Wikipedia

Nuclear power in space

Nuclear power in space is the use of nuclear power in outer space, typically either small fission systems or radioactive decay for electricity or heat. Another use is for scientific observation, as in a Mössbauer spectrometer. The most common type is a radioisotope thermoelectric generator, which has been used on many space probes and on crewed lunar missions. Small fission reactors for Earth observation satellites, such as the TOPAZ nuclear reactor, have also been flown.[1] A radioisotope heater unit is powered by radioactive decay and can keep components from becoming too cold to function, potentially over a span of decades.[2]

The Kiwi-A Prime nuclear thermal rocket engine 1960 test at Jackass Flats, Nevada.
Mars Curiosity rover powered by a RTG on Mars. White RTG with fins is visible at far side of rover.

The United States tested the SNAP-10A nuclear reactor in space for 43 days in 1965,[3] with the next test of a nuclear reactor power system intended for space use occurring on 13 September 2012 with the Demonstration Using Flattop Fission (DUFF) test of the Kilopower reactor.[4]

After a ground-based test of the experimental 1965 Romashka reactor, which used uranium and direct thermoelectric conversion to electricity,[5] the USSR sent about 40 nuclear-electric satellites into space, mostly powered by the BES-5 reactor. The more powerful TOPAZ-II reactor produced 10 kilowatts of electricity.[3]

Examples of concepts that use nuclear power for space propulsion systems include the nuclear electric rocket (nuclear powered ion thruster(s)), the radioisotope rocket, and radioisotope electric propulsion (REP).[6] One of the more explored concepts is the nuclear thermal rocket, which was ground tested in the NERVA program. Nuclear pulse propulsion was the subject of Project Orion.[7]

Hazards and regulations

edit
 
Intact SNAP-19 fuel capsule is shown among debris on Pacific Ocean floor, resulting from the aborted launch of a Nimbus B.
Sodium-potassium (NaK) alloy droplets similar to those released in high Earth orbit by the Soviet RORSAT program's fission reactors.

Hazards

edit

After the ban of nuclear weapons in space by the Outer Space Treaty in 1967, nuclear power has been discussed at least since 1972 as a sensitive issue by states.[8] Space nuclear power sources may experience accidents during launch, operation, and end-of-service phases, resulting in the exposure of nuclear power sources to extreme physical conditions and the release of radioactive materials into the Earth's atmosphere and surface environment.[9] For example, all Radioisotope Power Systems (RPS) used in space missions have utilized Pu-238. Plutonium-238 is a radioactive element that emits alpha particles. Although NASA states that it exists in spacecraft in a form that is not readily absorbed and poses little to no chemical or toxicological risk upon entering the human body (e.g. in the design of American spacecraft, plutonium dioxide exists in ceramic form to prevent inhalation or ingestion by humans, and it is placed within strict safety protection systems), it cannot be denied that it may be released and dispersed into the environment, posing hazards to both the environment and human health.[10] Pu-238 primarily accumulates in the lungs, liver, and bones through inhalation of powdered form, thereby posing risks to human health.[11]

Accidents within the atmosphere

edit

There have been several environmental accidents related to space nuclear power in history.

In 1964, a Thor-Ablestar rocket carrying the Transit 5BN-3 satellite failed to reach orbit, destroying the satellite in re-entry over the southern hemisphere. Its one kilogram of plutonium-238 fuel within the SNAP-9A RTG was released into the stratosphere. A 1972 Department of Energy soil sample report attributed 13.4 kilocuries of Pu-238 to the accident, from the one kilogram's 17 kilocuries total. This was contrasted to the 11,600 kilocuries of strontium-90 deposited by all nuclear weapons testing.[12]

In May 1968, a Thor-Agena rocket carrying the Nimbus B satellite was destroyed by a guidance error. Its plutonium SNAP-19 RTG was recovered intact, without leakage from the Pacific sea floor, refurbished, and flown on Nimbus 3.[13]

