View source for Dysprosium

{{infobox dysprosium}}
'''Dysprosium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Dy''' and [[atomic number]] 66. It is a [[rare-earth element]] in the [[lanthanide series]] with a metallic silver luster. Dysprosium is never found in nature as a free element, though, like other lanthanides, it is found in various minerals, such as [[xenotime]]. Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven [[isotope]]s, the most [[isotopic abundance|abundant]] of which is <sup>164</sup>Dy.

Dysprosium was first identified in 1886 by [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]], but it was not isolated in pure form until the development of [[ion-exchange]] techniques in the 1950s. Dysprosium has relatively few applications where it cannot be replaced by other chemical elements. It is used for its high thermal neutron absorption cross-section in making [[control rod]]s in [[nuclear reactor]]s, for its high [[magnetic susceptibility]] ({{nowrap|χ{{sub|''v''}} ≈ {{val|5.44|e=-3}}}}) in data-storage applications, and as a component of [[Terfenol-D]] (a [[magnetostrictive]] material). Soluble dysprosium salts are mildly toxic, while the insoluble salts are considered non-toxic.

==Characteristics==

===Physical properties===
[[Image:Dysprosium.jpg|thumb|upright=0.4|left|Dysprosium sample]]
Dysprosium is a [[rare-earth element]] and has a metallic, bright silver luster. It is quite soft and can be machined without sparking if overheating is avoided. Dysprosium's physical characteristics can be greatly affected by even small amounts of impurities.<ref name="CRC">{{Cite book |editor = Lide, David R. |chapter = Dysprosium |year = 2007–2008 |title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics |volume = 4 |pages = 11 |location = New York |publisher = CRC Press |isbn = 978-0-8493-0488-0}}</ref>

Dysprosium and [[holmium]] have the highest magnetic strengths of the elements,<ref name="nbb" /> especially at low temperatures.<ref name="krebs" /> Dysprosium has a simple [[ferromagnetic]] ordering at temperatures below its [[Curie temperature]] of {{convert|90.5|K|C}}, at which point it undergoes a first-order phase transition from the [[Orthorhombic crystal system|orthorhombic crystal structure]] to [[hexagonal close-packed]] (hcp).<ref name="Arblaster 2018" /><!--Citation is defined in infobox: {{cite book |last=Arblaster |first= John W. |title=Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements |publisher=ASM International |publication-place=Materials Park, Ohio |date=2018 |isbn=978-1-62708-155-9}}--> It then has a [[Helimagnetism|helical antiferromagnetic]] state, in which all of the atomic magnetic moments in a particular [[basal plane]] layer are parallel and oriented at a fixed angle to the moments of adjacent layers. This unusual antiferromagnetism transforms into a disordered ([[paramagnetic]]) state at {{convert|179|K|C}}.<ref>{{cite journal |journal = IRM Quarterly |year = 2000 |volume = 10 |issue = 3 |page = 6 |author = Jackson, Mike |url = http://www.irm.umn.edu/quarterly/irmq10-3.pdf |title = Wherefore Gadolinium? Magnetism of the Rare Earths |access-date = 2009-05-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170712151422/http://www.irm.umn.edu/quarterly/irmq10-3.pdf |archive-date = 2017-07-12 |url-status = dead}}</ref> It transforms from the hcp phase to the [[body-centered cubic]] phase at {{convert|1654|K|C}}.<ref name="Arblaster 2018" />

===Chemical properties===
Dysprosium metal retains its luster in dry air but it will tarnish slowly in moist air, and it burns readily to form [[dysprosium(III) oxide]]:
:4 Dy + 3 O<sub>2</sub> → 2 Dy<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>

Dysprosium is quite electropositive and reacts slowly with cold water (and quickly with hot water) to form [[dysprosium hydroxide]]:
:2 Dy (s) + 6 H<sub>2</sub>O (l) → 2 Dy(OH)<sub>3</sub> (aq) + 3 H<sub>2</sub> (g)

Dysprosium hydroxide decomposes to form DyO(OH) at elevated temperatures, which then decomposes again to dysprosium(III) oxide.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092583881202052X|doi=10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.11.068|pages=333–337|title=Controlled synthesis and characterization of large-scale, uniform sheet-shaped dysprosium hydroxide nanosquares by hydrothermal method|volume=553|journal=Journal of Alloys and Compounds|date=March 2013|issn=0925-8388|access-date=2018-06-13|author=Junyang Jin, Yaru Ni, Wenjuan Huang, Chunhua Lu, Zhongzi Xu}}</ref>

