Papers by Ezequiel Heffes
Kai Ambos and José Martinez (eds), Göttingen Handbook for Latin American Law (Baden-Baden, Nomos, 2023) (Forthcoming)
This chapter examines the genocide findings made by some Argentinian courts as a result of the wi... more This chapter examines the genocide findings made by some Argentinian courts as a result of the widespread and severe human rights violations that occurred during the military dictatorship of 1976-1983. Based predominantly on a narrow selection of the travaux préparatoires and other documents predating the Genocide Convention (1948), as well as a decision from Spain's Audiencia Nacional, Argentinian judges have held that the physical destruction of 'political groups' as such or effectively as a part of a national group falls within the definition of genocide as included in said Convention. This chapter reviews the travaux préparatoires of the Genocide Convention (1948) relevant to the protected groups and shows that the drafters did not envisage genocide against political groups directly or indirectly as part of a national group. Accordingly, these Argentinian cases do not withstand close academic scrutiny.
Briefing note. ODI. Centre for the Study of Armed Groups, 2020
Millions around the globe are affected by the actions of non-state armed groups (NSAGs). Like sta... more Millions around the globe are affected by the actions of non-state armed groups (NSAGs). Like states, NSAGs are bound by international humanitarian law (IHL) and are addressed by other non-binding normative standards aimed at mitigating the harmful effects of armed conflict. Although a consensus is emerging on the importance of engaging NSAGs on these rules, they have not been included as participants in the processes that lead to rule development. NSAGs participation in such normative processes is important for two main reasons, despite concerns of 'legitimisation'. First, a self-regulatory compliance system such as IHL can only be fit for purpose if it is based on an understanding of the perspectives of the actors it regulates and the realities they face. Second, decades of experience and some evidence underscore that a sense of ownership of norms can be an important factor in securing NSAGs' compliance. This Brief proposes a strategic model aimed at the progressive inclusion of NSAGs in humanitarian norm development processes. At the very least, processes should consult NSAGs. Outcome documents, where appropriate, should not just address 'states', but 'parties to the conflict' (or similar) so that they can be endorsed by NSAGs. The model addresses potential sources of state opposition or apprehension and encourages the international community to find new ways of approaching these tensions and dilemmas.
The Military Law and the Law of War Review, Vol. 58 (2), pp. 194-205, 2020
Article based on a presentation delivered at the Conference on War in Cities: ‘Searching for prac... more Article based on a presentation delivered at the Conference on War in Cities: ‘Searching for practical solutions to the contemporary challenges’, April 2019.
Boletín del Observatorio de Derecho Internacional Humanitario de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, Vol. 4, pp. 8-11, 2020
Es indudable que los grupos armados no estatales (GANEs) participan en la mayoría de los conflict... more Es indudable que los grupos armados no estatales (GANEs) participan en la mayoría de los conflictos armados actuales. Estos escenarios, así como el impacto que tienen los GANEs en la población civil, han llevado a una creciente atención por parte de la comunidad internacional al estudio de sus comportamientos. Si bien ha sido aceptado que el derecho internacional humanitario (DIH) obliga a estos actores en forma directa, el desarrollo de estrategias para mejorar (o más bien, asegurar) su cumplimiento continúa siendo un desafío. A pesar de que algunos GANEs han sido responsables de violaciones a ciertas normas del DIH en el marco de numerosos conflictos armados no internacionales (CANIs), otros grupos han mostrado un determinado nivel de cumplimiento. Al encontrarnos en el 70 aniversario de los Convenios de Ginebra de 1949, este artículo busca reflexionar con respecto al comportamiento de los GANEs en CANIs, identificando variaciones y posibles prácticas respetuosas del derecho aplicable.
International Review of the Red Cross, Vol. 101 (911), pp 603-621, 2019
Despite the existence of a comprehensive international legal framework protecting children in arm... more Despite the existence of a comprehensive international legal framework protecting children in armed conflict, ensuring its respect by armed non-State actors (ANSAs) still remains an important challenge. This can be linked to several circumstances, such as their lack of knowledge of the law, the absence of an incentive to abide by the applicable rules, their fragmented structure and their lack of capacity to implement the applicable framework. Certain practical cases, however, show that ANSAs' behaviours may vary throughout armed conflicts. While certain groups have, at a given moment, breached some of their international obligations, others have shown some degree of commitment to respecting children’s safeguards. When addressing the prohibition of recruiting and using children in hostilities, the reasons behind these variations have remained insufficiently explored. This article reviews some of the lessons learned from Geneva Call’s experience when engaging ANSAs towards their compliance with child protection norms.
