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List of monarchs of Aleppo

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The monarchs of Aleppo reigned as kings, emirs and sultans of the city and its surrounding region since the later half of the 3rd millennium BC,[1] starting with the kings of Armi,[2] followed by the Amorite dynasty of Yamhad.[3] Muslim rule of the city ended with the Ayyubid dynasty which was ousted by the Mongol conquest in 1260.

Aleppo Citadel was the center of the Aleppan monarchs in the Middle Ages
Aleppo Citadel Throne Hall, Built by the Mamluk Sultan of Aleppo Sayf al-Din Jakam

The rulers of Yamhad used the titles of king and Great King, while the Hittite dynasty monarchs used the titles of king and viceroy.

The Emirate of Halab was established in 945 by the Hamdanid dynasty and lasted until 1086, when it became a sultanate under the Seljuq dynasty. The sultanate was sometimes ruled together with Damascus under the same sultan.

The Artuqids rulers used the titles of Malik and emir, as did the Zengid rulers which added the title atabeg. The Ayyubid monarchs used the titles of sultan and malik.

The dates for Yamhad and the Hittite Dynasties are proximate and calculated by the Middle chronology.

Yamhad Kings

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Main article: Yamhad dynasty

Yamhad was the name of the Amorite kingdom centered at Ḥalab (modern day Aleppo),[4] its dynasty ruled for more than two centuries, Aleppo became a major power and dominated Northern Syria with the monarch holding the title of Great King.[5][6]

Portrait Name King From King Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Sumu-Epuh c. 1810 BC c. 1780 BC King of Yamhad (Halab)
Yarim-Lim I c. 1780 BC c. 1764 BC  • Son of Sumu-Epuh Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
Hammurabi I c. 1764 BC c. 1750 BC  • Son of Yarim-Lim I Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
  Abba-El I c. 1750 BC c. 1720 BC  • Son of Hammurabi I Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
  Yarim-Lim II c. 1720 BC c. 1700 BC  • Son of Abba-El I Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
  Niqmi-Epuh c. 1700 BC c. 1675 BC  • Son of Yarim-Lim II Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
Irkabtum c. 1675 BC  Middle 17th century BC  • Son of Niqmi-Epuh Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
Hammurabi II Middle 17th century BC Middle 17th century BC Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
Yarim-Lim III Middle 17th century BC c. 1625 BC  • Probably Son of Niqmi-Epuh Great King of Yamhad (Halab)
Hammurabi III c. 1625 BC c. 1600 BC  • Son of Yarim-Lim III King of Yamhad (Halab)

During these centuries, Aleppo had to deal with the rising power of both the Mitanni (Hurrian), and the Hittite kingdoms.

The Hurrians's influence seems clear already during the reign of Abba-El I (Abban) (1750-1720 BC); he recalls the help given to him by the Hurrian Goddess Hebat.[7]

Then Aleppo and its allies were attacked by the Hittite king Hattusili I starting c. 1650 BC (Middle chronology). After many campaigns, Hattusili I finally attacked Aleppo directly during the reign of Hammurabi III. The attack ended in a defeat, the wounding of the Hittite king and his later death c. 1620 BC.[8]

Yet later Aleppo was conquered by Hattusili's son Mursili I, who captured Hammurabi III.

The native dynasty regained Halab after the assassination of Mursili but the "Yamhad" name fell out of use.[9]

According to Jesse Casana (2009):[10]

Under Hattusili’s successor, Mursili I, the Hittites conquered much of Syria, including Halab, and invaded Mesopotamia where they sacked Babylon. These incursions probably weakened the kingdom of Yamhad considerably but did not lead to full Hittite control of the region. Instead, Hittite advances into northern Syria were countered by the Hurrian kingdom of Mittani to the east, as well as by the Egyptians to the south. During the period between the writing of the Alalakh Level VII [1780-1680 BC] and Level IV texts, Halab seems to have become subservient to Mittani while still exerting control over the Amuq region.

Portrait Name King From King Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Sarra-El Early 16th century BC Middle 16th century BC  • Probably Son of Yarim-Lim III King of Halab
  Abba-El II Middle 16th century BC Middle 16th century BC  • Son of Sarra-El King of Halab
Ilim-Ilimma I Middle 16th century BC c. 1525 BC  • Son of Abba-El II King of Halab

Mitanni and Hittite conquests

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Parshatatar (Baratarna) of Mitanni (1510-1490 BC) conquered Aleppo and surrounding areas, and the city became part of that kingdom.

