Sanskrit inherits from its parent, the Proto-Indo-European language, the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages, especially German, Greek, and also English.[citation needed]
However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound-usage in the literature, a development which is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages.[citation needed]
Further, this development in the later language[a] is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language.[2][3]
Background
editIn Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by the following process:
- Take the stem-form of the first element, i.e., remove its inflexion;[b]
- Combine the two elements with a single accented syllable.
In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with the freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one.[3][4][5]
The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed vigraha·vākya.[6]
Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: endocentric and exocentric.[7]
Endocentric compounds
editAn endocentric compound, usually called determinative, is where the compound is essentially the sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts:
- blackbird → a type of black bird[c]
- White House → the official residence of the US president[d][8]
- siṃha·purás → lion-city (Singapore)
Exocentric compounds
editAn exocentric compound refers to something outside the components:
- redhead → someone with red hair[e]
- pickpocket → someone who picks someone else's pockets[f][7]
- 'bahu·vrīhi' → lit. 'much-rice', i.e., possessing much rice: an indication of wealth
Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound.[9]
Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below:
Classification
editIn traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds[g] are divided into the following main classes:[10]
- Tatpuruṣa
- Tatpuruṣa proper
- Karmadhāraya
- Dvigu
- Nañ-tatpuruṣa
- Prādi and gati
- Upapada
- Bahuvrīhi
- Dvigu
- Dvandva
- Avyayībhāva
The first two of these, tatpuruṣa and bahuvrīhi, are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations.[citation needed] Alongside the term bahuvrīhi, tatpuruṣa has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding.[3]
The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate the composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided.
Tatpuruṣa (determinative)
editA tatpuruṣa is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive, determines the second one.[11][12]
Based on the grammatical nature of the attributive member, six varieties of tatpuruṣa compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique[h] case.[10][11][i]
Tatpuruṣa proper
editThe first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed dependent determinatives.[11][13]
| Word | Meaning, resolution | Relationship |
|---|---|---|
| jaya·prepsu | victory-seeking | Accusative |
| deva·dattá- | god-given: given by the gods | Instrumental |
| viṣṇu·bali | Viṣṇu-offering: offering to Viṣṇu | Dative |
| svarga·patitá- | heaven-fallen: fallen from heaven | Ablative |
| vyāghra·buddhi | tiger-thought: the thought of it being a tiger | Genitive |
| yajur·veda- | sacrifice-knowledge: the knowledge of sacrifice | Genitive |
| gṛha·jata- | house-born: born in the house | Locative |
Karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa (descriptive)
editIn a karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification.[14][15]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| nīlôtpala | blue lotus |
| sarva·guṇa | all good quality |
| priya·sakha | dear friend |
| maha·rṣí | great-sage |
| rajata·pātrá | silver cup |
Dvigu-tatpuruṣa (numerative)
editIn essence dvigu can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral.[j] Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are a special subcategory of karmadhārayas.[16][17]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| dvi·rājá- | (the battle of) two kings |
| tri·bhuvana- | three-world: the universe |
| tri·yugá- | three ages |
| tri·divá | the triple heaven |
| daśâṅgulá- | ten fingers' breadth |
| ṣaḍ·ahá- | six day's time |
| sahasrâhṇyá- | thousand days' journey |
dvigu compounds of bahuvrīhi type are noted below.