Research Brief: Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights & Geneva Call, 2019
The majority of today’s armed conflicts are non-international, opposing states to armed non-state... more The majority of today’s armed conflicts are non-international, opposing states to armed non-state actors (ANSAs) or between ANSAs themselves. In this context, ANSAs’ compliance with international humanitarian law (IHL) and international human rights law (IHRL) is a major challenge in today's armed conflicts.
While many violations of IHL and IHRL are committed by ANSAs, how they understand, interpret or can implement their international obligations has not yet been scientifically explored. The joint research project with Geneva Call precisely aims at filling this gap by collecting ANSAS’ practice and interpretation of IHL and IHRL norms.
The Research Brief From Words to Deeds: A Study of Armed Non-State Actors’ Practice and Interpretations of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Norms summarizes the focus, objectives, methodology and research questions of this project.
This chapter explores the way in which the discourse related to the application of international ... more This chapter explores the way in which the discourse related to the application of international human rights law (IHRL) to non-State armed groups (NSAGs) is being constructed by numerous scholars and institutions. Although it is undisputed that NSAGs have an impact on the civilian population in the various conflict settings to which they are party, the actual reasons why this discourse is being articulated and who is undertaking this task remain insufficiently explored. As international law does not exist in an intellectual vacuum, an examination of these issues may serve to better comprehend the purpose and goals of IHRL in armed conflict as understood by scholars and institutions, together with certain legal interactions that often remain unseen.
This is the introductory chapter to the book "International Humanitarian Law and Non-State Actors... more This is the introductory chapter to the book "International Humanitarian Law and Non-State Actors: Debates, Law and Practice" (T.M.C. Asser Press/Springer, The Hague/Berlin, 2020) by Ezequiel Heffes, Marcos Kotlik & Manuel J. Ventura (eds). It introduces and explores the functions and interactions of non-state actors in the field of international humanitarian law and provides an outline of the 14 chapters that comprise the book.
Despite the existence of humanitarian rules binding upon armed non-state actors (ANSAs) in armed ... more Despite the existence of humanitarian rules binding upon armed non-state actors (ANSAs) in armed conflict, ensuring their respect still remains an important challenge. When dealing with ANSAs, this can be linked to several factors, such as their lack of knowledge of the law, the absence of an incentive to abide by the applicable rules, their fragmented structure, their lack of a centralized command authority and a lack of capacity to implement international humanitarian law (IHL). Certain humanitarian organizations have attempted to tackle these difficulties by recognizing that engaging with ANSAs is essential in order to enhance the protection of civilians in conflict situations. This chapter aims at presenting the methodology employed by Geneva Call, an international non-governmental organization, when trying to persuade ANSAs to respect humanitarian norms. The following pages will provide an overview of this process, describing Geneva Call’s approach and discussing some of its achievements and challenges, in particular in the context of its child protection program.
That armed groups have been responsible for attacks against health care personnel and for violati... more That armed groups have been responsible for attacks against health care personnel and for violating the protection of health care is not news. This is one of the greatest humanitarian challenges of contemporary armed conflict. Armed groups, however, have also attempted to evacuate and treat wounded enemy fighters and civilians and, in certain contexts, they have even provided health care services for the civilian population living in the territories under their control. This article describes some of the key issues related to the variation of armed groups’ behaviors when dealing with the protection of health care, inquiring into why some groups have attacked health care facilities, personnel, and transports, while others have taken positive steps to ensure their protection and the provision of health care. The last part of this article introduces the approach undertaken by Geneva Call when engaging these non-State actors and discusses its new Deed of Commitment on the Protection of Health Care in Armed Conflict.
