pitting corrosion
Corrosive bacteria thrive under deposits
Metal failure results

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Methods to control Fouling:-
Dispersants- Synthetic Polymers most
commonly poly-acrylates of different molecular
weight are used at much lower concentration.
Sludge fluidisers- These function in the
opposite manner to poly-acrylates dispersants,
serving to agglomerate fine suspended solids to
form much larger non adhering particles that
can flow out of the system through blow down.
Surfactants- Surfactants & wetting agents are
commonly used for oily or gelatinous foulants.
Biocides-Oxidising & Non-oxidising
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 Microbiological Growth
Microbiological growth is the amplification or
multiplication of micro organism.

Examples of Microbiological growth:-

Alga Bactri Fung

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e a i 41
Microbiological Growth Environment

Nutrients (phosphate, nitrogen, organics)

Ideal temperature (70 to 140 F)
Ideal pH (6.0 -9.0)
Proper Atmosphere (oxygen-aerobes/no oxygen-
anaerobes)
Sunlight –Algae
Wood -Fungi

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 Biodispersants
Biodispersants are basically
used for the prevention of
bacterial attachment and
detachment of established
biofilms.

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 Dispersants
Dispersants are materials that suspend
particulate matter by adsorbing onto the surface
of the particles and imparting a high charge.
Electrostatic repulsion like charges prevents
agglomeration, which reduce particle growth.
The presence of dispersant at the surface of a
particle also inhibit the bridging of the particles.
The adsorption of the dispersant makes particles
more hydrophilic and less likely to adhere to
surfaces. Thus, dispersant effect both particle to
particle and particle to surface interactions.
The most effective and widely used dispersants
are low molecular weight anionic polymers.
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02/05/2025 45
Dose of Acid required to maintain
pH???
Amount of sulphuric acid required is
also limited to a maximum dose of
600 ppm, otherwise the chances of
sulphate attack to the concrete
reinforcement will increases.

02/05/2025 46
 pH & Alkalinity

pH Adjustment IS:8188(1999)

The make up water pH is around 7.0-7.5.
In cooling tower, as water
evaporates,alkalinity increases and pH
goes up to 8.5-9.0.
pH is so adjusted by dosing H2SO4 so
that that the Langelier index of the
cooling water is always slightly on positive
side either + 01 or maximum + 02 Slight
deposit or CaCO3 formed in this way on
the metal surface will act as protective
02/05/2025 47
 Effects of high pH
In case of pH goes above 8.5, the
scaling tendency will substantially
increases and hence it is necessary
to increase the concentration of anti-
dispersants & anti scalents. If high
pH persist for higher time, microbial
growth will increases as high pH is
favourable for their growth and also
chlorine is less effective at high pH.
02/05/2025 48
Controlling of Microbiological growt
 Physical Cleaning of the System;
Quarterly or Annually
 Bio-dispersant Program if indicated
 Record Keeping of Test Results and
Biocide Additions
 Complete Biocide Program:
Oxidizing & Non Oxidizing Biocides

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Oxidizing biocides(Chlorine dosing)
Molecular chlorine react with water and
hydrolyse to give hypochlorous acid &
hydrochloric acid.
H2O + Cl2 HOCl + HCl
Both of the acids formed reacts with the
alkalinity to reduce buffering capacity of
the water & lower Ph.
HOCl is mainly responsible for killing the
bacteria.

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 HOCl H⁺ + OCl⁻
Between Ph- 6.5 & 8.5, the dissociation
reaction is incomplete and both hypochlorous
acid and hypochlorite ions are present.
Hypochlorite ion has lower oxidising
potential as compared to hypochlorous
acid(Oxidising potential is a measure of the
tendency of chlorine to react with other
material). The speed at which the reactions
occurs is determined by pH,temperature &
oxidation/reduction potential.
As pH increases, the chemical reactivity of
the chlorine decreases and as temperature
increases, reactions proceeds much rapidly.
02/05/2025 51
 Oxidizing Biocides Burn Cell

Chlorine

Cell wall

Structural
proteins
Enzymes
Cytoplasmic membrane

Nucleic acid

Inactivation Inhibition
(cidal effect)

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To control the Turbidity
• Ter Polymer :Dispersant, descalant or anti precipitant
in Cooling water system.

