Gabriel, Tell this Man the Meaning of his Vision (Daniel, 8:16): Studies in Archaeology, Epigraphy, Iconography and the Biblical World in Honor of Gabriel Barkay On the Occasion of his 80th Birthday, 2024
The article suggests that the seeming discrepancy between the title of the
Mishnah, "Ten Holines... more The article suggests that the seeming discrepancy between the title of the
Mishnah, "Ten Holinesses" (Kelim 1, 6-9), and the fact that it lists eleven regions is the outcome of King Herod’s project enlarging the Temple Mount. This resulted in dividing one of the regions mentioned in the list, into two adjacent regions, while leaving the title unchanged.
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antiquity and conjectures of the size of the sacred enclosure by historians, theologians and even
archaeologists over the past 150 years have gone in numerous directions (see, for example, Ritmeyer
2006, with extensive bibliography on pp. 402–411). Our opinion is that the sacred space, at the size
it attained during the days of King Herod the Great, must have included the architectural envelope
that surrounds the Temple Mount proper and that the system of entrances, gateways and roads
leading to the compound, as well as the outer faces of the compound walls, were all part of the
sacred enclosure. The chapters in this book present the archaeological evidence of the excavations
cited, follow-up research and our analysis.
The main objective of the present volume is to publish the results of various excavations that have
been conducted in different locations along the walls. Moreover, we attempt to expand the view
regarding the Southern Wall and the area close by, while widely referring to its physical aspects, and
by doing so, assess the architectural changes that have occurred in the Southern Wall from the late
Second Temple (Early Roman) period through to the end of the Early Islamic period.
This book is divided into five parts:
I
Papers by Yuval Baruch
Currently, six Jewish catacombs have been identified, with the most extensive complex situated beneath the gardens of Villa Torlonia, adjacent to Via Nomentana.
This catacomb, one of the two accessible Jewish catacombs, exhibits a labyrinthine configuration of rock-hewn corridors (tupah) spanning approximately 900 meters and approximately 4000 burial niches.
In years 2018-2019, a conservation project unfolded as part of a collaboration between Israeli conservator teams and Italian archaeologists. This project, executed with scrupulous adherence to Jewish law, aimed to collect bones from the catacomb floor and return them to the original burial niches. Simultaneously, an extensive documentation and study project was initiated. The outcome of this comprehensive effort yielded significant archaeological and artistic insights, constituting a pivotal contribution to existing knowledge.
The study focuses on the Catacomb of Villa Torlonia, analyzing its intricate architectural plan. Additionally, meticulous documentation and cataloging efforts extend to various extant objects on the site, including inscriptions on building materials such as bricks and tiles, some featuring imprints and inscriptions. Furthermore, a thorough examination of the catacomb's decorations revealed a rich array of distinctive Jewish symbols, with some being documented for the first time by our team.
This paper aims to provide a detailed exploration of the architectural details of the underground system, offering a new perspective on questions related to its dating.
It measures about 12 inches on a side and is evenly divided into nine square compartments. Its outer surface is slightly charred, likely a result of the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. This is the first time that a complete box of this type has been found.
The purpose of this item remains something of a mystery. Based on its discovery within a shop along the Pilgrimage Road, the excavators suggest it may have been used to store or display small goods that were available for purchase.
Mishnah, "Ten Holinesses" (Kelim 1, 6-9), and the fact that it lists eleven regions is the outcome of King Herod’s project enlarging the Temple Mount. This resulted in dividing one of the regions mentioned in the list, into two adjacent regions, while leaving the title unchanged.
A notable discovery from the 2012-2015 excavations is the peristyle courtyard dating back to the Roman Byzantine period. This courtyard is surrounded by porticos and rooms, with a large pool at its center, likely serving as an artificial fishpond. These short paper describes the new findings, including the apsidal building and peristyle courtyard, and delves into discussions about the identification of St. Philip’s Spring, emphasizing its historical and religious significance.
Currently, six Jewish catacombs have been identified, with the most extensive complex situated beneath the gardens of Villa Torlonia, adjacent to Via Nomentana.