En los últimos años, una parte de la doctrina se ha enfocado en analizar el rol de los denominado... more En los últimos años, una parte de la doctrina se ha enfocado en analizar el rol de los denominados “actores no estatales” en el derecho internacional. Esto se ha dado incluso cuando la noción de “actor” no proviene del derecho, sino de las ciencias políticas. Su incorporación en el derecho internacional ha respondido de forma pragmática al aumento en la participación de estas entidades en la esfera internacional. Este escenario, sin embargo, no ha podido modificar posiblemente la característica más importante del derecho internacional actual relativa a su naturaleza estadocentrista. De todas formas, el mencionado pragmatismo ha intentado, por cuestiones metodológicas, distinguir entre diferentes actores no estatales, identificando a empresas transnacionales, organizaciones no gubernamentales, organizaciones internacionales, individuos y grupos armados organizados (en adelante, “GAOs”), entre otros. Estos presentan desafíos en las diferentes esferas del derecho internacional en las que actúan. Por ejemplo, los GAOs, que son el foco central de este capítulo, son parte en la mayoría de los conflictos armados no internacionales (en adelante, “CANIs”) actuales, mientras que el rol de individuos y organizaciones internacionales en los procesos de creación de derecho internacional ha recientemente ganado atención. En este capítulo, el ius ad bellum será el punto de partida para desafiar las limitaciones impuestas por los Estados hacia los GAO. En esta línea, se intentará comprobar que los GAOs poseen obligaciones internacionales por fuera del DIH.
In the last few decades, the role and status of armed non-state actors (ANSA) have become essenti... more In the last few decades, the role and status of armed non-state actors (ANSA) have become essential topics of analysis and discussion in order to better understand current international humanitarian law (IHL) and international human rights law (IHRL) dynamics. Although contemporary public international law still seems to be predominantly State-oriented, it is undeniable that a variety of these non-state entities have played quite important roles, giving rise to many discussions and complex debates. One relevant issue is related to the reasons why they are bound by international law. A classical approach to the traditional theory of sources of international law relies on the consent given by States to be bound by an international rule. When dealing with ANSAs, however, the reasons why they are obligated by both IHL and IHRL lie beyond merely accepting the existence of their obligations. While some views take into account their consent, others are based on their relationship with territorial States and the rules previously accepted by States' authorities. Implementing one or the other is not merely an intellectual exercise, and which alternative is taken will certainly have a direct impact on the effectiveness of international law as perceived by ANSAs.
This review explores certain challenges related to the notion of customary international law. It ... more This review explores certain challenges related to the notion of customary international law. It seems that it was a long time ago when international law academics and practitioners ever thought that the nature of this source was a well-settled topic. Nowadays international lawmaking processes involve an extraordinary number of interactions, taking place both formally and informally. Such complex features are reflected by an exponential increase in the scholarly study of international legal sources. The legal nature, its applicability and principles regulating customary international law are addressed in the book under review (Brian D Lepard (ed), Reexamining Customary International Law (Cambridge University Press 2017)) through several topical essays. The chapters offer a comprehensive analysis of these lawmaking processes and the challenges they portray from various perspectives and in various fields, such as: What is customary international law and why is it law? Is it law because it reflects a ‘global legislative’ model? What is the current value of the persistent objector theory? Is the two-element definition of customary international law still applicable? By meticulously addressing these and other inquiries, the book presents novel arguments and represents a stimulating addition to the literature on sources of international law
Journal on the Use of Force and International Law, 2016
If international law academics and practitioners ever thought that the law on the use of force wa... more If international law academics and practitioners ever thought that the law on the use of force was a well-settled topic, it was a long time ago. Over the years, while many jus ad bellum issues seem to have been neglected, others were simply left unresolved. In the Oxford Handbook of the Use of Force in International Law, Professor Marc Weller offers an opportunity to explore some of these issues through the lens of the most highly qualified contributors in a collection of 57 topical essays. This magnum opus enquires as to the role of international law as a useful legal regime, and recognises that the question of whether it can effectively prevent war and armed conflicts is often seen as synonymous with the question of whether international law is law.
Goettingen Journal of International Law, 2017
In the last few decades, the role of non-state armed groups has become an essential topic of anal... more In the last few decades, the role of non-state armed groups has become an essential topic of analysis and discussion to better understand international humanitarian law dynamics. While their increasing importance is uncontroversial, their place and regulation in specific areas of international law still remains unclear or insufficiently explored. Chief among these is the possible non-state armed groups’ international responsibility. Although it is undisputed that some of these entities breach their international law obligations, others seemingly engage with certain rules on the topic. This article addresses some legal consequences of such scenarios. Taking into account the principle of equality of belligerents in noninternational armed conflicts, two issues are dealt with: i) the existence of “nonstate” organs that could trigger the attribution of violations of international rules to non-state armed groups; ii) possible reparations owed by these non-state entities for their breaches during armed conflicts.