• Side stream Filtration (In future Proposed )

• Note: Chemical treatment along with use of
Filters will reduce treatment cost.

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Side stream Filtration

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 CW TREATMENT
PART - IV
VSTPS Stage-4 & Stage-5

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 CW system JPL Tamnar
Condenser Installed
metallurgy Capacity
S.N. OAC COC (Avg)

1 Stage#1 8.0 ss 250 x4 MW

2 Stage#2 8.0 SS 600x4 MW

02/05/2025 56
 CW treatment

(Dispersant (Descalent dosing

02/05/2025 dosing system) system) 57
 CW treatment at VSTPS
Stage#4

(Chlorine dosing) (Chlorinator)

02/05/2025(Dosing points at (Corrosion monitoring) 58

 CW treatment at VSTPS Stage#5

(Acid dosing
Tank)

02/05/2025 (Dispersant Dosing Tank) (Anti-scalent dosing 59

 CW Treatment at VSTPS
Stage#5

(Bio-fouling (Deposit Monitoring)

Monitoring)

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 CW TREATMENT
PART - V
Performance parameters
&
testing frequency

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Frequency & Concentration of Chemical dosed at VSTPS

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Monitoring of Parameters

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Monitoring of Main Parameters (Daily)
S.N Chemical Unit At COC-7

1. pH 7.9-8.1

2. ORP mV Min +400

3. FRC ppm 0.5

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Monitoring of Main Parameters (Daily)
Make water and Circulating water (Daily)
1. pH
2. Alkalinity
3. Conductivity
4. Turbidity
5. Calcium and Magnesium Hardness
6. Chlorides
7. Silica
8. Iron
9. R-Chlorine
10. LSI,RSI
11. Dosed chemical Concentration
02/05/2025 65
 Scale monitoring
To predict corrosive or scale forming tendency of
water following indices are used.

Langlier (or Saturation) Index

LSI = pH - pHs
pHs = (9.3 + A +B) - (C + D)

A -Total Dissolved Solid Factor

B - Temperature Factor
C - Calcium Hardness Factor
D - Alkalinity of Cooling Water
 Scale monitoring
Ryzner ( or Stability) Index
RSI = 2pHs –pH

Puckorious ( or modified stability) index

PSI = 2pHs – pHe
(pHequilibrium = 1.465log(total alkalinity))

LSI - +ve indicates Scaling tendency

LSI - -ve indicates Corrosive tendency
RSI - > 6.0 indicates Corrosive tendency
RSI - < 6.0 indicates Scaling tendency
PSI - > 6.0 indicates Corrosive tendency
PSI - < 6.0 indicates Scaling tendency
Scaling Severity keyed to index
LSI RSI/PSI Condition

3.0 3.0 Extremely severe scaling

2.0 4.0 Very severe
1.0 5.0 Severe
0.5 5.5 Moderate
0.2 5.8 Slight
0.0 6.0 Stable Water
-0.2 6.5 No scaling very slight
tendency to dissolve
solids
-0.5 7.0 No scaling slight tendency
to dissolve solids
-1.0 8.0 No scaling moderate
tendency to dissolve solids
-2.0 9.0 No scaling strong tendency
to dissolve solids
-3.0 10.0 No scaling very strong
tendency to dissolve solids
Mass Balance

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BOILER WATER TREATMENT FUNDAMEntals
Boiler basics and types of boilers

|
Common issues found on Boiler feed wat
er
|
Boiler water treatment fundamentals |

Water Treatment Philosophy and Overvie
w
|
02/05/2025 71
CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTS WHICH AFFECT BOILER WATER TREA
TMENT

 Copper
 Oil
 Iron Oxides
 Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)
 Magnesium Sulphate (MgSO4)
 Magnesium Chloride (MgCl2)
 Silica (SiO2)
 Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
 Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4)
 Dissolved Gases
 Acidity, Neutrality and Alkalinity
 ALKALINITY
 P ALKALINITY.
 M ALKALINITY.