In April 1970, the Apollo 13 lunar mission was aborted due to an oxygen tank explosion in the spacecraft's service module. Upon reentering the atmosphere, the lunar module equipped with the SNAP-27 RTG exploded and crashed into the South Pacific Ocean, with no leakage of nuclear fuel.[9] This is the only intact flown nuclear system that remains on Earth without recovery.[citation needed]

In early 1978, the Soviet spacecraft Kosmos 954, powered by a 45-kilogram highly enriched uranium reactor, went into an uncontrolled descent. Due to the unpredictable impact point, preparations were made for potential contamination of inhabited areas. This event underscored the potential danger of space objects containing radioactive materials, emphasizing the need for strict international emergency planning and information sharing in the event of space nuclear accidents. It also led to the intergovernmental formulation of emergency protocols, such as Operation Morning Light, where Canada and the United States jointly recovered 80 radioactive fragments within a 600-kilometer range in the Canadian Northwest Territories. COSMOS 954 became the first example for global emergency preparedness and response arrangements for satellites carrying nuclear power sources.[14]

NaK droplet debris

edit

The majority of nuclear power systems launched into space remain in graveyard orbits around Earth. Between 1980 and 1989, the BES-5 and TOPAZ-I fission reactors of the Soviet RORSAT program suffered leakages of their liquid sodium–potassium alloy coolant. Each reactor lost on average 5.3 kilograms of its 13 kilogram total coolant, totaling 85 kilograms across 16 reactors. A 2017 ESA paper calculated that, while smaller droplets quickly decay, 65 kilograms of coolant still remain in centimeter-sized droplets around 800 km altitude orbits, comprising 10% of the space debris in that size range.[15]

Trapped-positron problem

edit
 
The structure of Earth's magnetosphere. Fission-produced trapped positrons precess along the innermost red field lines and can interfere with instruments on satellites.
 
Diagram of Kosmos 1818 and Kosmos 1867, which carried the TOPAZ-I fission reactors
 
 
The Solar Maximum Mission and Ginga satellites, both carrying gamma ray telescopes affected by reactor positron pollution

Orbital fission reactors are a source of significant interference for orbital gamma ray observatories. Unlike RTGs which largely rely on energy from alpha decay, fission reactors produce significant gamma radiation, with the uranium-235 chain releasing 6.3% of its total energy as prompt (shown below) and delayed (daughter product decay) gamma rays:[16]

 

Pair production occurs as these gamma rays interact with reactor or adjacent material, ejecting electrons and positrons into space:

 

These electrons and positrons then become trapped in the magnetosphere's flux tubes, which carry them through a range of orbital altitudes, where the positrons can annihilate with the structure of other satellites, again producing gamma rays:

 

These gamma rays can interfere with satellite instruments. This most notably occurred in 1987, when the TOPAZ-I nuclear reactors (6–10 kWe) aboard the twin RORSAT test vehicles Kosmos 1818 and Kosmos 1867 affected the gamma ray telescopes aboard NASA's Solar Maximum Mission and the University of Tokyo/ISAS' Ginga. TOPAZ-I remains the most powerful fission reactor operated in space, with previous Soviet missions using the BES-5 reactor (2–3 kWe) at altitudes well below gamma ray observatories.[17]

Regulations

edit

National regulations

edit

The presence of space nuclear sources and the potential consequences of nuclear accidents on humans and the environment cannot be ignored. Therefore, there have been strict regulations for the application of nuclear power in outer space to mitigate the risks associated with the use of space nuclear power sources among governments.[18]

For instance, in the United States, safety considerations are integrated into every stage of the design, testing, manufacturing, and operation of space nuclear systems. The NRC oversee the ownership, use, and production of nuclear materials and facilities. The Department of Energy is bound by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) to consider the environmental impact of nuclear material handling, transportation, and storage.[9][19] NASA, the Department of Energy, and other federal and local authorities develop comprehensive emergency plans for each launch, including timely public communication. In the event of an accident, monitoring teams equipped with highly specialized support equipment and automated stations are deployed around the launch site to identify potential radioactive material releases, quantify and describe the release scope, predict the quantity and distribution of dispersed material, and develop and recommend protective actions.[20]