Nañ-tatpuruṣa (negative)
editIn a nañ-tatpuruṣa compound, the first element is a privative, a negator: a-, an- or na-, just like the English un-, Latin-derived in-, non- or Greek-derived a-, an-.[18][19]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| á·brāhmaṇa | non-Brahmin |
| án·aśva | non-horse: not a horse |
| á·pati | non-master: not a master |
| á·vidyā | non-knowledge: ignorance |
| á·kumāra | unyoung: old |
| á·śraddhā | unbelief, non-creed |
Upapada-tatpuruṣa
editThese are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own.[k] These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them.[20][21]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| sa·yúj | joining together |
| su·kṛ́t | well-doing, a good deed |
| kumbha·kāra- | pot-maker |
| sva·rā́j | self-ruling: sovereign |
| manu·já | Manu-born, born of Manu, man |
| svayam·bhū́ | self-existent |
| eka·já | only-born |
| jala·dá | water-giving: a cloud |
| sarva·jñá | all-knowing: an omniscient person |
Aluk-tatpuruṣa
editIn an aluk-tatpuruṣa compound, in contrast to the standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence:[22]
| First Element → Word | Meaning, resolution | Case |
|---|---|---|
| ojas → ojasā·kṛtá- | done with might [23] | Instrumental |
| ātman → ātmane·pada- | 'word for self': the reflexive voice | Dative |
| dyaus → divas·pati | 'lord of the sky': a name of Indra[24][25] | Genitive |
| yudh → yudhi·ṣṭhira- | 'firm in battle': a name[26] | Locative |
Dvandva (co-ordinative)
editThese consist of two or more noun stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of dvandva pair constructions in Sanskrit:[27]
Itaretara-dvandva
editThe result of itaretara-dvandva[l] is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:[28][29]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| mitrā́·váruṇau | Mitra and Varuṇa |
| dyāvā·pṛthivī | heaven and earth |
| vrīhi·yavaú | rice and barley |
| candrādityau | moon and sun |
| devāsurā́s | the gods and the demons |
| hasty·aśvās | elephants and horses |
| roga·śoka·parītāpa·bandhana·vyasanāni | disease, pain, grief, bondage and adversity |
Samāhāra-dvandva
editWords may be organised in a compound to form a metonym, and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral.[30]
| Word | Literal ⇒ Meaning |
|---|---|
| pāṇi·pādam | 'hands and feet' ⇒ limbs, appendages |
| āhāra·nidrā·bhayam | 'food, sleep and fear' ⇒ vicissitudes, features of life |
Ekaśeṣa-dvandva
editSome Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of dvandva which they call ekaśeṣa-dvandva,[m] where only one stem remains in what is viewed as the compound of multiple words.[31]
| Compound | Resolution | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| pitarau | mātā + pitā | 'mother and father' ⇒ parents[n] |
| mṛgāḥ | mṛgaḥ + mṛgā | 'does and bucks' ⇒ deer |
| putrāḥ | putrāḥ + duhitaraḥ | 'sons and daughters' ⇒ children |
Āmreḍita (iterative)
editWhile not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented.
Āmreḍita compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from dív- (day) we obtain divé-dive ('day after day', daily) and from devá- (god) we obtain deváṃ-devam or devó-devas ('deity after deity').[32]
Bahuvrīhi (possessive)
editBahuvrīhi[o] is an exocentric compound consisting of a noun preceded by a grammatical modifier which, taken together, functions as a single nominalised adjective.
A bahuvrīhi compound can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice" or "much-riced". In English, examples of bahuvrīhi would be "lowlife" and "blockhead" (they respectively denote 'one whose life is low' and 'one whose head resembles a block'), or the English surname Longbottom ('one who lives in a long "botham" [valley]').
The second element could essentially have been a noun, which within such a compound, can take on adjective declensions with the compound used adjectivally. Endocentric compounds can thus be transformed into possessives, normally accompanied, and explicitly recognized in the older language, by a change in accentuation:[33][34]
- indra·śatrú-, 'Indra's killer' ⇒ índra·śatru-, 'having Indra as killer'[p]
- bṛhad·ratha-, 'a great chariot' ⇒ bṛhád·ratha-, 'having great chariots'
- sūrya·tejás-, 'sun's brightness' ⇒ sū́rya·tejas-, 'possessing the brightness of the sun'
A few typical examples of such compounds:[36]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| mayū́ra·roman- | peacock-plumed |
| ugrá·bāhu- | strong-shouldered |
| jīvitá·vatsa- | alive-childed: having living children[q] |
| mádhu·jihva- | honeytongue, honey-tongued: talking nicely |
| pátra·hasta- | vessel-handed: holding a vessel in the hand |
| khara-mukha- | donkey-faced |
Dvigu-bahuvrīhi
editWhen the first element of a bahuvrīhi is a numeral, the compound is called dvigu.[r] An English example would be a halfwit ('one who has half of their mind').