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CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTS WHICH AFFECT BOILER WATER TREA
TMENT

 The concept of employing water, fresh or distilled, as a power generating source and heat exchange medium
originated and was realised with the inception of the steam generator or boiler.
 Water has the ability to transfer heat from one surface to another, thereby maintaining the system within the
correct operational temperature range while generating steam to carry out work. However, water can
adversely affect metal components under the operational conditions normally found in steam boilers and other
heat exchange devices.
 The extent of deterioration depends on the specific characteristics of the water and the system in which it is
being used.
 In order to counteract the detrimental properties normally attributed to water and its contaminants (dissolved
and suspended solids and dissolved gases), special chemical treatment programmes have been devised.
 Accepted water treatment processes and procedures are constantly being upgraded and modernized, and new
methods are being developed to complement and/or replace older ones.
 Although water from marine evaporators and boiler condensate return systems is essentially “pure”, minute
quantities of potentially harmful salts and minerals can be carried by this composition and feed water into the
boiler, where they will accrue, ultimately resulting in serious problems in the steam generating unit. In addition,
the water can also contain dissolved gases, i.e. CO 2 and Oxygen, which can result in corrosion of the system.
 Using unprocessed fresh water (e.g. shore water) as a makeup source can present some of the same problems
experienced with distilled water, but in addition, certain contaminants which are naturally present in fresh water
can be extremely destructive in boiler systems if not dealt with promptly and effectively soluble salts such as
Chloride, Sulphate and Carbonate are present.
 as electrolytes in the untreated water, leading to galvanic and other types of corrosion, depending on the
conditions in the system. In addition, Sulphates and Carbonates have the potential to form insoluble, adherent,
insulating “hard water” scale deposits on heat exchanger surfaces.

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Impurities present in boiler water
Most dissolved mineral impurities in water
are present in the form of ions. These ions
contain an electrical charge which is either
positive (cation) or negative (anion). These
ions can join together to form chemical
compounds. To know which ions will combine,
we need to know their electrical charge.
 Ions of concern to us include the following:

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CONTRIBUTING ELEMENTS WHICH
AFFECT BOILER WATER TREATMENT

Chemical symb Chemical symb

Positive ions Negative ions
ol ol

Cl–
Sodium Na+ Chloride HCO3
Calcium Ca++ Bicarbonate
CO3 – –
Magnesium Mg++ Carbonate
Hydrogen Hydroxide OH–
H+

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Copper
Copper is introduced into a system by corrosion of Copper
piping and Copper alloys. In boilers, the source of this
corrosion could be dissolved gases in the boiler water or
the excessive use of Hydrazine which will corrode Copper
and Copper alloys, allowing Copper to be carried back to
the boiler.
Copper in the boiler displaces metal from the tube surfaces
and plates out on the tubes. This condition often occurs
under existing scale and sludge deposits, which is known as
under deposit Copper corrosion.
Copper deposits are a serious problem in high pressure
boilers. Waterside deposits may be submitted to Unitor for
complete analysis and determination of the correct
procedures to follow for cleaning.
02/05/2025 76
Oil
 To prevent oil from entering condensate and feed water systems,
certain safety equipment is generally incorporated to detect, remove,
and arrest such contamination.
 Oil contamination may occur through mechanical failure, for example,
faulty oil deflectors at turbine glands passing lubrication oil to gland seal
condensers and main condensers, etc., or undetected leaks at tank heating
coils.
 Any oil film on internal heating surfaces is dangerous, drastically impairing
heat transfer. Oil films therefore cause overheating of tube metal, resulting
in possible tube blistering and failure.
 If oil contamination is suspected, immediate action must be undertaken for
its removal. The first corrective measure in cleaning up oil leakage is to
find and stop the point of oil ingress into the system. Then, by using
a degreaser, a cleaning solution can be circulated throughout the
boiler system to remove the existing oil contamination.
 Boiler Coagulant can assist in removing trace amounts of
oil contamination.

