International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 2020
In recent years, there has been a rapid expansion of increasingly restrictive laws managing the p... more In recent years, there has been a rapid expansion of increasingly restrictive laws managing the post release behavior and movement of individuals convicted of sexual offenses. In the US, this legislation has led to many barriers for people returning to their community as “registered sex offenders.” We consider the often ignored but undeniable traumagenic impact of life on “the list” and conceptualize this experience as Post-Conviction Traumatic Stress. We present a qualitative content analysis of secondary data collected from interviews with over 70 men. Emergent themes were first organized according to the human needs identified in Maslow’s hierarchy, and then by the established symptoms of PTSD, and finally in terms of resilient coping versus traumatic coping when basic human needs were unmet. We discuss the unexplored impact of traumatic instability on risk for recidivism and present recommendations for trauma-informed policies and practices with individuals required to register ...
Since the 1990s, sex offender registration and notification (SORN) has assumed a prominent place ... more Since the 1990s, sex offender registration and notification (SORN) has assumed a prominent place on state and federal crime control agendas in the United States. Although researchers have examined many aspects of SORN policies and systems, relatively little is known about how SORN is used, perceived, and experienced by law enforcement professionals in the context of their work. This article presents findings from a mixed-method study, consisting of face-to-face interviews and a national online survey of police and sheriff agencies. We examined law enforcement views on SORN's general functions and efficacy, barriers to SORN effectiveness, and recommendations for SORN-related policy. Results highlight the challenges associated with SORN's various functions as a law enforcement information tool, as an offender monitoring mechanism, and as a conduit of public information. They also indicate differences between the perspectives of agency leadership and those on the front lines of registry enforcement and management, as well as a range of concerns associated with the reliability and utility of registry information, inter-system communication, registrant homelessness and transience, and the public's capacity to understand registry information. Implications for policy reform and for SORN-related research are discussed.
Despite growing focus on registration and notification systems as central elements of national se... more Despite growing focus on registration and notification systems as central elements of national sex offender management practice, there has been remarkably little systematic analysis of the content of these registries and the diversity of individuals contained within them. Specifically, little research attention has been paid to examining the heterogeneity of the population of registered sex offendersa circumstance that may obscure important distinctions within the population and, in turn, may undermine the ostensible purpose of SORN to prevent sexual victimization. Addressing this significant gap in our current knowledge, this article sets forth a national profile of the registered sex offender (RSO) population, drawn from an analysis of data on 445,127 RSOs obtained from the public registries of 49 states, Washington, DC, Puerto Rico and Guam. In contrast with the homogenized perception about registered sex offenders that permeates much public discourse, the analysis illuminates the wide diversity of registrants across a range of demographic, offense-related, registry status, and risk-oriented variables. Policy and practice implications concerning risk, prevention, and the public safety utility of sex offender registries are discussed.
In the last two decades, in the United States, a number of laws have been enacted that purport to... more In the last two decades, in the United States, a number of laws have been enacted that purport to protect women and children from repeat sex offenders. In general, these laws are based on public fear and misperception of both the nature of sexual crimes and the risk that is posed by convicted sexual offenders. As these laws become more and more draconian, their unintended outcomes are changing both the nature of sexual offender treatment and the viability of providing such treatment.
Abstract 1. The goals of this study were to describe the characteristics of a sample of sex offen... more Abstract 1. The goals of this study were to describe the characteristics of a sample of sex offenders charged with failure to register (FTR) in New York State, compare the FTR and non-FTR groups on relevant risk factors, identify risk factors associated with failing to register, and investigate the relationship between registration noncompliance and both general and sexual rearrest.
Minimal standards for treatment of adult sexual offenders were adopted by the membership of the I... more Minimal standards for treatment of adult sexual offenders were adopted by the membership of the International Association for the Treatment of Sexual Offenders (IATSO) at its first membership General Assembly in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in May 2000 (Coleman, Dwyer, Abel, Berner, Breiling, Eher, et al., 2000; 2003).
This quasi-experimental study analyzed the recidivism outcomes of 1,125 sexual offenders in two g... more This quasi-experimental study analyzed the recidivism outcomes of 1,125 sexual offenders in two groups. The first group comprised 644 registered sex offenders who were convicted of a sex crime and at some point failed to register after release from prison. The comparison group contained 481 registered sex offenders released from prison during a similar time frame who did not fail to register after their release. The groups were then tracked for both sexual and nonsexual offenses to determine whether failure to register under Megan's Law is predictive of reoffending. Failure to register was not a significant predictor of sexual recidivism, casting doubt on the belief that sex offenders who are noncompliant with registration are especially sexually dangerous. Few differences between groups were detected, but FTR offenders were more likely to have sexually assaulted a stranger and to have adult female victims, further challenging the stereotype of the child predator who absconds to evade detection. Potential policy implications are discussed.
States, municipalities, and parole departments have adopted policies banning known sex offenders ... more States, municipalities, and parole departments have adopted policies banning known sex offenders from Halloween activities, based on the worry that there is unusual risk on these days. The existence of this risk has not been empirically established. National Incident-Base Reporting System crime report data from 1997 through 2005 were used to examine daily population adjusted rates from 67,045 nonfamilial sex crimes against children aged 12 years and less. Halloween rates were compared with expectations based on time, seasonality, and weekday periodicity. Rates did not differ from expectation, no increased rate on or just before Halloween was found, and Halloween incidents did not evidence unusual case characteristics. Findings were invariant across years, both prior to and after these policies became popular. These findings raise questions about the wisdom of diverting law enforcement resources to attend to a problem that does not appear to exist.