This catacomb, one of the two accessible Jewish catacombs, exhibits a labyrinthine configuration of rock-hewn corridors (tupah) spanning approximately 900 meters and approximately 4000 burial niches.
In the years 2018-2019, a conservation project unfolded as part of a collaboration between Israeli conservator teams and Italian archaeologists. This project, executed with scrupulous adherence to Jewish law, aimed to collect bones from the catacomb floor and return them to the original burial niches. Simultaneously, an extensive documentation and study project was initiated. The outcome of this comprehensive effort yielded significant archaeological and artistic insights, constituting a pivotal contribution to existing knowledge.
The study focuses on the Catacomb of Villa Torlonia, analyzing its intricate architectural plan. Additionally, meticulous documentation and cataloging efforts extend to various extant objects on the site, including inscriptions on building materials such as bricks and tiles, some featuring imprints and inscriptions. Furthermore, a thorough examination of the catacomb's decorations revealed a rich array of distinctive Jewish symbols, with some being documented for the first time by our team.
This paper aims to provide a detailed exploration of the architectural details of the underground system, offering a new perspective on questions related to its dating.
Within this area, a set of walls constructed employing diverse architectural techniques and seemingly representing distinct chronological periods was uncovered. These periods ranged from the Late Roman epoch to the Umayyad era. Notably, these walls were primarily constructed using repurposed stones, some of which had been sourced from the Herodian pavement and the Temple Mount itself. The earliest of these walls, dating to the Late Roman period, was identified as the foundational structure of the westernmost wall of the Umayyad Palace, and intriguingly, it was found to rest directly upon the Herodian pavement. The context surrounding this wall, in light of previous excavations, strongly indicates that it may, in fact, be the vestige of a sizable Late Roman complex that predates the Umayyad Palace.
Prior research undertaken in this vicinity, most notably the Mazar and Ben-Dov expedition of the 1970s, had alluded to the presence of several remnants associated with Aelia Capitolina in the area. Noteworthy among these finds were figurines, such as the one depicting a Berber horseman, which was discovered in the adjacent room adjoining the wall under discussion. The report of the aforementioned expedition expressed a hopeful anticipation that "future excavations would accumulate additional data that would build upon our endeavors to elucidate the layout and character of the area during the Roman period." It is our aspiration that the ongoing excavations, which we presently detail, will live up to these expectations in the future.
In the pages that follow, this paper will present the primary discoveries resulting from our excavation efforts, highlighting their significance and their anticipated contribution to the broader understanding of the urban fabric of the region situated at the base of the Southern Temple Mount complex. This understanding pertains specifically to the post-Roman destruction of the city in 70 CE and the subsequent establishment of the colony of Aelia Capitolina.
Limitations on the possibilities for proper archaeological research in the Temple Mount enclosure increase the importance of finds discovered by chance and documented during supervision of Waqf construction activities in the enclosure. In this article we will survey a number of discoveries and findings over the past decade, the publication of which, in our opinion, contributes to the archaeological research of the Temple Mount.
of the present-day Old City walls and farther to
the south have been revealed primarily thanks
to extensive archaeological excavations in the
vicinity of the southern wall of the Temple
Mount, the Jewish Quarter, the Armenian
Quarter and the Citadel. Unlike these areas, the
central and northern parts of today’s Old City
have rarely been investigated, mainly because
they are covered by dense construction.
One of the last remaining open areas within
the Old City is located in its northeastern
corner, some 120 m. east of Herod’s Gate. This
area, which remained an open field since the
Ottoman period, is known as Burj al-Laqlaq
(the Stork’s Tower), after the northwestern
tower in the Old City walls. Today the surface
of this area is leveled and almost entirely open.
A similar situation existed during the 19th
and 20th centuries, as indicated in contemporary
photographs and topographical maps of
the Old City, which show that the area was
primarily utilized for agriculture.