Dysprosium metal vigorously reacts with all the halogens at above 200&nbsp;°C:{{citation needed|date=July 2022}}
:2 Dy (s) + 3 F<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyF<sub>3</sub> (s) [green]
:2 Dy (s) + 3 Cl<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyCl<sub>3</sub> (s) [white]
:2 Dy (s) + 3 Br<sub>2</sub> (l) → 2 DyBr<sub>3</sub> (s) [white]
:2 Dy (s) + 3 I<sub>2</sub> (g) → 2 DyI<sub>3</sub> (s) [green]

Dysprosium dissolves readily in dilute [[sulfuric acid]] to form solutions containing the yellow Dy(III) ions, which exist as a [Dy(OH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>9</sub>]<sup>3+</sup> complex:<ref>{{cite web| url =https://www.webelements.com/dysprosium/chemistry.html| title =Chemical reactions of Dysprosium| publisher=Webelements| access-date=2012-08-16}}</ref>

:2 Dy (s) + 3 H<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub> (aq) → 2 Dy<sup>3+</sup> (aq) + 3 {{chem|SO|4|2-}} (aq) + 3 H<sub>2</sub> (g)

The resulting compound, dysprosium(III) sulfate, is noticeably paramagnetic.

===Compounds===
[[File:Dysprosium-sulfate.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Dysprosium sulfate, Dy<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>]]
{{See also|:Category:Dysprosium compounds|l1=Dysprosium compounds}}
Dysprosium halides, such as DyF<sub>3</sub> and DyBr<sub>3</sub>, tend to take on a yellow color. [[Dysprosium(III) oxide|Dysprosium oxide]], also known as dysprosia, is a white powder that is highly [[magnetic]], more so than iron oxide.<ref name="krebs" />

Dysprosium combines with various non-metals at high temperatures to form binary compounds with varying composition and oxidation states +3 and sometimes +2, such as DyN, DyP, DyH<sub>2</sub> and DyH<sub>3</sub>; DyS, DyS<sub>2</sub>, Dy<sub>2</sub>S<sub>3</sub> and Dy<sub>5</sub>S<sub>7</sub>; DyB<sub>2</sub>, DyB<sub>4</sub>, DyB<sub>6</sub> and DyB<sub>12</sub>, as well as Dy<sub>3</sub>C and Dy<sub>2</sub>C<sub>3</sub>.<ref name="patnaik" />

Dysprosium carbonate, Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, and dysprosium sulfate, Dy<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, result from similar reactions.<ref name="heiserman" /> Most dysprosium compounds are soluble in water, though dysprosium carbonate tetrahydrate (Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O) and dysprosium oxalate decahydrate (Dy<sub>2</sub>(C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·10H<sub>2</sub>O) are both insoluble in water.<ref name="perry">{{cite book |title = Handbook of Inorganic Compounds |author=Perry, D. L. |pages = 152–154|year = 1995|isbn = 978-0-8493-8671-8|publisher = CRC Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title = Zur Kenntnis der Verbindungen des Dysprosiums|pages = 1274–1280|first1 = G.|last1 = Jantsch|doi = 10.1002/cber.19110440215|journal = Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft|volume = 44|issue = 2|year = 1911|last2 = Ohl|first2 = A.|url = https://zenodo.org/record/1426439}}</ref> Two of the most abundant dysprosium carbonates, Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·2–3H<sub>2</sub>O (similar to the mineral tengerite-(Y)), and DyCO<sub>3</sub>(OH) (similar to minerals kozoite-(La) and kozoite-(Nd)), are known to form via a poorly ordered (amorphous) precursor phase with a formula of Dy<sub>2</sub>(CO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>·4H<sub>2</sub>O. This amorphous precursor consists of highly hydrated spherical [[nanoparticle]]s of 10–20&nbsp;nm diameter that are exceptionally stable under dry treatment at ambient and high temperatures.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Vallina, B., Rodriguez-Blanco, J.D., Brown, A.P., Blanco, J.A. and Benning, L.G.|year=2013|title=Amorphous dysprosium carbonate: characterization, stability and crystallization pathways|journal=Journal of Nanoparticle Research|volume=15|issue=2|pages=1438|bibcode=2013JNR....15.1438V|citeseerx=10.1.1.705.3019|doi=10.1007/s11051-013-1438-3|s2cid=95924050}}</ref>