Information about this period is found in the biography of Idrimi of Alalakh, who also became the ruler of Aleppo.[11] Idrimi became a vassal of Barattarna. At that time, this was known as the kingdom of Mukish.[12]

The city was conquered by Suppiluliuma I of the Hittites in the 14th century BC. Suppiluliuma installed his son Telipinus as king of Aleppo. Not all the kings of this dynasty are known. The Hittite dynasty remained in power until the Late Bronze Age collapse.[13][14][15]

Portrait Name King From King Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Telepinus Later Half of the 14th century BC  • Son of the Hittite king Suppiluliuma I King of Halab
  Talmi-Sarruma c. 1300 BC  • Son of Telepinus King of Halab
Halpazitis c. 1220 BC King of Halab

After the end of the Hittites, Arameans tribes began to settle in the region,[16] Aleppo became part of the Syro-Hittite state of Palistin,[17] then its successor Bit Agusi centered at Arpad,[18] Afterwards, it was sequentially part of Assyria,[19] Chaldea,[20] Achaemenid Persia,[21] Macedonia,[22] Seleúkeia,[23] Armenia,[24] Roman,[25] Byzantine,[26] and Sasanid Persian,[27] empires, the Rashidun,[28] Umayyad,[29] and the Abbasid Caliphate.[30]

Ḥamdāni Emirs

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Main article: Hamdanid dynasty

The Hamdanids were an Arab dynasty, established in 945 by Sayf al-Dawla, third of the dynasty.[31] They ruled most of Syria under the titular authority of the Abbasid Caliph with Aleppo as their capital, displacing the Ikhshids.[32][33]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
  Sayf al-Dawla Ali ibn Abu'l-Hayja 'Abdallah (Ali I) 945 967
  • Dynasty established
 Emir of Halab
 

Aleppo Citadel

Sa'd al-Dawla Sharif ibn Ali

(Sharif I)

967 969  • Son of Sayf al-Dawla Emir of Halab

Non-dynastic

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Qarghuyah, the chamberlain of Sayf al-Dawla, ousted Sa'd al-Dawla and assumed control over the city. Sa'd al-Dawla was able to regain Aleppo in 977.[33][34]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Qarghuyah 969 975 chamberlain of Sayf al-Dawla Emir of Halab
Bakjur 975 977 Deputy of Qarghuyah Emir of Halab

Restoration of Ḥamdāni Emirs

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Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Sa'd al-Dawla Sharif ibn Ali (Sharif I) 977 991  • Son of Sayf al-Dawla Emir of Halab
Sa'id al-Dawla Sa'id ibn Sharif (Sa'id) 991 1002  • Son of Sa'd al-Dawla Emir of Halab
Abu'l-Hasan Ali (Ali II) 1002 1004  • Son of Sa'id al-Dawla Emir of Halab
Abu'l-Ma'ali Sharif (Sharif II) 1004 1004  • Son of Sa'id al-Dawla Emir of Halab

Lu'lu' Emirs

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Lu'lu' al-Kabir was a slave and then chamberlain of Sa'd al-Dawla. He married his daughter to Sa'id al-Dawla, and after the latter's death, he assumed direct power over Aleppo. At first, he served as guardians to Sa'id al-Dawla's sons Abu'l-Hasan Ali and Abu'l-Ma'ali Sharif. In 1004, he had them exiled to Egypt and assumed full control of the city.[35]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Lu'lu' al-Kabir Abu Muhammad Lu'lu' al-Sayfi (Lu'lu') 1004 1009 Father in law of Sa'id al-Dawla

Guardian of Abu'l-Ma'ali Sharif

Emir of Halab
Murtada al-Dawla Abu Nasr Mansur (Mansur) 1009 1016  • Son of Lu'lu' al-kabir Emir of Halab

Non-dynastic

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In 1016, a rebellion broke out in the city and Fath al-Qal'i, custodian of the Citadel of Aleppo, opened the doors for the rebels causing Mansur to flee. Fath al-Qal'i accepted the authority of the Fatimid Caliph and, after a brief rule, ceded Aleppo to the caliph in return for the treasury and the rule of Tyre.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Mubarak al-Dawla Abu Nasr Fath al-Qal'i (Fateh) 1016 1016 Emir of Halab

