Chapter Seven

Processing

Computer Organization & Architecture

•Parallel processing

• pipelining

• vector processing

2
 Multiprocessor
 A multiprocessor is a computer system in which two or
more CPUs share full access to a common RAM.
 The term “processor” in multiprocessor can make either
a central processing unit (CPU) or an input-output
processor (IOP).
 As it is most commonly defined, a multiprocessor
system implies the existence of multiple CPU’s,
although usually there will be one or more IOP’s as well.
 A program running on any of the CPUs sees a normal
(usually paged) virtual address space.
 The only unusual property this system has is that the
CPU can write some value into a memory word and then
read the word back and get a different value (because
another CPU has changed it).
3
 Cont’d…
 When organized correctly, this property forms the
basis of Interprocessor communication: one CPU
writes some data into memory and another one
reads the data out.
 A multiprocessor system is controlled by one
operating system that provides interaction
between processors and all the components of the
system cooperate in the solution of a problem.
 The benefit derived from a multiprocessor
organization is an improved system performance.
 The system derives its high performance from the
fact that computations can proceed in parallel in
one of two ways.
1. Multiple independent jobs can be made to operate in
4 parallel.
2. A single job can be partitioned into multiple parallel tasks.
 Cont’d…
 Multiprocessing improves the reliability of the
system so that a failure or error in one part has
limited effect on the rest of the system.
 Multiprocessors are classified by the way their
memory is organized.
 A multiprocessor system with common shared
memory is classified as:-
1. Shared memory or tightly coupled multiprocessor.
2. Distributed memory or loosely coupled system.

5
 Parallel processing is the simultaneous
processing of the same task on two or more
microprocessors in order to obtain faster results.
Parallel processing is executing of program
instructions by dividing them among multiple
processors.
The computer resources can include a single
computer with multiple processors, or a number
of computers connected by a network, or a
combination of both.
The processors access data through
shared memory. Some supercomputer parallel
processing systems have hundreds of thousands
of microprocessors.

6
 Single instruction, single data stream -
SISD
Single instruction, multiple data stream -
SIMD
Multiple instruction, single data stream -
MISD
Multiple instruction, multiple data stream-
MIMD

7
 Single processor
Single instruction stream
Data stored in single memory
Uni-processor

8
 Single machine instruction
Controls simultaneous execution
Number of processing elements
Lockstep basis
Each processing element has associated
data memory
Each instruction executed on different set
of data by different processors
Vector and array processors

9
 Sequence of data
Transmitted to set of processors
Each processor executes different
instruction sequence
Never been implemented

10
 Set of processors
Simultaneously execute different
instruction sequences
Different sets of data
SMPs, clusters and NUMA systems

11
12
 Applications of Parallel
Processing
Parallel computing used on massive
datasets is popping up everywhere to
create everything from artificial brains to
real-time video analysis systems.
Used to improve the catalog of earth
orbiting satellite and problems associated
with the catalog.

13
 pipelining
In computer pipeline is the continuous
and somewhat overlapped movement of
instruction to the processor or in the
arithmetic steps taken by the processor to
perform an instruction.
Set of data processing elements connected
in series , where the output of one element
is the input of the next one.
The elements of a pipeline are often
executed in parallel or in time sliced fashion;
in that case, some amount of buffer storage
is often inserted b/n the stages to memorize
14
the intermediate
 cont’d…
results and transfer useful information.
Pipe lining is the use of pipeline.
Without a pipeline, a computer processor
get the first instruction from memory, and
so forth.
While fetching the instruction the
arithmetic part of the processor is idle.
It must wait until it gets the next
instruction.

15
 With pipelining, the computer
architecture allows the next instruction
to be fetched while the processor is
performing arithmetic operations,
holding them in a buffer close to the
processor until each instruction
operation can be performed.
The staging of instruction fetching is
continuous.
Pipeline & pipelining also apply to
computer memory controllers and
moving data through various memory.

16
 Pipelines can be divided in to:
Instruction pipeline
Arithmetic pipeline
 Instruction pipeline the stage in w/c
an instruction moved through the
processor, including its being
fetched , perhaps buffered and then
executed.
 Arithmetic pipeline represents the
parts of an arithmetic operation
that can be broken down and
17 overlapped as they are performed.
 Pipeline management problems
 conditions that lead to incorrect behavior if not fixed.
Limits to pipelining: Hazards prevent next instruction
from executing during its designated clock cycle
 Structural hazards: caused by HW resources
(memory, register, ALU) two different instructions
use same h/w in same cycle.
 HW cannot support this combination of
instructions.
Data hazards(dependency conflict): two different
instructions use same storage (must appear as if
the instructions execute in correct order )
 Instruction depends on result of prior instruction
still in the pipeline .
 Control hazards: Pipelining of branches & other
instructions that change the PC (one instruction
affects which instruction is next )
18
 VECTOR PROCESSING
A vector processor, or array processor, is a central
processing unit (CPU) that implements an
instruction set containing instructions that operate
on one-dimensional arrays of data called vectors.
This is in contrast to a scalar processor whose
instructions operate on single data items.
A vector processor is a processor that can operate
on entire vectors with one instruction, i.e. the
operands of some instructions specify complete
vectors.
Vector processors can greatly improve performance
on certain workloads, notably numerical simulation
and similar tasks.
19
 VECTOR PROCESSING(con.t)
vector processing , Processing of sequences of
data in a uniform manner, a common
occurrence in manipulation of matrices (whose
elements are vectors) or other arrays of data.
A vector processor will process sequences of
input data as a result of obeying a single vector
instruction and generate a result data
sequence.
vector processing techniques have since been
added to almost all modern CPU designs,
although they are typically referred to as SIMD.

20
 VECTOR PROCESSING(con.t)
In these implementations, the vector unit runs
beside the main scalar CPU, and is fed data
from vector instruction aware programs.
In general terms, CPUs are able to manipulate
one or two pieces of data at a time.
For instance, most CPUs have an instruction
that essentially says "add A to B and put the
result in C".
The data for A, B and C could be—in theory at
least—encoded directly into the instruction.

21
 Applications
 Servers
 Home Cinema
 Super Computing
 Cluster Computing
 Mainframes
 “Astrophysicist Replaces Supercomputer With 8
PS3’s” 2

22