International regulations

edit

At the global level, following the 1978 COSMOS 954 incident, the international community recognized the need to establish a set of principles and guidelines to ensure the safe use of nuclear power sources in outer space. Consequently, in 1992, the General Assembly adopted resolution 47/68, titled "Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space."[21] These principles primarily address safety assessment, international information exchange and dialogue, responsibility, and compensation. It stipulates that the principles should be revisited by the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space no later than two years after adoption.[21] After years of consultation and deliberation, in 2009, the International Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space was adopted to enhance safety for space missions involving nuclear power sources. It offers guidance for engineers and mission designers, although its effective implementation necessitates integration into existing processes.[22][23]

The "Safety Framework" asserts that each nation bears responsibility for the safety of its space nuclear power. Governments and international organizations must justify the necessity of space nuclear power applications compared to potential alternatives and demonstrate their usage based on comprehensive safety assessments, including probabilistic risk analysis, with particular attention to the risk of public exposure to harmful radiation or radioactive materials. Nations also need to establish and maintain robust safety oversight bodies, systems, and emergency preparedness to minimize the likelihood and mitigate the consequences of potential accidents.[23] Unlike the 1992 "Principles," the "Safety Framework" applies to all types of space nuclear power source development and applications, not just the technologies existing at the time.[22]

In the draft report on the implementation of the Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space published in 2023, the working group considers that the safety framework has been widely accepted and demonstrated to be helpful for member states in developing and/or implementing national systems and policies to ensure the safe use of nuclear power sources in outer space. Other member states and intergovernmental organizations not currently involved in the utilization of space nuclear power sources also acknowledge and accept the value of this framework, taking into account safety issues associated with such applications.[24]

Benefits

edit
 
Both the Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers used RTGs for power on the surface of Mars. (Viking launch vehicle pictured)

Power and heat

edit

Nuclear power systems function independently of sunlight, which is highly advantageous for outer solar system exploration i.e. Jupiter and beyond. All spacecraft leaving the Solar System, i.e. Pioneer 10 and 11, Voyager 1 and 2, and New Horizons use NASA RTGs, as did the outer planet missions of Galileo, Cassini, and Ulysses. However, in part, due to the global shortage of plutonium-238,[25][26][27][28] and advances in solar efficiency,[29] the more recent Jupiter missions of Juno, Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, and Europa Clipper, as well as the Jupiter trojan asteroid mission of Lucy, all opted for large solar arrays despite a relative 4% solar flux at Jupiter's orbit of 5.2 AU.

Solar power is much more commonly used for its low cost and efficiency, primarily in Earth and lunar orbit and for interplanetary missions within the inner solar system i.e. missions to Mercury, Venus, Mars and the asteroid belt. However, nuclear power has been used for some of these missions such as the Apollo program's SNAP-27 RTG for lunar surface use, and the MMRTG on the Mars Curiosity and Perseverance rovers.

Nuclear-based systems can have less mass than solar cells of equivalent power, allowing more compact spacecraft that are easier to orient and direct in space. This makes them useful for radar satellites such as the RORSAT program deployed by the Soviet Union. In the case of crewed spaceflight, nuclear power concepts that can power both life support and propulsion systems may reduce both cost and flight time.[30] Apollo 12 marked the first use of a nuclear power system on a crewed flight, carrying a SNAP-27 RTG to power the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package.[31]

 
Artist's depiction of a RORSAT radar reconnaissance satellite, typically powered by a BES-5 fission reactor.

Powering radar systems

edit

As active electromagnetic detectors including radar observe a power-distance drop-off of  , comparatively low Earth orbits are desirable.