Fatimi Emirs

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Al-Hakim appointed Aziz al-Dawla as the first Fatimid governor of Aleppo, but in 1020, Aziz declared his independence, and ruled for two years before being assassinated by a Fatimid agent.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Aziz al-Dawla Abu Shuja' Fatik October 1016 6 July 1022 No relationship with previous ruler Emir of Halab
Wafiyy al-Dawla Abu'l Najm Badr July 1022 October 1022 Ghulam (slave soldier) of Aziz al-Dawla Emir of Halab
Safiyy al-Dawla Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Ja'far ibn Fallah 10 October 1022 10 April 1023 Emir of Halab
Sanad al-Dawla Al-Hasan ibn Muhammad ibn Thu'ban 10 April 1023 2 July 1024 Emir of Halab
Sadid al-Mulk Thu'ban ibn Muhammad ibn Thu'ban 27 July 1024 18 January 1025 Brother of Sanad al-Dawla Emir of Halab

Mirdāsiyyīn Emirs

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Main article: Mirdasid dynasty

The Mirdasids conquered Aleppo in 1024 and kept their autonomy through political maneuvers, allying themselves with the Byzantines at times and the Fatimid at others.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
  Asad al-Dawla Salih ibn Mirdas (Salih) 1024 1029 No relationship with previous ruler Emir of Halab
Mu'izz al-Dawla Thimal 1029 1030  • Son of Asad al-Dawla Salih First Reign Emir of Halab
  Shibl al-Dawla Nasr (Nasr I) 1029 1038  • Eldest son of Asad al-Dawla Salih Second Reign Emir of Halab
Mu'izz al-Dawla Thimal 1038 1038  • Son of Asad al-Dawla Salih Second Reign Emir of Halab

After the death of Salih, his sons Nasr and Thimal ruled together. In 1030, Nasr deposed Thimal and ruled solely until killed by Anushtakin al-Dizbari, the Fatimid governor of Damascus. Thimal regained Aleppo briefly in 1038 when the Fatimid army retook the city, returning it to Fatimid rule.[36]

Non-dynastic

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In December 1041 Anushtakin al-Dizbari fell out of favor with Cairo and declared his independence in Aleppo. He died of illness in 1042 and Thimal returned to power.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Sharaf al-Ma'ali Anushtakin al-Dizbari 1038 1042 Emir of Halab

Mirdasid Dynasty

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Thimal regained Aleppo and accepted the authority of the Fatimid Caliph.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Mu'izz al-Dawla Thimal 1042 1057  • Son of Asad al-Dawla Salih Third Reign Emir of Halab

Non-dynastic

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In 1057, fearing family intrigues, Thimal handed over Aleppo to the Fatimids in return for Acre, Byblos and Beirut, thus returning Aleppo to direct Fatimid control.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Makin al-Dawla Al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī ibn Mulhim al-Uqayli 1057 1060 Emir of Halab

Mirdasid dynasty

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In 1060, Thimal's nephew, Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud, the son of Shibl al-Dawla Nasr, briefly regained Aleppo, losing after a few months to the Fatimids.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud (Mahmud I) 1060 1060  • Son of Shibl al-Dawla Nasr First Reign Emir of Halab

About three weeks later on 30 August 1060 Asad al-Dawla 'Atiyya son of Salih the founder of the dynasty occupied Aleppo for a day and a half then fled as Mu'izz al-Dawla Mahmud advanced on the city after defeating the Fatimid army.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Asad al-Dawla 'Atiyya 1060 1060  • Son of Asad al-Dawla Salih First Reign Emir of Halab
Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud (Mahmud I) 1060 1061  • Son of Shibl al-Dawla Nasr Second Reign Emir of Halab
Mu'izz al-Dawla Thimal 1061 1062  • Son of Asad al-Dawla Salih Fourth Reign Emir of Halab
Asad al-Dawla 'Atiyya 1062 1065  • Son of Asad al-Dawla Salih Second Reign Emir of Halab
Mu'izz al-Dawla Mahmud (Mahmud I) 1065 1075  • Son of Shibl al-Dawla Nasr Third Reign Emir of Halab
Jalal al-Dawla Nasr (Nasr II) 1075 1076  • Son of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud Emir of Halab
Sabiq ibn Mahmud (Sabiq) 1076 1080  • Son of Rashid al-Dawla Mahmud Emir of Halab