International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 2020
In recent years, there has been a rapid expansion of increasingly restrictive laws managing the p... more In recent years, there has been a rapid expansion of increasingly restrictive laws managing the post release behavior and movement of individuals convicted of sexual offenses. In the US, this legislation has led to many barriers for people returning to their community as “registered sex offenders.” We consider the often ignored but undeniable traumagenic impact of life on “the list” and conceptualize this experience as Post-Conviction Traumatic Stress. We present a qualitative content analysis of secondary data collected from interviews with over 70 men. Emergent themes were first organized according to the human needs identified in Maslow’s hierarchy, and then by the established symptoms of PTSD, and finally in terms of resilient coping versus traumatic coping when basic human needs were unmet. We discuss the unexplored impact of traumatic instability on risk for recidivism and present recommendations for trauma-informed policies and practices with individuals required to register ...
Since the 1990s, sex offender registration and notification (SORN) has assumed a prominent place ... more Since the 1990s, sex offender registration and notification (SORN) has assumed a prominent place on state and federal crime control agendas in the United States. Although researchers have examined many aspects of SORN policies and systems, relatively little is known about how SORN is used, perceived, and experienced by law enforcement professionals in the context of their work. This article presents findings from a mixed-method study, consisting of face-to-face interviews and a national online survey of police and sheriff agencies. We examined law enforcement views on SORN's general functions and efficacy, barriers to SORN effectiveness, and recommendations for SORN-related policy. Results highlight the challenges associated with SORN's various functions as a law enforcement information tool, as an offender monitoring mechanism, and as a conduit of public information. They also indicate differences between the perspectives of agency leadership and those on the front lines of registry enforcement and management, as well as a range of concerns associated with the reliability and utility of registry information, inter-system communication, registrant homelessness and transience, and the public's capacity to understand registry information. Implications for policy reform and for SORN-related research are discussed.
Despite growing focus on registration and notification systems as central elements of national se... more Despite growing focus on registration and notification systems as central elements of national sex offender management practice, there has been remarkably little systematic analysis of the content of these registries and the diversity of individuals contained within them. Specifically, little research attention has been paid to examining the heterogeneity of the population of registered sex offendersa circumstance that may obscure important distinctions within the population and, in turn, may undermine the ostensible purpose of SORN to prevent sexual victimization. Addressing this significant gap in our current knowledge, this article sets forth a national profile of the registered sex offender (RSO) population, drawn from an analysis of data on 445,127 RSOs obtained from the public registries of 49 states, Washington, DC, Puerto Rico and Guam. In contrast with the homogenized perception about registered sex offenders that permeates much public discourse, the analysis illuminates the wide diversity of registrants across a range of demographic, offense-related, registry status, and risk-oriented variables. Policy and practice implications concerning risk, prevention, and the public safety utility of sex offender registries are discussed.
In the last two decades, in the United States, a number of laws have been enacted that purport to... more In the last two decades, in the United States, a number of laws have been enacted that purport to protect women and children from repeat sex offenders. In general, these laws are based on public fear and misperception of both the nature of sexual crimes and the risk that is posed by convicted sexual offenders. As these laws become more and more draconian, their unintended outcomes are changing both the nature of sexual offender treatment and the viability of providing such treatment.
Abstract 1. The goals of this study were to describe the characteristics of a sample of sex offen... more Abstract 1. The goals of this study were to describe the characteristics of a sample of sex offenders charged with failure to register (FTR) in New York State, compare the FTR and non-FTR groups on relevant risk factors, identify risk factors associated with failing to register, and investigate the relationship between registration noncompliance and both general and sexual rearrest.
Minimal standards for treatment of adult sexual offenders were adopted by the membership of the I... more Minimal standards for treatment of adult sexual offenders were adopted by the membership of the International Association for the Treatment of Sexual Offenders (IATSO) at its first membership General Assembly in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in May 2000 (Coleman, Dwyer, Abel, Berner, Breiling, Eher, et al., 2000; 2003).
This quasi-experimental study analyzed the recidivism outcomes of 1,125 sexual offenders in two g... more This quasi-experimental study analyzed the recidivism outcomes of 1,125 sexual offenders in two groups. The first group comprised 644 registered sex offenders who were convicted of a sex crime and at some point failed to register after release from prison. The comparison group contained 481 registered sex offenders released from prison during a similar time frame who did not fail to register after their release. The groups were then tracked for both sexual and nonsexual offenses to determine whether failure to register under Megan's Law is predictive of reoffending. Failure to register was not a significant predictor of sexual recidivism, casting doubt on the belief that sex offenders who are noncompliant with registration are especially sexually dangerous. Few differences between groups were detected, but FTR offenders were more likely to have sexually assaulted a stranger and to have adult female victims, further challenging the stereotype of the child predator who absconds to evade detection. Potential policy implications are discussed.
States, municipalities, and parole departments have adopted policies banning known sex offenders ... more States, municipalities, and parole departments have adopted policies banning known sex offenders from Halloween activities, based on the worry that there is unusual risk on these days. The existence of this risk has not been empirically established. National Incident-Base Reporting System crime report data from 1997 through 2005 were used to examine daily population adjusted rates from 67,045 nonfamilial sex crimes against children aged 12 years and less. Halloween rates were compared with expectations based on time, seasonality, and weekday periodicity. Rates did not differ from expectation, no increased rate on or just before Halloween was found, and Halloween incidents did not evidence unusual case characteristics. Findings were invariant across years, both prior to and after these policies became popular. These findings raise questions about the wisdom of diverting law enforcement resources to attend to a problem that does not appear to exist.
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Papers by Jill Levenson