An opportunity to conduct an archaeological
excavation in this area arose in 1998 when
a decision was made to designate part of it
for construction. The excavations, carried out
along the inside of the Old City wall, were
intended to observe the sequence of settlement
layers and their depth in this part of the city.*
* The excavations were conducted by the Israel Antiquities
Authority from July to November 1998 under the direction of
the authors, with the assistance of S. Weksler-Bdolah (supervisor
of Area B), A. Peretz and G. Kotovsky (assistants to the area
supervisors). Surveyors were V. Asman, M. Kunin, Y. Watkin,
and R. Graff; photographers: S. Mendrea, D. Mendrea, T. Sagiv,
These excavations, which in most areas
reached bedrock, indicate the ancient topography
of the area. It slopes from east to west
toward the valley known in the literature as
the Bezetha Valley, which begins west of the
Rockefeller Museum, descending toward the
Kidron Valley north of the Temple Mount
precinct. Over the years, apparently partly as a
result of building activity, the valley floor was
filled until it reached its current flat state.
The excavations were conducted in two
areas (A and B) that abut the Old City wall, in
which remains of several settlement strata were
uncovered dating from the First Temple period
(Iron Age II) through the end of the Ottoman
period.
This special bronze lamp was deliberately buried in the foundations of the building and, in our opinion, was used as a foundation deposit (a ritual burial of an offering in the foundations of a building). This lamp may have been used as a ritual offering in order to bring good fortune to those inhabiting the building.
The lamp is the only one of its kind found in Jerusalem and just one of a few known to exist in the world. It was made using a mold and follows a common Roman motif similar to a theater mask.
antiquity and conjectures of the size of the sacred enclosure by historians, theologians and even
archaeologists over the past 150 years have gone in numerous directions (see, for example, Ritmeyer
2006, with extensive bibliography on pp. 402–411). Our opinion is that the sacred space, at the size
it attained during the days of King Herod the Great, must have included the architectural envelope
that surrounds the Temple Mount proper and that the system of entrances, gateways and roads
leading to the compound, as well as the outer faces of the compound walls, were all part of the
sacred enclosure. The chapters in this book present the archaeological evidence of the excavations
cited, follow-up research and our analysis.
The main objective of the present volume is to publish the results of various excavations that have
been conducted in different locations along the walls. Moreover, we attempt to expand the view
regarding the Southern Wall and the area close by, while widely referring to its physical aspects, and
by doing so, assess the architectural changes that have occurred in the Southern Wall from the late
Second Temple (Early Roman) period through to the end of the Early Islamic period.
This book is divided into five parts:
I
Currently, six Jewish catacombs have been identified, with the most extensive complex situated beneath the gardens of Villa Torlonia, adjacent to Via Nomentana.
This catacomb, one of the two accessible Jewish catacombs, exhibits a labyrinthine configuration of rock-hewn corridors (tupah) spanning approximately 900 meters and approximately 4000 burial niches.
In years 2018-2019, a conservation project unfolded as part of a collaboration between Israeli conservator teams and Italian archaeologists. This project, executed with scrupulous adherence to Jewish law, aimed to collect bones from the catacomb floor and return them to the original burial niches. Simultaneously, an extensive documentation and study project was initiated. The outcome of this comprehensive effort yielded significant archaeological and artistic insights, constituting a pivotal contribution to existing knowledge.
The study focuses on the Catacomb of Villa Torlonia, analyzing its intricate architectural plan. Additionally, meticulous documentation and cataloging efforts extend to various extant objects on the site, including inscriptions on building materials such as bricks and tiles, some featuring imprints and inscriptions. Furthermore, a thorough examination of the catacomb's decorations revealed a rich array of distinctive Jewish symbols, with some being documented for the first time by our team.
This paper aims to provide a detailed exploration of the architectural details of the underground system, offering a new perspective on questions related to its dating.
It measures about 12 inches on a side and is evenly divided into nine square compartments. Its outer surface is slightly charred, likely a result of the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE. This is the first time that a complete box of this type has been found.
The purpose of this item remains something of a mystery. Based on its discovery within a shop along the Pilgrimage Road, the excavators suggest it may have been used to store or display small goods that were available for purchase.