Dysprosium forms several [[intermetallic]]s, including the [[dysprosium stannides]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Okamoto |first=H. |date=2005-04-01 |title=Dy-Sn (Dysprosium-Tin) |url=http://www.ingentaselect.com/rpsv/cgi-bin/cgi?ini=xref&body=linker&reqdoi=10.1361/15477030523247 |journal=Journal of Phase Equilibria & Diffusion |language=en |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=200–202 |doi=10.1361/15477030523247}}</ref>

===Isotopes===
{{main|Isotopes of dysprosium}}
Naturally occurring dysprosium is composed of seven [[isotope]]s: <sup>156</sup>Dy, <sup>158</sup>Dy, <sup>160</sup>Dy, <sup>161</sup>Dy, <sup>162</sup>Dy, <sup>163</sup>Dy, and <sup>164</sup>Dy. These are all considered stable, although only the last two are theoretically stable: the others can theoretically undergo alpha decay. Of the naturally occurring isotopes, <sup>164</sup>Dy is the most [[natural abundance|abundant]] at 28%, followed by <sup>162</sup>Dy at 26%. The least abundant is <sup>156</sup>Dy at 0.06%.{{NUBASE2016|ref}} Dysprosium is the heaviest element to have isotopes that are predicted to be stable rather than [[observationally stable]] isotopes that are predicted to be radioactive.

Twenty-nine [[radioisotopes]] have been synthesized, ranging in atomic mass from 138 to 173. The most stable of these is <sup>154</sup>Dy, with a [[half-life]] of approximately 3{{e|6}}&nbsp;years, followed by <sup>159</sup>Dy with a half-life of 144.4&nbsp;days. The least stable is <sup>138</sup>Dy, with a half-life of 200&nbsp;ms. As a general rule, isotopes that are lighter than the stable isotopes tend to decay primarily by β<sup>+</sup> decay, while those that are heavier tend to decay by [[Beta decay#β− decay|β<sup>−</sup> decay]]. However, <sup>154</sup>Dy decays primarily by alpha decay, and <sup>152</sup>Dy and <sup>159</sup>Dy decay primarily by [[electron capture]].{{NUBASE2016|name}} Dysprosium also has at least 11 [[metastable isomer]]s, ranging in atomic mass from 140 to 165. The most stable of these is <sup>165m</sup>Dy, which has a half-life of 1.257&nbsp;minutes. <sup>149</sup>Dy has two metastable isomers, the second of which, <sup>149m2</sup>Dy, has a half-life of 28&nbsp;ns.{{NUBASE2016|name}}

==History==
In 1878, [[erbium]] ores were found to contain the oxides of [[holmium]] and [[thulium]]. French chemist [[Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran]], while working with [[holmium oxide]], separated dysprosium oxide from it in [[Paris]] in 1886.<ref name="DeKosky">{{cite journal|title = Spectroscopy and the Elements in the Late Nineteenth Century: The Work of Sir William Crookes|first = Robert K.|last = DeKosky|journal = The British Journal for the History of Science|volume = 6|issue = 4|date = 1973|pages = 400–423|jstor = 4025503|doi = 10.1017/S0007087400012553|s2cid = 146534210}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|journal = Comptes Rendus|volume = 143|pages = 1003–1006|url = http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3058f/f1001.chemindefer|title = L'holmine (ou terre X de M Soret) contient au moins deux radicaux métallique (Holminia contains at least two metal)|language = fr|year = 1886|author = de Boisbaudran, Paul Émile Lecoq}}</ref> His procedure for isolating the dysprosium involved dissolving dysprosium oxide in acid, then adding ammonia to precipitate the hydroxide. He was only able to isolate dysprosium from its oxide after more than 30 attempts at his procedure. On succeeding, he named the element ''dysprosium'' from the Greek ''dysprositos'' (δυσπρόσιτος), meaning "hard to get". The element was not isolated in relatively pure form until after the development of ion exchange techniques by [[Frank Spedding]] at [[Iowa State University]] in the early 1950s.<ref name="nbb">{{cite book|last = Emsley| first = John| title = Nature's Building Blocks| publisher = Oxford University Press| year = 2001| location = Oxford|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC&pg=PA131|pages = 129–132| isbn = 978-0-19-850341-5}}</ref><ref name="Weeks">{{cite book |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |title=The discovery of the elements |date=1956 |publisher=Journal of Chemical Education |location=Easton, PA |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryoftheel002045mbp |edition=6th }}</ref>