In the last few decades, different organized non-state armed groups have created judicial bodies ... more In the last few decades, different organized non-state armed groups have created judicial bodies in non-international armed conflicts. Despite their undisputed relevance, their establishment has not been thoroughly analysed, even if they could be included within those measures taken by these non-state entities in order to enhance respect for international humanitarian law. This article aims to explore some legal consequences of such actions. Mainly, two issues are dealt with: (a) the reasons why organized non-state armed groups are bound to respect IHL; (b) the lack of a unified view on which legal framework regulates the establishment of those “courts”. In order to achieve an explanation that grasps the complexity of these issues, the article adopts an inclusive approach, which embraces the application of the principle of equality of belligerents as a basis to affirm that the regulation of these judicial bodies by the “laws” of armed groups is the most appropriate solution in order to generate compliance for IHL.
Este artículo estudia la interdependencia entre regímenes pertenecientes al derecho internacional... more Este artículo estudia la interdependencia entre regímenes pertenecientes al derecho internacional, poniendo foco sobre la categoría de "grupo armado". A partir de allí, se exploran visiones tradicionales y alternativas para analizar las relaciones de esa categoría con las nociones de subjetividad internacional y de fuentes del derecho internacional, así como con el ius ad bellum y el derecho internacional de los derechos humanos.
Spanish Abstract: El derecho a la verdad, en tanto concepto jurídico, ha surgido en diferentes ám... more Spanish Abstract: El derecho a la verdad, en tanto concepto jurídico, ha surgido en diferentes ámbitos nacionales, regionales e internacionales de protección de los derechos humanos. Se refiere a la obligación estatal de proporcionar información a las víctimas, a sus familias y a la sociedad en su conjunto sobre las circunstancias en las cuales ocurrieron graves violaciones a los derechos humanos. La verdad es analizada, entonces, como consecuencia de un proceso que involucra la búsqueda de la justicia y el dictado de sentencias que tengan un fin netamente reparador.
No obstante, para los sistemas internacionales de salvaguarda tal derecho no ha sido claramente reconocido, al menos de forma convencional. Su mención en estos es escasa y ambigua. Por estos motivos, el presente trabajo tendrá por objeto observar cómo el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos ha delimitado el derecho a la verdad, tomando como estudio de caso la masacre de El Mozote, El Salvador, en 1981, la cual todavía hoy se encuentra impune, dejando a la sociedad salvadoreña sin justicia ni reparación pero, fundamentalmente, sin memoria.
English Abstract: The right to truth, as a legal concept, has emerged in different national, regional and international settings of human rights protection. It refers to the state’s obligation to provide information to the victims, their families, and the society as a whole, about the circumstances in which gross human rights violations were committed. The truth is analyzed, therefore, as the consequence of a process involving the search of justice and the issue of rulings that have a merely reparational goal.
However, for the safeguard international systems, this right has not been clearly recognized, at least in a conventional manner. Its mention in these systems is limited and ambiguous. Therefore, this paper aims to study how the Human Rights Inter-American System has defined the right to truth, taking as study case the El Mozote Massacre, which took place in El Salvador in 1981. This event still today remains unpunished, leaving the Salvadorian society without justice or reparation, but fundamentally without memory.
Note: Downloadable document is in Spanish.
Common Article 3 to the four Geneva Conventions encourages the parties to a non-international arm... more Common Article 3 to the four Geneva Conventions encourages the parties to a non-international armed conflict to bring into force international humanitarian law provisions through the conclusion of special agreements. Since armed groups are ever more frequent participants in contemporary armed conflicts, the relevance of those agreements as means to enhance compliance with IHL has grown as well. The decision-making process of special agreements recognizes that all the parties to the conflict participate in the clarification and expansion of the applicable rights and obligations in a way that is consistent with the principle of equality of belligerents. This provides incentives for armed groups to respect the IHL rules they have themselves negotiated. However, even upon the conclusion of such agreements, it remains unclear which legal regime governs them. This paper will argue that special agreements are governed by international law instead of domestic law or a sui generis legal regime.