ʿUqayliyyūn Emirs

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Main article: Uqaylid Dynasty

The pressure of Tutush I led the people of Aleppo along with the Mirdasid Emir to offer the city keys to Sharaf al-Dawla Muslim the ruler of Mosul, the Mirdasid family members were compensated by various towns in Syria.[37]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Title
Sharaf al-Dawla Muslim ibn Quraysh (Muslim) 1080 1085 Emir of Halab
Hassan ibn Hibat Allah Al-Hutayti 1085 1086 Brother of sharaf al-dawla Emir of Halab

Sharaf al-Dawla was killed in June 1085 and was succeeded by his brother Ibrahim ibn Quraysh in Mosul, while Aleppo was managed by the Sharif Hassan ibn Hibat Allah Al-Hutayti.

Saljuqian Sultans

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Main article: Seljuk dynasty

Hassan ibn Hibat Allah Al-Hutayti promised to surrender the city to Tutush but then refused and wrote to Sultan Malik-Shah I offering to surrender the city to him, Tutush attacked and occupied the city except for the citadel in May 1086, he stayed until October and left for Damascus due to the advance of Malik-Shah armies, the Sultan himself arrived in December 1086.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Sultan From Sultan Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Taj al-Dawla Tutush 1086 1086 First Reign Sultan of Halab
  Mu'izz al-Dunia wa al-Din Malik-Shah 1086 1092  • Brother of Tutush Sultan of Halab

After the death of Malik-Shah I, his governor Aq Sunqur al-Hajib enjoyed much autonomy. He pledged allegiance to Malik-Shah's son Mahmud I, and then to Tutush only to switch back to Mahmud's brother Barkiyaruq. In 1094, Tutush defeated and beheaded Aq Sunqur thus assuming full control over Aleppo.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Sultan From Sultan Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
  Nasir al-Din Mahmud (Mahmud II) 1092 1093  • Son of Malik-Shah Sultan of Halab
Taj al-Dawla Tutush 1093 1093  • Brother of Malik-Shah Second Reign Sultan of Halab
  Rukn al-Din Barkiyaruq 1093 1094  • Son of Malik-Shah Sultan of Halab
Taj al-Dawla Tutush 1094 1095  • Brother of Malik-Shah Third Reign Sultan of Halab
Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan 1095 1113  • Son of Tutush Sultan of Halab
Shams al-Mulk Alp Arslan 1113 1114  • Son of Radwan Under the regency of Lu'lu' al-Yaya Sultan of Halab
Sultan Shah 1114 1117  • Son of Radwan Under the regency of Lu'lu' al-Yaya Sultan of Halab

Artuklular Emirs

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Main article: Artuqids

Sultan Shah was only six when he came to the throne, the threats of the Crusader Count Joscelin led Sultan Shah Guardian Ibn al-Khashshab to offer the city to Ilghazi of Mardin who came to Aleppo thus starting the Artuqid dynasty in Aleppo.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
  Najm al-Din Ilghazi 1117 1120  • Son in Law of Radwan First Reign Emir of Halab
Shams al-Dawla Suleiman I 1120 1120  • Son of Ilghazi Usurper Emir of Halab
Najm al-Din Ilghazi 1120 1122  • Son in Law of Radwan Second Reign Emir of Halab
Badr al-Dawla Suleiman II 1122 1123  • Nephew of Ilghazi First Reign Emir of Halab
  Nour al-Dawla Balak 1123 1124  • Nephew of Ilghazi Emir of Halab
Husam al-Din Timurtash 1124 1125  • Son of Ilghazi Emir of Halab

Timurtash was occupied with taking over the cities of his recently deceased brother Suleiman I (who usurped the emir of Aleppo briefly in 1120), the crusaders attacked Aleppo but Timurtash refused to come back, this led the people of Aleppo to seek the help of Aqsunqur al-Bursuqi the Seljuq atabeg of Mosul, Aqsunqur broke the crusader siege adding Aleppo to the domains of Seljuq sultan Mahmud II.[36]

In 1127 The city rebelled against the Seljuq governor Khatlagh Abah and restored Suleiman II.