A few typical examples of such compounds:[38]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| éka·cakra- | one-wheeled |
| éka·pad | one-footed |
| cátur·aṅga- | four-limbed |
| saptá·jihva- | seven-tongued |
| aṣṭá·putra- | eight-sonned: having eight sons |
| náva·dvāra- | nine-doored |
| śatá·dant | hundred-toothed |
| sahásra·nāman | thousandname: having a thousand names |
Avyayībhāva (adverbial)
editAvyayībhāvas ('indeclinable') are adverbial compounds composed of an indeclinable element (an adverb, etc.) and a noun, together expressing an adverb or another indeclinable (avyaya) element.[39][40]
| Word | Meaning, resolution |
|---|---|
| adhy·ātmam | concerning the self |
| anu·ratham | behind the chariots |
| upa·rājam | near the king; kingside |
| praty·agni | towards the fire |
| prati·niśam | every night |
| yathā·śakti | per-strength: according to one's ability |
| sa·cakram | simultaneously with the wheel |
| antar·jalam | inter-water: within the water |
See also
editNotes
edit- ^ "In Vedic, noun compounds are hardly more frequent than in Homeric Greek, but their frequency increases throughout the history of the language.. in the later language the occurrence in a single short sentence of several compounds of four or five members is perfectly normal, and in certain styles compounds of twenty or more members are not thought excessive" - Coulson [1]
- ^ This process suggests the possibility of an early stage of Proto-Indo-European where words could appear in a sentence without case terminations.
- ^ a particular species, not just any bird that is black
- ^ the specific presidential residence, not just any house that is white
- ^ that is, not a head
- ^ that is, not a pocket
- ^ samāsa·vṛtti
- ^ accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive, or locative
- ^ The word tatpuruṣa (a 'that-man', in the sense of 'that person's man', i.e., 'someone's agent') is itself a tatpuruṣa compound.
- ^ The word dvi·gu itself is an example of dvigu: lit. 'two-cow', used in the sense of 'worth two cows'.
- ^ called a bound form
- ^ enumerative dvandva
- ^ one-(stem)-remains
- ^ compare Spanish padres ⇒ 'parents'
- ^ 'much-riced', i.e., a rich person
- ^ To illustrate the importance of correct accentuation, the grammarian Patañjali (living around 150 BCE) is said to have cited the story of Vṛtra, who on account of the wrong accent used on this compound ends up instead of being Indra's killer, himself killed by Indra![35]
- ^ Indeed in later Sanskrit, the tendency to use compounds instead of verb-based clauses is so strong, in a classical drama, to express gratitude for having children who are alive, one would say the equivalent of 'thank heaven, I'm alive-childed': diṣṭyā, jīvita·vats'âsmi [37]
- ^ An example will be the word dvigu itself, which as a bahuvrīhi means '[a] two-cow [person]'; i.e., one who has two cows (dvau gāvau).
References
edit- ^ Coulson, p. xxii.
- ^ Coulson, p. xxi.
- ^ a b c Burrow, p. 209.
- ^ Whitney, §1246.
- ^ Kale, §180
- ^ Kale, §184.
- ^ a b Adams, p. 35.
- ^ Meyer, p. 179.
- ^ Fortson, §6.82.
- ^ a b Kale, §201.
- ^ a b c Coulson, pp. 87.
- ^ Kale, §200.
- ^ Kale, §203.
- ^ Whitney, §1279.
- ^ Tubb & Boose, §1.54.
- ^ Tubb & Boose, §1.56.
- ^ Whitney, §1312.
- ^ Whitney, §1288.
- ^ Tubb & Boose, §1.58.
- ^ Tubb & Boose, §1.59.
- ^ Whitney, §1286.
- ^ Kale, §208, 215
- ^ Kale, §206.
- ^ Kale, §215.
- ^ Whitney, §361.
- ^ Kale, §217.
- ^ Kale, §187.
- ^ Burrow, p. 217.
- ^ Whitney, §1253.
- ^ Kale, §188-189.
- ^ Tubb & Boose, §173-174.
- ^ Whitney, §1260.
- ^ Whitney, §1293.
- ^ Kale, §246.
- ^ Deshpande, p. 24.
- ^ Burrow, p. 215.
- ^ Coulson, p. 122.
- ^ Whitney, §1300.
- ^ Whitney, §1313.
- ^ Tubb & Boose, §1.48.
Bibliography
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- Fortson, Benjamin W (2010). Indo-European Language and Culture (2010 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-8895-1.
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