Mishnah, "Ten Holinesses" (Kelim 1, 6-9), and the fact that it lists eleven regions is the outcome of King Herod’s project enlarging the Temple Mount. This resulted in dividing one of the regions mentioned in the list, into two adjacent regions, while leaving the title unchanged.
A notable discovery from the 2012-2015 excavations is the peristyle courtyard dating back to the Roman Byzantine period. This courtyard is surrounded by porticos and rooms, with a large pool at its center, likely serving as an artificial fishpond. These short paper describes the new findings, including the apsidal building and peristyle courtyard, and delves into discussions about the identification of St. Philip’s Spring, emphasizing its historical and religious significance.
Currently, six Jewish catacombs have been identified, with the most extensive complex situated beneath the gardens of Villa Torlonia, adjacent to Via Nomentana.
This catacomb, one of the two accessible Jewish catacombs, exhibits a labyrinthine configuration of rock-hewn corridors (tupah) spanning approximately 900 meters and approximately 4000 burial niches.
In the years 2018-2019, a conservation project unfolded as part of a collaboration between Israeli conservator teams and Italian archaeologists. This project, executed with scrupulous adherence to Jewish law, aimed to collect bones from the catacomb floor and return them to the original burial niches. Simultaneously, an extensive documentation and study project was initiated. The outcome of this comprehensive effort yielded significant archaeological and artistic insights, constituting a pivotal contribution to existing knowledge.
The study focuses on the Catacomb of Villa Torlonia, analyzing its intricate architectural plan. Additionally, meticulous documentation and cataloging efforts extend to various extant objects on the site, including inscriptions on building materials such as bricks and tiles, some featuring imprints and inscriptions. Furthermore, a thorough examination of the catacomb's decorations revealed a rich array of distinctive Jewish symbols, with some being documented for the first time by our team.
This paper aims to provide a detailed exploration of the architectural details of the underground system, offering a new perspective on questions related to its dating.
Within this area, a set of walls constructed employing diverse architectural techniques and seemingly representing distinct chronological periods was uncovered. These periods ranged from the Late Roman epoch to the Umayyad era. Notably, these walls were primarily constructed using repurposed stones, some of which had been sourced from the Herodian pavement and the Temple Mount itself. The earliest of these walls, dating to the Late Roman period, was identified as the foundational structure of the westernmost wall of the Umayyad Palace, and intriguingly, it was found to rest directly upon the Herodian pavement. The context surrounding this wall, in light of previous excavations, strongly indicates that it may, in fact, be the vestige of a sizable Late Roman complex that predates the Umayyad Palace.
Prior research undertaken in this vicinity, most notably the Mazar and Ben-Dov expedition of the 1970s, had alluded to the presence of several remnants associated with Aelia Capitolina in the area. Noteworthy among these finds were figurines, such as the one depicting a Berber horseman, which was discovered in the adjacent room adjoining the wall under discussion. The report of the aforementioned expedition expressed a hopeful anticipation that "future excavations would accumulate additional data that would build upon our endeavors to elucidate the layout and character of the area during the Roman period." It is our aspiration that the ongoing excavations, which we presently detail, will live up to these expectations in the future.
In the pages that follow, this paper will present the primary discoveries resulting from our excavation efforts, highlighting their significance and their anticipated contribution to the broader understanding of the urban fabric of the region situated at the base of the Southern Temple Mount complex. This understanding pertains specifically to the post-Roman destruction of the city in 70 CE and the subsequent establishment of the colony of Aelia Capitolina.
Limitations on the possibilities for proper archaeological research in the Temple Mount enclosure increase the importance of finds discovered by chance and documented during supervision of Waqf construction activities in the enclosure. In this article we will survey a number of discoveries and findings over the past decade, the publication of which, in our opinion, contributes to the archaeological research of the Temple Mount.
of the present-day Old City walls and farther to
the south have been revealed primarily thanks
to extensive archaeological excavations in the
vicinity of the southern wall of the Temple
Mount, the Jewish Quarter, the Armenian
Quarter and the Citadel. Unlike these areas, the
central and northern parts of today’s Old City
have rarely been investigated, mainly because
they are covered by dense construction.