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
Badr al-Dawla Suleiman II 1127 1128  • Nephew of Ilghazi Second Reign Emir of Halab

Zengi Emirs

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Main article: Zengid dynasty

Imad ad-Din Zengi, the new atabeg of Mosul, sent his army to end the troubles. He ruled in the name of Seljuq Sultan Mahmud II whose death had led to civil war. Zengi didn't declare his independence and stood by Ghiyath ad-Din Mas'ud. the Seljuq Sultan of Iraq, ruling in his name. However, the sultan decided to eliminate Zengi and called upon him to show in his presence. Zengi was warned and declined to show thus establishing his independence.[36]

Portrait Epithet Name Atabeg From Atabeg Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
  Imad al-Din Zengi I 1135 1137  • Son in Law of Radwan Effective Reign 1128-1146 Atabeg of Halab

Zengi reconciled with the sultan and recognized his authority, but in practice he was independent in all but name.[36]

When Nur ad-Din inherited Aleppo after father's murder, he took the title of King (Malik) and used the title of Emir.[38] Formally, the Zengids were subordinate to the Seljuq Sultans of Iraq, firstly Mas'ud then Malik-Shah III followed by Muhammad II. Nur al-Din retained the title of atabeg although he was completely independent as the Seljuq empire disintegrated after 1156,[39] and the sultans had to fight in Iraq to keep whats left of their authority. Muhammad II was the last Sultan to hold any real authority, and he attacked Baghdad aided by Nur al-Din's brother Qutb ad-Din Mawdud. Muhammad II death in 1159 and the fact that his successor Suleiman-Shah was a captive of Mawdud ended any real authority of the Seljuq Sultans,[40] Nur al-Din Held the Khutbah in the name of the Abbasid Caliph,[41] an enemy of the Seljuqs thus cutting any links with them.

Portrait Epithet Name Emir From Emir Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
  Nur al-Din Mahmud (Mahmud III) 1146 1174  • Son of Imad al-Din Also Emir of Damascus Emir of Halab
  Al-Salih Ismail 1174 1181  • Son of Nur al-Din Mahmud Sultan of Halab
  Izz al-Din Mas'ud 1181 1182  • Grandson of Imad al-Din Emir of Halab
  Imad al-Din Zengi II 1182 1183  • Brother of 'Izz al-Din Mas'ud Emir of Halab

Ayyūbīyūn Sultans

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Main article: Ayyubid dynasty

The death of Nur al-Din caused chaos as al-Salih Ismail al-Malik, his son and successor was only eleven. The Zengid governors fought for power, each one of them trying to be the atabeg of al-Salih. One of them, Gümüshtekin, became the guardian of the young king and tried to eliminate the others causing the governor of Damascus to ask Saladin, the Zengid governor of Egypt, for help. Saladin, formally a subordinate to Al-Salih but practically independent, marched on Syria entering Damascus in November 1174. He besieged Aleppo, causing Al-Salih's cousin Ghazi II the Emir of Mosul to send his army which Saladin defeated at the battle of Tell al-Sultan, Saladin was proclaimed King of Egypt and Syria, the Caliph al-Mustadi conferred the Title of Sultan upon him.[42]

Saladin met al-Salih and concluded a peace with the 13-year old king in 1176 leaving him to rule Aleppo independently for life while he (Saladin) ruled the rest of Syria.[36]

After the death of al-Salih, Saladin expelled al-Salih's relative Zengi II and entered Aleppo on 20 June 1183 thus ending the Zengid Dynasty.

Portrait Epithet Name Sultan From Sultan Until Relationship with Predecessor(s) Notes Title
  Al-Nasir Salah al-Din Yusuf I 1183 1193  • Married Mahmud III Widow Sultan of Halab
  Al-Zahir Ghazi 1193 1216  • Son of Salah al-Din Sultan of Halab
Al-Aziz Muhammad 1216 1236  • Son of Al-Zahir Ghazi Sultan of Halab
Al-Nasir Yusuf II 1236 1260  • Son of Al-Aziz
  • Regency council from 1236 to 1242, de facto regency of Dayfa Khatun[43]
  • Also sultan of Damascus
 Sultan of Halab

On 24 January 1260 the Mongol Khan Hulagu Khan entered Aleppo after a month of Siege thus ending the Ayyubid Dynasty.