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Papers by Ezequiel Heffes
While many violations of IHL and IHRL are committed by ANSAs, how they understand, interpret or can implement their international obligations has not yet been scientifically explored. The joint research project with Geneva Call precisely aims at filling this gap by collecting ANSAS’ practice and interpretation of IHL and IHRL norms.
The Research Brief From Words to Deeds: A Study of Armed Non-State Actors’ Practice and Interpretations of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Norms summarizes the focus, objectives, methodology and research questions of this project.
No obstante, para los sistemas internacionales de salvaguarda tal derecho no ha sido claramente reconocido, al menos de forma convencional. Su mención en estos es escasa y ambigua. Por estos motivos, el presente trabajo tendrá por objeto observar cómo el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos ha delimitado el derecho a la verdad, tomando como estudio de caso la masacre de El Mozote, El Salvador, en 1981, la cual todavía hoy se encuentra impune, dejando a la sociedad salvadoreña sin justicia ni reparación pero, fundamentalmente, sin memoria.
English Abstract: The right to truth, as a legal concept, has emerged in different national, regional and international settings of human rights protection. It refers to the state’s obligation to provide information to the victims, their families, and the society as a whole, about the circumstances in which gross human rights violations were committed. The truth is analyzed, therefore, as the consequence of a process involving the search of justice and the issue of rulings that have a merely reparational goal.
However, for the safeguard international systems, this right has not been clearly recognized, at least in a conventional manner. Its mention in these systems is limited and ambiguous. Therefore, this paper aims to study how the Human Rights Inter-American System has defined the right to truth, taking as study case the El Mozote Massacre, which took place in El Salvador in 1981. This event still today remains unpunished, leaving the Salvadorian society without justice or reparation, but fundamentally without memory.
Note: Downloadable document is in Spanish.
While many violations of IHL and IHRL are committed by ANSAs, how they understand, interpret or can implement their international obligations has not yet been scientifically explored. The joint research project with Geneva Call precisely aims at filling this gap by collecting ANSAS’ practice and interpretation of IHL and IHRL norms.
The Research Brief From Words to Deeds: A Study of Armed Non-State Actors’ Practice and Interpretations of International Humanitarian and Human Rights Norms summarizes the focus, objectives, methodology and research questions of this project.
No obstante, para los sistemas internacionales de salvaguarda tal derecho no ha sido claramente reconocido, al menos de forma convencional. Su mención en estos es escasa y ambigua. Por estos motivos, el presente trabajo tendrá por objeto observar cómo el Sistema Interamericano de Derechos Humanos ha delimitado el derecho a la verdad, tomando como estudio de caso la masacre de El Mozote, El Salvador, en 1981, la cual todavía hoy se encuentra impune, dejando a la sociedad salvadoreña sin justicia ni reparación pero, fundamentalmente, sin memoria.
English Abstract: The right to truth, as a legal concept, has emerged in different national, regional and international settings of human rights protection. It refers to the state’s obligation to provide information to the victims, their families, and the society as a whole, about the circumstances in which gross human rights violations were committed. The truth is analyzed, therefore, as the consequence of a process involving the search of justice and the issue of rulings that have a merely reparational goal.
However, for the safeguard international systems, this right has not been clearly recognized, at least in a conventional manner. Its mention in these systems is limited and ambiguous. Therefore, this paper aims to study how the Human Rights Inter-American System has defined the right to truth, taking as study case the El Mozote Massacre, which took place in El Salvador in 1981. This event still today remains unpunished, leaving the Salvadorian society without justice or reparation, but fundamentally without memory.
Note: Downloadable document is in Spanish.
In Organizing Rebellion. Non-State Armed Groups under International Humanitarian Law, Human Rights Law and International Criminal Law, Rodenhäuser offers a meticulous analysis of some of these issues through the lens of an international law practitioner. The book aims at clarifying what degree of organization armed groups should have to fall under international humanitarian law (IHL), international human rights law (IHRL) and international criminal law (ICL).
While the ICC Statute does not provide a more precise definition of the armed conflict in Article 8(2)(c), i.e. when serious violations of Common Article 3 may occur, it elucidates a definition in the case of serious violations of the laws and customs of war. The objective of this chapter is to clarify the threshold needed for the application of Article 8(2)(e) by focusing on the meaning of this provision. In doing so, it examines if indeed there are only as found in Common Article 3 and the 1977 Additional Protocol II, or if there is a third one included in the ICC Statute.