The Soviet Union did not launch interplanetary missions beyond Mars, and generally developed few RTGs.[32] American RTGs in the 1970s supplied power in the 100 W range.[33] For the RORSAT military radar satellites (1967–1988), fission reactors, especially the BES-5, were developed to supply an average of 2 kW to the radar. At altitudes averaging 255.3 km, they would have rapidly decayed if they had used a large solar array instead.[17]

The later United States Lacrosse/Onyx radar satellite program, beginning launches in 1988, operated at altitudes of 420–718 km. To power radar at this range, a solar array reportedly 45 m in length was operated, speculated to supply 10–20 kW.[34]

Propulsion

edit

The following technologies have been proposed and in some cases ground or space-tested for propulsion via nuclear energy.[35]

Propulsion Nuclear

process

Cycle[note 1] Core power analogue Tested designs Proposed designs
Nuclear electric rocket Fission Closed Space fission reactors, usually liquid metal cooled   SNAP-10A,   Kosmos 1818   Project Prometheus,   TEM
Nuclear thermal rocket Fission Either High/Very high temperature gas-cooled reactor   Project Rover,   NERVA,  RD-0410   Project Timberwind,   Lockheed Martin DRACO
Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket Fission Either TRIGA reactor
Nuclear salt-water rocket Fission Open Aqueous homogeneous reactor
Gas core reactor rocket Fission Open Gaseous fission reactor
Nuclear lightbulb Fission Closed Gaseous fission reactor
Fission-fragment rocket Fission Open Fission fragment reactor Rotating fuel,[36] dusty plasma,[37] americium,[38] aerogel core[39]
Fission sail Fission Open
Radioisotope rocket Decay Open
Nuclear fission pulse propulsion Fission Open Fission bomb   Project Orion
Nuclear fusion pulse propulsion Fusion Open Inertial confinement fusion Project Daedalus, Project Longshot
Magnetic fusion rocket Fusion Open Magnetic confinement fusion Direct Fusion Drive

Types

edit
This table is an excerpt from Radioisotope thermoelectric generator § Models.[edit]
Name and model Used on (# of RTGs per user) Maximum output Radio-
isotope 		Max fuel
used (kg) 		Mass (kg) Power/total
mass (W/kg) 		Power/fuel
mass (W/kg)
Electrical (W) Heat (W)
MMRTG MSL/Curiosity rover and Perseverance/Mars 2020 rover c. 110 c. 2,000 238Pu c. 4 <45 2.4 c. 30
GPHS-RTG Cassini (3), New Horizons (1), Galileo (2), Ulysses (1) 300 4,400 238Pu 7.8 55.9–57.8[40] 5.2–5.4 38
MHW-RTG LES-8/9, Voyager 1 (3), Voyager 2 (3) 160[40] 2,400[41] 238Pu c. 4.5 37.7[40] 4.2 c. 36
SNAP-3B Transit-4A (1) 2.7[40] 52.5 238Pu ? 2.1[40] 1.3 ?
SNAP-9A Transit 5BN1/2 (1) 25[40] 525[41] 238Pu c. 1 12.3[40] 2.0 c. 30
SNAP-19 Nimbus-3 (2), Pioneer 10 (4), Pioneer 11 (4) 40.3[40] 525 238Pu c. 1 13.6[40] 2.9 c. 40
modified SNAP-19 Viking 1 (2), Viking 2 (2) 42.7[40] 525 238Pu c. 1 15.2[40] 2.8 c. 40
SNAP-27 Apollo 12–17 ALSEP (1) 73 1,480 238Pu[42] 3.8 20 3.65 19
(fission reactor) Buk (BES-5)** US-As (1) 3,000 100,000 highly enriched 235U 30 1,000 3.0 100
(fission reactor) SNAP-10A*** SNAP-10A (1) 600[43] 30,000 highly enriched 235U 431 1.4 ?
ASRG**** prototype design (not launched), Discovery Program c. 140 (2x70) c. 500 238Pu 1 34 4.1 c. 100

Radioisotope systems

edit
 
SNAP-27 on the Moon

For more than fifty years, radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) have been the United States’ main nuclear power source in space. RTGs offer many benefits; they are relatively safe and maintenance-free, are resilient under harsh conditions, and can operate for decades. RTGs are particularly desirable for use in parts of space where solar power is not a viable power source. Dozens of RTGs have been implemented to power 25 different US spacecraft, some of which have been operating for more than 20 years. Over 40 radioisotope thermoelectric generators have been used globally (principally US and USSR) on space missions.[44]