Mamluk Sultans

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Main article: Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)

The Mamluk Sultan Qutuz defeated the Mongols at Ain Jalut on 3 September 1260,[44] the whole of Syria became part of the Mamluk Sultanate, Aleppo was the capital of its own province ruled by a Na'ib (Naib), some of these governors revolted and declared their independence in Aleppo like Shams al-Din Aqosh al-Borli who installed al-Hakim I as Abbasid Caliph in order to legitimize his reign while the Sultan Baibars I installed al-Mustansir II,[45] other governors revolted with the aim of ruling the whole sultanate such as Yalbogha al-Nasiri who had Sultan Barquq dethroned in 1389.[46]

Portrait Epithet Name Sultan From Sultan Until Notes Title
Shams al-Din Aqosh 1261 1261 Expelled by 'Ala' al-Din al-Bunduqdari General of Baibars I Sultan of Halab

Aqosh eventually reconciled with the sultan, in 1404 Sayf al-Din Jakam revolted and declared himself Sultan.[47]

Portrait Epithet Name Sultan From Sultan Until Notes Title
Sayf al-Din Jakam 1404 1406 First Reign : Built the Throne Hall of Aleppo Citadel,[48] Eventually Expelled Sultan of Halab

Jakam Reoccupied the City and was pardoned and reappointed by the sultan, in May 1406 he was replaced by another Na'ib leading him to revolt again.

Portrait Epithet Name Sultan From Sultan Until Notes Title
Sayf al-Din Jakam 1407 1407 Second Reign, Beheaded Sultan of Halab

See also

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References

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  • Bryce, Trevor (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.