One of the last remaining open areas within
the Old City is located in its northeastern
corner, some 120 m. east of Herod’s Gate. This
area, which remained an open field since the
Ottoman period, is known as Burj al-Laqlaq
(the Stork’s Tower), after the northwestern
tower in the Old City walls. Today the surface
of this area is leveled and almost entirely open.
A similar situation existed during the 19th
and 20th centuries, as indicated in contemporary
photographs and topographical maps of
the Old City, which show that the area was
primarily utilized for agriculture.
An opportunity to conduct an archaeological
excavation in this area arose in 1998 when
a decision was made to designate part of it
for construction. The excavations, carried out
along the inside of the Old City wall, were
intended to observe the sequence of settlement
layers and their depth in this part of the city.*
* The excavations were conducted by the Israel Antiquities
Authority from July to November 1998 under the direction of
the authors, with the assistance of S. Weksler-Bdolah (supervisor
of Area B), A. Peretz and G. Kotovsky (assistants to the area
supervisors). Surveyors were V. Asman, M. Kunin, Y. Watkin,
and R. Graff; photographers: S. Mendrea, D. Mendrea, T. Sagiv,
These excavations, which in most areas
reached bedrock, indicate the ancient topography
of the area. It slopes from east to west
toward the valley known in the literature as
the Bezetha Valley, which begins west of the
Rockefeller Museum, descending toward the
Kidron Valley north of the Temple Mount
precinct. Over the years, apparently partly as a
result of building activity, the valley floor was
filled until it reached its current flat state.
The excavations were conducted in two
areas (A and B) that abut the Old City wall, in
which remains of several settlement strata were
uncovered dating from the First Temple period
(Iron Age II) through the end of the Ottoman
period.
This special bronze lamp was deliberately buried in the foundations of the building and, in our opinion, was used as a foundation deposit (a ritual burial of an offering in the foundations of a building). This lamp may have been used as a ritual offering in order to bring good fortune to those inhabiting the building.
The lamp is the only one of its kind found in Jerusalem and just one of a few known to exist in the world. It was made using a mold and follows a common Roman motif similar to a theater mask.
One third of the latter, 25 in number, were uncovered at Susiya in the southern Hebron Hills, indicating the unique nature of that site. Most of the installations are reached via a stepped passage leading to a subterranean system. These subsurface caves often extend beneath dwellings, several of which have been excavated. All but one were found to date to the 4th–7th centuries CE, the primary period of settlement at the Jewish village of Susiya. The single miqweh that does not belong to this period was found at the northern edge of the settlement and dates to the Second Temple period. The miqwaʾot appear to have been utilized on a daily basis.
A single miqweh located beneath the synagogue is unique. It lies at the end of a large subterranean network beneath a courtyard south of the synagogue and beneath the synagogue itself. An elaborate entrance joining the structure to the courtyard to the south attests to an association between synagogue, miqweh and several buildings surrounding the courtyard.
The subterranean system has two parts: a large hall with benches along three of its walls, and the ritual bath at the end of the main hall, connected to it by a quarried passageway. The roof of the passageway contains a rock-cut shaft that originates from the floor of the southern room of the synagogue.
The study of the archaeological finds from the excavations of the central hall reveals three primary phases of use, dating from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE. We believe that this represents the period during which the synagogue was in use.
There are two possible explanations for the function of the subterranean complex associated with the synagogue: the hall may have been used for religious studies, which would have required purification; alternatively, it may have served as a banquet hall for religious feasting, a function that would likewise require ritual purification.
The conference, inspired by the exhibition, will bring center-stage the discussion topics regarding the Temple Mount, from different points of view – archaeology, history, politics, religious studies, journalism and sociology. The Temple Mount is arguably the most prominent and recognizable landmark in the Jerusalem skyline. This conference is an opportunity to hear the many voices, which will continue to echo even after the exhibition closes.