The advanced Stirling radioisotope generator (ASRG, a model of Stirling radioisotope generator (SRG)) produces roughly four times the electric power of an RTG per unit of nuclear fuel, but flight-ready units based on Stirling technology are not expected until 2028.[45] NASA plans to utilize two ASRGs to explore Titan in the distant future.[citation needed]

 
Cutaway diagram of the advanced Stirling radioisotope generator.

Radioisotope power generators include:

Radioisotope heater units (RHUs) are also used on spacecraft to warm scientific instruments to the proper temperature so they operate efficiently. A larger model of RHU called the General Purpose Heat Source (GPHS) is used to power RTGs and the ASRG.[citation needed]

Extremely slow-decaying radioisotopes have been proposed for use on interstellar probes with multi-decade lifetimes.[46]

As of 2011, another direction for development was an RTG assisted by subcritical nuclear reactions.[47]

Fission systems

edit

Fission power systems may be utilized to power a spacecraft's heating or propulsion systems. In terms of heating requirements, when spacecraft require more than 100 kW for power, fission systems are much more cost effective than RTGs.[citation needed]

In 1965, the US launched a space reactor, the SNAP-10A, which had been developed by Atomics International, then a division of North American Aviation.[48]

Over the past few decades, several fission reactors have been proposed, and the Soviet Union launched 31 BES-5 low power fission reactors in their RORSAT satellites utilizing thermoelectric converters between 1967 and 1988.[citation needed]

In the 1960s and 1970s, the Soviet Union developed TOPAZ reactors, which utilize thermionic converters instead, although the first test flight was not until 1987.[citation needed]

In 1983, NASA and other US government agencies began development of a next-generation space reactor, the SP-100, contracting with General Electric and others. In 1994, the SP-100 program was cancelled, largely for political reasons, with the idea of transitioning to the Russian TOPAZ-II reactor system. Although some TOPAZ-II prototypes were ground-tested, the system was never deployed for US space missions.[49]

In 2008, NASA announced plans to utilize a small fission power system on the surface of the Moon and Mars, and began testing "key" technologies for it to come to fruition.[50]

Proposed fission power system spacecraft and exploration systems have included SP-100, JIMO nuclear electric propulsion, and Fission Surface Power.[44]

 
SAFE-30 small experimental reactor

A number of micro nuclear reactor types have been developed or are in development for space applications:[51]

Nuclear thermal propulsion systems (NTR) are based on the heating power of a fission reactor, offering a more efficient propulsion system than one powered by chemical reactions. Current research focuses more on nuclear electric systems as the power source for providing thrust to propel spacecraft that are already in space.

Other space fission reactors for powering space vehicles include the SAFE-400 reactor and the HOMER-15. In 2020, Roscosmos (the Russian Federal Space Agency) plans to launch a spacecraft utilizing nuclear-powered propulsion systems (developed at the Keldysh Research Center), which includes a small gas-cooled fission reactor with 1 MWe.[52][53]

In September 2020, NASA and the Department of Energy (DOE) issued a formal request for proposals for a lunar nuclear power system, in which several awards would be granted to preliminary designs completed by the end of 2021, while in a second phase, by early 2022, they would select one company to develop a 10-kilowatt fission power system to be placed on the Moon in 2027.[54]

 
Artists's Conception of Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter mission for Prometheus, with the reactor on the right, providing power to ion engines and electronics.

Project Prometheus

edit

In 2002, NASA announced an initiative towards developing nuclear systems, which later came to be known as Project Prometheus. A major part of the Prometheus Project was to develop the Stirling Radioisotope Generator and the Multi-Mission Thermoelectric Generator, both types of RTGs. The project also aimed to produce a safe and long-lasting space fission reactor system for a spacecraft's power and propulsion, replacing the long-used RTGs. Budget constraints resulted in the effective halting of the project, but Project Prometheus has had success in testing new systems.[55] After its creation, scientists successfully tested a High Power Electric Propulsion (HiPEP) ion engine, which offered substantial advantages in fuel efficiency, thruster lifetime, and thruster efficiency over other power sources.[56]

Visuals

edit

A gallery of images of space nuclear power systems.