Citations

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  1. ^ Pettinato, Giovanni (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991) Ebla, a new look at history p.135
  2. ^ William J. Hamblin (20 August 2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. p. 220. ISBN 9780203965566.
  3. ^ John David Hawkins (10 May 2012). Inscriptions of the Iron Age: Part 1. p. 388. ISBN 9783110804201.
  4. ^ Martin Sicker (2000). The pre-Islamic Middle East (Hardcover ed.). Praeger. p. 26. ISBN 0-275-96890-1.
  5. ^ Gordon Douglas Young (1981). Ugarit in Retrospect. p. 7. ISBN 9780931464072.
  6. ^ Mario Liverani (4 December 2013). The Ancient Near East: History, Society and Economy. p. 234. ISBN 9781134750849.
  7. ^ Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards. The Cambridge Ancient History. p. 41.
  8. ^ Bryce 2014, p. 29.
  9. ^ Michael C. Astour. Orientalia: Vol. 38. p. 384.
  10. ^ Jesse Casana, Alalakh and the Archaeological Landscape of Mukish: The Political Geography and Population of a Late Bronze Age Kingdom, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 353 , pp. 7-37, (February 2009)
  11. ^ Bryce, Trevor (1999). The Kingdom of the Hittites. Oxford University. p. 126. ISBN 978-0-19-924010-4.
  12. ^ Jesse Casana, Alalakh and the Archaeological Landscape of Mukish: The Political Geography and Population of a Late Bronze Age Kingdom, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 353 , pp. 7-37, (February 2009)
  13. ^ John David Hawkins (10 May 2012). Inscriptions of the Iron Age: Part 1. p. 388. ISBN 9783110804201.
  14. ^ P. J. Van Den Hout (1998). The Purity of Kingship. p. 56. ISBN 9004109862.
  15. ^ P. J. Van Den Hout (1998). The Purity of Kingship. p. 59. ISBN 9004109862.
  16. ^ Herbert Niehr (17 January 2014). The Aramaeans in Ancient Syria. p. 6. ISBN 9789004229433.
  17. ^ Trevor Bryce (6 March 2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 111. ISBN 9780191002922.
  18. ^ John Boardman (1924). The Cambridge Ancient History: pt. 1. The prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and the Aegean World. p. 375. ISBN 9780521224963.
  19. ^ John Boardman (1924). The Cambridge Ancient History: pt. 1. The prehistory of the Balkans; and the Middle East and the Aegean World. p. 261. ISBN 9780521224963.
  20. ^ Trevor Bryce (March 2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 138. ISBN 9780199646678.
  21. ^ Trevor Bryce (5 March 2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 147. ISBN 9780191002939.
  22. ^ Douglas A. Phillips; Charles F. Gritzner (2010). Syria. p. 27. ISBN 9781438132389.
  23. ^ Yasser Tabbaa (November 2010). Constructions of Power and Piety in Medieval Aleppo. p. 16. ISBN 978-0271043319.
  24. ^ Maurice Sartre (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. p. 28. ISBN 9780674016835.
  25. ^ Martin Sicker (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 Years of Roman-Judaean Relations. p. 42. ISBN 9780275971403.
  26. ^ Philip K Hitti (2004). History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine. p. 351. ISBN 9781593331191.
  27. ^ Bradbury, Jim (2004). The Routledge Companion to Medieval Warfare. Routledge. p. 25. ISBN 978-1134598472.
  28. ^ Tony Jaques (2007). Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E. p. 28. ISBN 9780313335372.
  29. ^ James Schryver (24 September 2010). Studies in the Archaeology of the Medieval Mediterranean. p. 132. ISBN 9789004181755.
  30. ^ Philip K Hitti (2004). History of Syria, Including Lebanon and Palestine. p. 534. ISBN 9781593331191.
  31. ^ Hugh Kennedy (30 September 2013). Warfare and Poetry in the Middle East. p. 168. ISBN 9781780763620.
  32. ^ Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1994). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Middle East and Africa, Volume 4. p. 46. ISBN 9781884964039.
  33. ^ a b Josef W. Meri (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization. p. 313. ISBN 9780415966900.
  34. ^ John Bagnell Bury (1964). The Cambridge medieval history, Volume 5. p. 250.
  35. ^ C.E. Bosworth; E. Van Donzel. The Encyclopaedia of Islam. p. 820. ISBN 9004071644.
  36. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Kamāl al-Dīn ʻUmar ibn Aḥmad Ibn al-ʻAdīm (1996). Zubdat al-ḥalab min tārīkh Ḥalab.
  37. ^ Clifford Edmund Bosworth (2004). The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. p. 67. ISBN 9780748621378.
  38. ^ Thomas Asbridge (19 January 2012). The Crusades: The War for the Holy Land. p. 1141. ISBN 9781849837705.
  39. ^ Helen Nicholson; David Nicolle (26 September 2006). God's Warriors: Knights Templar, Saracens and the Battle for Jerusalem. p. 91. ISBN 9781846031434.
  40. ^ J. A. Boyle (1968). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 5. p. 176. ISBN 9780521069366.
  41. ^ Jonathan M. Bloom (2007). Arts of the City Victorious: Islamic art and architecture in Fatimid North Africa and Egypt. p. 175. ISBN 9780300135428.
  42. ^ Josef W. Meri (2006). Medieval Islamic Civilization. p. 690. ISBN 9780415966900.
  43. ^ According to Stephen Humphreys, From Saladin to the Mongols: The Ayyubids of Damascus, 1193–1260 (State University of New York Press, 1977), p. 229, the council consisted of the emirs Shams al-Dīn Luʾluʾ al-Amīnī and ʿIzz al-Dīn ʿUmar ibn Mujallī, the vizier Ibn al-Qifṭī and Dayfa Khatun's representative, Jamāl al-Dawla Iqbāl al-Khātūnī.
  44. ^ Read, Piers Paul (1999). The Templars. Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 229. ISBN 9780297842675.
  45. ^ ʻAbbās, Iḥsān (1998). Tārīḫ bilād aš-Šām fī ʻaṣr al-mamālīk 648-923h., 1250-1517m. Matbaʻat al-Ǧāmiʻa al-Urdunnīya. p. 400.
  46. ^ Petry, Carl F. (10 July 2008). The Cambridge History of Egypt. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 291. ISBN 9780521068857.
  47. ^ Cattermole, Paul (2008). Architectural Excellence: 500 Iconic Buildings. Firefly Books. p. 73. ISBN 9781554073580.
  48. ^ Bosworth, Clifford Edmund (2004). The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual. Edinburgh University Press. p. 77. ISBN 9780748621378.


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