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Iron Oxides
 Iron may enter the boiler as a result of corrosion in the pre-
boiler section or may be redeposited as a result of corrosion
in the boiler or condensate system. Often, Iron Oxide will be
deposited and retard heat transfer within a boiler tube, at
times resulting in tube failure. This usually occurs in high
heat transfer areas, i.e. screening tubes nearest to the flame.
 When iron is not present in the raw feedwater, its presence
in the boiler indicates active corrosion within the boiler
system itself. Rust, the reddish form, is fully oxidized. More
often, in a boiler with limited Oxygen, it is in the reduced or
black form as Magnetite (Fe3O4).
 Fe3O4 is magnetic and can be readily detected with a
magnet. It is a passivated form of corrosion and its presence
shows that proper control of the system is being maintained.
02/05/2025 78
Calcium Carbonate(CaCO3)
 Magnesium hardness in fresh water usually accounts for about
one third of the total hardness. The remaining two thirds can
normally be attributed to calcium.
 Since Magnesium Carbonate is appreciably more soluble in
water than Calcium Carbonate, it is seldom a major
component in scale deposits. This is due to the preferential
precipitation of the Carbonate ion by Calcium as opposed to
Magnesium which remains in solution until all soluble Calcium
is exhausted.
 Once this point is reached, any free Carbonate remaining in
solution will combine with the Magnesium and begin
precipitating out as Magnesium Carbonate when the solubility
of this salt is exceeded. Because of this latter phenomenon,
where “soft” water is used for boiler structure, any
Magnesium present must be removed along with the Calcium.
02/05/2025 79
Magnesium Sulphate and Magnesium
Chloride
 Magnesium Sulphate is an extremely soluble salt, having a solubility of 20 % in
cold water and 42 % in boiling water. It exists as the Sulphate only in water with a
low pH. Because of its high solubility, it will not normally precipitate.
 The Sulphate ion, however, will be precipitated by the Calcium hardness present if
no free Carbonate exists
 Magnesium Chloride, like Magnesium Sulphate, is soluble in fresh water. In the
high temperature and alkaline conditions normally maintained in a boiler, any
soluble Magnesium ions in the boiler water become extremely reactive with
Hydroxyl ions, which may be present in high concentrations in this type of
environment.
 This can result in the formation of Magnesium Hydroxide precipitates which form
insulating scale on the boiler tube surfaces. If Chloride ions are also available,
they react with the Hydrogen ions previously associated with the precipitated
Hydroxyl ions, to form Hydrochloric acid, thereby lowering the alkalinity of the
water. If this situation is
allowed to continue,
 the pH of the boiler water will decrease until acid conditions result in corrosion of
the metal surfaces. Unlike Carbonate and Sulphate ions, the Chloride ion does not
precipitate in the presence of soluble Calcium.

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Silica
 Silica scale is not normally found in boiler systems except in minute quantities. It can be
admitted to the system when severe carryover occurs in evaporators processing water with a
high Silica content.
 Other sources of such feedwater may be high Silica river or raw fresh water as well as
distilled/deionized or unprocessed fresh water which has been stored and taken from cement-
washed or silicatecoated tanks.
 Once formed, pure Silica scale is extremely difficult to remove. It forms a tight adherent glass-
like film on metal surfaces, thereby preventing proper heat transfer. In addition, in steam-
generating devices it can carry over with the steam coating the after-boiler sections,
particularly the superheater.
 If a turbine forms part of the system, the Silica can deposit on the blades as well as cause
erosion of the finned surfaces of the blading, resulting in imbalance of the turbine, which in
turn may result in turbine failure.
 Besides the pure form of Silica (i.e. Silicon Dioxide), possible Silicate deposits can form in
combination with Calcium and Magnesium, which are extremely insoluble in water and very
difficult to dissolve and remove.
 Besides being an extremely difficult process, the chemical removal of Silica and silicate
deposits can also be very hazardous, since it involves the use of Hydrofluoric Acid or
Ammonium Bifluoride, both of which are severely destructive to human tissue by inhalation,
ingestion and physical contact. In some instances, alternate acid and alkaline
washings have been used to successfully combat this problem.The only alternative to chemical
cleaning is mechanical removal.