  •  
    Red-hot shell containing plutonium undergoing nuclear decay, inside the Mars Science Laboratory MMRTG.[57] MSL was launched in 2011 and landed on Mars in August 2012.
  •  
    The MSL MMRTG exterior. The white Aptek 2711 coating reflects sunlight while still transmitting heat to the Martian atmosphere
  •  
    SNAP-10A Space Nuclear Power Plant, shown here in tests on the Earth, launched into orbit in the 1960s.
  •  
    Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter. A long boom holds the reactor at a distance, while a radiation shadow shield protects the radiator fins

See also

edit

Notes

edit
  1. ^ Open cycles allow the nuclear fuel into the exhaust, closed cycles do not.

References

edit
  1. ^ Hyder, Anthony K.; R. L. Wiley; G. Halpert; S. Sabripour; D. J. Flood (2000). Spacecraft Power Technologies. Imperial College Press. p. 256. ISBN 1-86094-117-6.
  2. ^ "Department of Energy Facts: Radioisotope Heater Units" (PDF). U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Space and Defense Power Systems. December 1998. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 27, 2010. Retrieved March 24, 2010.
  3. ^ a b "Nuclear Power In Space". Spacedaily.com. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
  4. ^ "NASA - Researchers Test Novel Power System for Space Travel - Joint NASA and DOE team demonstrates simple, robust fission reactor prototype". Nasa.gov. 2012-11-26. Archived from the original on 2016-03-05. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
  5. ^ Ponomarev-Stepnoi, N. N.; Kukharkin, N. E.; Usov, V. A. (March 2000). ""Romashka" reactor-converter". Atomic Energy. 88 (3). New York: Springer: 178–183. doi:10.1007/BF02673156. ISSN 1063-4258. S2CID 94174828.
  6. ^ "Radioisotope Electric Propulsion : Enabling the Decadal Survey Science Goals for Primitive Bodies" (PDF). Lpi.usra.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
  7. ^ Everett, C.J.; Ulam S.M. (August 1955). "On a Method of Propulsion of Projectiles by Means of External Nuclear Explosions. Part I" (PDF). Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. p. 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 25, 2012.
  8. ^ a b c Tchouaso, Modeste Tchakoua; Alam, Tariq Rizvi; Prelas, Mark Antonio (2023), "Space nuclear power", Photovoltaics for Space, Elsevier, pp. 443–488, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-823300-9.00014-5, ISBN 978-0-12-823300-9, retrieved 2024-03-21
  9. ^ "About Plutonium-238 | About RPS". NASA RPS: Radioisotope Power Systems. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  10. ^ Agency for Toxic Substances and Diseases Registry. "Plutonium | Public Health Statement | ATSDR". wwwn.cdc.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  11. ^ Hardy, Jr., E. P.; Krey, P. W.; Volchok, H. L. (1972-01-01). "Global Inventory and Distribution of 238-Pu from SNAP-9A". U.S. Department of Energy – Office of Scientific and Technical Information. doi:10.2172/4689831. OSTI 4689831.
  12. ^ "Nimbus B". NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved June 5, 2018.
  13. ^ International Atomic Energy Agency (2020-10-28). "Ensuring Safety on Earth from Nuclear Sources in Space". www.iaea.org. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  14. ^ Wiedemann, Carsten; Gamper, Eduard; Horstmann, Andre; Braun, Vitali; Stoll, Enrico (2017). "The contribution of NaK droplets to the space debris environment". ESA Proceedings Database (in German). Retrieved 2024-08-03.
  15. ^ Nuclear fission and fusion, and neutron interactions, National Physical Laboratory Archive.
  16. ^ a b Grahn, Sven. "The US-A program (Radar Ocean Reconnaissance Satelites)". Sven's Space Place. Retrieved 2024-07-27.
  17. ^ Hussein, Esam M.A. (December 2020). "Emerging small modular nuclear power reactors: A critical review". Physics Open. 5: 100038. doi:10.1016/j.physo.2020.100038. ISSN 2666-0326.