Due to its role in permanent magnets used for wind turbines, it has been argued{{By whom|date=August 2021}} that dysprosium will be one of the main objects of geopolitical competition in a world running on renewable energy. But this perspective has been criticised for failing to recognise that most wind turbines do not use permanent magnets and for underestimating the power of economic incentives for expanded production.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Overland|first=Indra|date=2019-03-01|title=The geopolitics of renewable energy: Debunking four emerging myths|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|volume=49|pages=36–40|doi=10.1016/j.erss.2018.10.018|issn=2214-6296|doi-access=free|bibcode=2019ERSS...49...36O |hdl=11250/2579292|hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Klinger">{{cite book |last1=Klinger |first1=Julie Michelle |title=Rare earth frontiers : from terrestrial subsoils to lunar landscapes |date=2017 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=978-1501714603 |jstor=10.7591/j.ctt1w0dd6d }}</ref>

In 2021, Dy was turned into a 2-dimensional [[supersolid]] quantum gas.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Norcia|first1=Matthew A.|last2=Politi|first2=Claudia|last3=Klaus|first3=Lauritz|last4=Poli|first4=Elena|last5=Sohmen|first5=Maximilian|last6=Mark|first6=Manfred J.|last7=Bisset|first7=Russell N.|last8=Santos|first8=Luis|last9=Ferlaino|first9=Francesca|date=August 2021|title=Two-dimensional supersolidity in a dipolar quantum gas|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03725-7|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=596|issue=7872|pages=357–361|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03725-7|pmid=34408330|arxiv=2102.05555|bibcode=2021Natur.596..357N|s2cid=231861397|issn=1476-4687}}</ref>

==Occurrence==
[[Image:Xenotímio1.jpeg|thumb|Xenotime]]
While dysprosium is never encountered as a free element, it is found in many [[mineral]]s, including [[xenotime]], [[fergusonite]], [[gadolinite]], [[euxenite]], [[polycrase]], [[blomstrandine]], [[monazite]] and [[bastnäsite]], often with [[erbium]] and [[holmium]] or other rare earth elements. No dysprosium-dominant mineral (that is, with dysprosium prevailing over other rare earths in the composition) has yet been found.<ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.mindat.org/ |title=Mindat.org |author=Hudson Institute of Mineralogy |date=1993–2018 |website=www.mindat.org |access-date=14 January 2018}}</ref>

In the high-[[yttrium]] version of these, dysprosium happens to be the most abundant of the heavy [[lanthanide]]s, comprising up to 7–8% of the concentrate (as compared to about 65% for yttrium).<ref>{{cite journal|journal = Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals|year = 2008|volume = 49|issue = 1|pages = 14–22|title = Review of the World Market of Rare-Earth Metals|first = A. V.|last = Naumov|url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227326809|doi=10.1007/s11981-008-1004-6| s2cid=135730387 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title = Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths|first = C. K.|last = Gupta|author2=Krishnamurthy N.|publisher = CRC Press|year = 2005|isbn = 978-0-415-33340-5|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=F0Bte_XhzoAC}}</ref> The concentration of Dy in the Earth's crust is about 5.2&nbsp;mg/kg and in sea water 0.9&nbsp;ng/L.<ref name="patnaik">{{cite book|last =Patnaik|first =Pradyot|year = 2003|title =Handbook of Inorganic Chemical Compounds|publisher = McGraw-Hill|pages = 289–290| isbn =978-0-07-049439-8|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Xqj-TTzkvTEC&pg=PA243|access-date = 2009-06-06}}</ref>