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Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

 Calcium Bicarbonate alkalinity exists in almost all unprocessed fresh water

under normal conditions. Its solubility is about 300–400 ppm at 25 °C. If heat is
applied or a sharp increase in pH occurs, the Calcium Bicarbonate breaks down
to form Carbon Dioxide and Calcium Carbonate.
 While the bicarbonate salt has been shown to be moderately soluble in water,
the solubility of Calcium Carbonate at 25 °C is only about 14 ppm. This value
continues to decrease as the temperature increases, becoming the least where
the temperature is greatest. In a boiler, this would be on the surface of the
furnace tubes where contact is made with the
water.
 The resulting insoluble Calcium Carbonate precipitate forms “building block-
like” crystals which adhere not only to one another, but also to the hot metal
surfaces, resulting in a continuous, insulating scale deposit over the entire heat
exchange area.
 This deposit will continue to grow, building upon itself to form a thick coating
until all the Calcium Carbonate produced is exhausted. If the suspended matter
is also present in the water, it can become entrained within the crystal structure,
creating a larger volume of the deposit than that formed by the Carbonate
precipitation alone.
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CONTD…
 If this condition is allowed to continue, heat exchange
efficiency at the water/tube interface falls rapidly, resulting
in an increase in fuel consumption necessary to compensate
for the decline in thermal transfer and to regain design
temperature as well as steam production requirements.
 This increase in the furnace-side temperature needed to run
the system at optimum conditions exposes the metal
surfaces to overheating which, in turn, can cause blistering
fatigue, fracture, and failure of boiler tubes. In addition, if
pockets of water become trapped beneath the scale deposits
and are in contact with the hot metal surfaces, concentration
of acid or alkaline materials may occur and lead to the
formation of local electrolytic cells (under deposit corrosion).

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Calcium Sulphate (CaSO4)

 Although Calcium Sulphate is more soluble in water than

Calcium Carbonate, it can be just as troublesome when present in
boiler and cooling water systems. Calcium Sulphate, like Calcium
Carbonate, but unlike most salts, has an inverse temperature/solubility
relationship in water.
 As gypsum, the hydrated form in which Calcium Sulphate is
normally present in fresh water, its solubility increases until a
temperature of about 40 °C is achieved. At 40 °C, its solubility is 1,551
ppm; at 100 °C, which is the normal boiling point of water, its solubility
decreases to 1,246 ppm, and at 220 °C it falls to 40 ppm.
 Calcium Sulphate reacts at high-temperature surfaces essentially in the
same manner as Calcium Carbonate and with the same effects and
consequences. However, whereas Calcium Carbonate deposits are
relatively easy to remove using a comprehensive acid cleaning
procedure, Calcium Sulphate is essentially impervious to the effects of
normal acid descaling methods and usually must be removed by
mechanical means.
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Dissolved Gases

Gases such as Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide that are

dissolved in distilled or fresh water, will further
contribute to the deterioration of the boiler system.
Dependent upon conditions in the system (e.g.
temperature, pressure and materials of construction),
dissolved Oxygen can cause pitting corrosion of steel
surfaces, while Carbon Dioxide lowers the pH, leading
to acid and galvanic corrosion. Carbon Dioxide has the
added
disadvantage of forming insoluble carbonate scale
deposits in an alkaline environment when Calcium and
Magnesium are present.

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PH
 The pH of a solution is a measurement of the concentration of
active acid or base (alkaline constituent) in a solution. To give
a precise definition, pH is the negative logarithm of the
Hydrogen ion concentration.
 A simpler explanation of pH is that it is a measure of relative
acidity or alkalinity of water. In other words, it reflects how
acidic or alkaline the water is. pH is the number between 0
and 14 which denotes the degree of acidity or alkalinity.
 A pH value of 7 indicates neutral. Below 7 indicates increasing
acidity. Above 7 up to 14 indicates increasing alkalinity.
 pH is a very important factor for determining whether a water
has a corrosive or scale-forming tendency. Water with a low pH
will give rise to corrosion of equipment.

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 Any
Questions??
Please…

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 ThankYou
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