  18. ^ El-Genk, Mohamed (2010), "Safety guidelines for space nuclear reactor power and propulsion systems", Space Safety Regulations and Standards, Elsevier, pp. 319–370, doi:10.1016/b978-1-85617-752-8.10026-1, ISBN 978-1-85617-752-8, retrieved 2024-03-21
  19. ^ Barco, Alessandra; Ambrosi, Richard M.; Williams, Hugo R.; Stephenson, Keith (June 2020). "Radioisotope power systems in space missions: Overview of the safety aspects and recommendations for the European safety case". Journal of Space Safety Engineering. 7 (2): 137–149. Bibcode:2020JSSE....7..137B. doi:10.1016/j.jsse.2020.03.001. ISSN 2468-8967.
  20. ^ a b "NPS Principles". www.unoosa.org. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  21. ^ a b Summerer, L.; Wilcox, R.E.; Bechtel, R.; Harbison, S. (June 2015). "The International Safety Framework for nuclear power source applications in outer space—Useful and substantial guidance". Acta Astronautica. 111: 89–101. Bibcode:2015AcAau.111...89S. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2015.02.007. ISSN 0094-5765.
  22. ^ a b International Atomic Energy Agency (2009). Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space (Report). p. 1.
  23. ^ "A/AC.105/C.1/124 - Final report on the implementation of the Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space and recommendations for potential enhancements of the technical content and scope of the Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space: Prepared by the Working Group on the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space". www.unoosa.org. Retrieved 2024-03-21.
  24. ^ David Dickinson (March 21, 2013). "U.S. to restart plutonium production for deep space exploration". Universe Today. Archived from the original on March 17, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2015.
  25. ^ Greenfieldboyce, Nell. "Plutonium Shortage Could Stall Space Exploration". NPR.org. NPR. Archived from the original on August 3, 2020. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
  26. ^ Greenfieldboyce, Nell. "The Plutonium Problem: Who Pays For Space Fuel?". NPR.org. NPR. Archived from the original on May 3, 2018. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
  27. ^ Wall, Mike (April 6, 2012). "Plutonium Production May Avert Spacecraft Fuel Shortage". Space.com. Archived from the original on July 3, 2013. Retrieved December 10, 2013.
  28. ^ "NASA's Juno Spacecraft Breaks Solar Power Distance Record". NASA. January 13, 2016. Retrieved April 29, 2023.
  29. ^ Zaitsev, Yury. "Nuclear Power In Space". Spacedaily. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
  30. ^ Press Kit, pp. 33–34.
  31. ^ "Nuclear Powered Payloads". Gunter's Space Page. 2024-08-19. Retrieved 2024-08-19.
  32. ^ "Atomic Power in Space II: A History 2015" (PDF). inl.gov. Idaho National Laboratory. September 2015. Retrieved 13 June 2018.
  33. ^ "Onyx 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (Lacrosse 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)". Gunter's Space Page. 2024-08-19. Retrieved 2024-08-19.
  34. ^ Gabrielli, Roland Antonius; Herdrich, Georg (2015). "Review of Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Systems". Progress in Aerospace Sciences. 79: 92–113. doi:10.1016/j.paerosci.2015.09.001.
  35. ^ Chapline, G.; Dickson, P.; Schnitzler, B. (18 September 1988). Fission fragment rockets: A potential breakthrough (PDF). International reactor physics conference. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, USA. OSTI 6868318.
  36. ^ Clark, R.; Sheldon, R. (10–13 July 2005). Dusty Plasma Based Fission Fragment Nuclear Reactor (PDF). 41st AIAA/ASME/SAE/ASEE Joint Propulsion Conference & Exhibit. Tucson, Arizona: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (published 15 April 2007). AIAA Paper 2005-4460.
  37. ^ Ronen, Yigal; Shwageraus, E. (2000). "Ultra-thin 241mAm fuel elements in nuclear reactors". Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A. 455 (2): 442–451. Bibcode:2000NIMPA.455..442R. doi:10.1016/s0168-9002(00)00506-4.
  38. ^ Hall, Loura; Weed, Ryan (9 January 2023). "Aerogel Core Fission Fragment Rocket Engine". NASA. Retrieved 21 July 2024.
  39. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Space Nuclear Power" G.L.Bennett 2006
  40. ^ a b "Totse.com | Nuclear Power in Space". Archived from the original on 19 June 2008. Retrieved 2012-10-19.
  41. ^ "SNAP-27". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 24 January 2012. Retrieved 13 September 2011.
  42. ^ "SNAP Overview". USDOE ETEC. Archived from the original on 4 May 2010. Retrieved 4 April 2010.
  43. ^ a b Mason, Lee; Sterling Bailey; Ryan Bechtel; John Elliott; Mike Houts; Rick Kapernick; Ron Lipinski; Duncan MacPherson; Tom Moreno; Bill Nesmith; Dave Poston; Lou Qualls; Ross Radel; Abraham Weitzberg; Jim Werner; Jean-Pierre Fleurial (18 November 2010). "Small Fission Power System Feasibility Study — Final Report". NASA/DOE. Retrieved 3 October 2015. Space Nuclear Power: Since 1961 the U.S. has flown more than 40 Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) with an essentially perfect operational record. The specifics of these RTGs and the missions they have powered have been thoroughly reviewed in the open literature. The U.S. has flown only one reactor, which is described below. The Soviet Union has flown only 2 RTGs and had shown a preference to use small fission power systems instead of RTGs. The USSR had a more aggressive space fission power program than the U.S. and flew more than 30 reactors. Although these were designed for short lifetime, the program demonstrated the successful use of common designs and technology.
  44. ^ "Stirling Technical Interchange Meeting" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-20. Retrieved 2016-04-08.
  45. ^ "Innovative Interstellar Probe". JHU/APL. Retrieved 22 October 2010.
  46. ^ Arias, F. J. (2011). "Advanced Subcritical Assistance Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator: An Imperative Solution for the Future of NASA Exploration". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 64: 314–318. Bibcode:2011JBIS...64..314A.
  47. ^ A.A.P.-Reuter (1965-04-05). "Reactor goes into space". The Canberra Times. 39 (11, 122). Australian Capital Territory, Australia. 5 April 1965. p. 1. Via National Library of Australia. Retrieved on 2017-08-12 from https://trove.nla.gov.au/newspaper/article/131765167.
  48. ^ National Research Council (2006). Priorities in Space Science Enabled by Nuclear Power and Propulsion. National Academies. p. 114. ISBN 0-309-10011-9.
  49. ^ "A Lunar Nuclear Reactor | Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute". Sservi.nasa.gov. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
  50. ^ "Nuclear Reactors for Space - World Nuclear Association". World-nuclear.org. Retrieved 2016-02-23.
  51. ^ Page, Lewis (5 April 2011). "Russia, NASA to hold talks on nuclear-powered spacecraft Muscovites have the balls but not the money". The Register. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
  52. ^ "Breakthrough in quest for nuclear-powered spacecraft". Rossiiskaya Gazeta. October 25, 2012. Retrieved 26 December 2013.
  53. ^ "NASA to seek proposals for lunar nuclear power system". Space News. 2 September 2020.
  54. ^ "Nuclear Reactors for Space". World Nuclear Association. Archived from the original on 2 February 2016. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
  55. ^ "NASA Successfully Tests Ion Engine". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 22 November 2013.
  56. ^ "Technologies of Broad Benefit: Power". Archived from the original on June 14, 2008. Retrieved 2008-09-20.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nuclear_power_in_space&oldid=1258436903"