==Production==
Dysprosium is obtained primarily from [[monazite]] sand, a mixture of various [[phosphate]]s. The metal is obtained as a by-product in the commercial extraction of yttrium. In isolating dysprosium, most of the unwanted metals can be removed magnetically or by a [[flotation process]]. Dysprosium can then be separated from other rare earth metals by an [[ion exchange]] displacement process. The resulting dysprosium ions can then react with either [[fluorine]] or [[chlorine]] to form dysprosium fluoride, DyF<sub>3</sub>, or dysprosium chloride, DyCl<sub>3</sub>. These compounds can be reduced using either calcium or lithium metals in the following reactions:<ref name="heiserman">{{cite book|title = Exploring Chemical Elements and their Compounds|author = Heiserman, David L.|pages = [https://archive.org/details/exploringchemica01heis/page/236 236]–238|publisher = TAB Books|isbn = 978-0-8306-3018-9|year = 1992|url = https://archive.org/details/exploringchemica01heis|url-access = registration}}</ref>

:3 Ca + 2 DyF<sub>3</sub> → 2 Dy + 3 CaF<sub>2</sub>
:3 Li + DyCl<sub>3</sub> → Dy + 3 LiCl

The components are placed in a [[tantalum]] crucible and fired in a [[helium]] atmosphere. As the reaction progresses, the resulting halide compounds and molten dysprosium separate due to differences in density. When the mixture cools, the dysprosium can be cut away from the impurities.<ref name="heiserman" />

About 100 tonnes of dysprosium are produced worldwide each year,<ref>{{cite web|title=Dysprosium (Dy) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects|url=http://www.lenntech.com/Periodic-chart-elements/Dy-en.htm|publisher=Lenntech Water treatment & air purification Holding B.V.|year=2008|access-date=2009-06-02}}</ref> with 99% of that total produced in China.<ref name="Bradsher, Keith">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/30/business/global/30smuggle.html?pagewanted=2&_r=1&emc=eta1 |title=In China, Illegal Rare Earth Mines Face Crackdown |author=Bradsher, Keith |newspaper=The New York Times |date=December 29, 2010}}</ref> Dysprosium prices have climbed nearly twentyfold, from $7 per pound in 2003, to $130 a pound in late 2010.<ref name="Bradsher, Keith" /> The price increased to $1,400/kg in 2011 but fell to $240 in 2015, largely due to illegal production in China which circumvented government restrictions.<ref>[http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2016-raree.pdf Rare Earths] [https://web.archive.org/web/20160506184123/http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rare_earths/mcs-2016-raree.pdf archive]. ''[[United States Geological Survey]]''. January 2016</ref>

Currently, most dysprosium is being obtained from the ion-adsorption clay ores of southern China.<ref name="China rare">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/26/business/global/26rare.html |title=Earth-Friendly Elements, Mined Destructively |newspaper=The New York Times |last=Bradsher |first=Keith |date=December 25, 2009}}</ref> {{As of|2018|November}} the Browns Range Project pilot plant, 160&nbsp;km south east of [[Halls Creek, Western Australia]], is producing {{convert|50|t|LT}} per annum.<ref name="abc-net-au2018-11-30-rare-earth">{{cite web
 | url =https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2018-11-30/rare-earth-mineral-find-to-boost-electric-vehicle-sector/10562460
 | title =Rare earth mineral discovery set to make Australia a major player in electric vehicle supply chain
 | last =Major
 | first =Tom
 | date =30 November 2018
 | website =ABC News
 | publisher =Australian Broadcasting Corporation
 | access-date =30 November 2018
 }}</ref><ref name="Australia rare">{{cite news|url=http://www.abc.net.au/rural/content/2011/s3377547.htm |title=Halls Creek turning into a hub for rare earths |last=Brann |first=Matt |date=November 27, 2011}}</ref>

According to the [[United States Department of Energy]], the wide range of its current and projected uses, together with the lack of any immediately suitable replacement, makes dysprosium the single most critical element for emerging clean energy technologies; even their most conservative projections predicted a shortfall of dysprosium before 2015.<ref>New Scientist, 18 June 2011, p. 40</ref> As of late 2015, there is a nascent rare earth (including dysprosium) extraction industry in Australia.<ref>Jasper, Clint (2015-09-22) [http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-09-22/rare-earth-miners-face-tough-market/6786970 Staring down a multitude of challenges, these Australian rare earth miners are confident they can break into the market]. abc.net.au</ref>

==Applications==
Dysprosium is used, in conjunction with [[vanadium]] and other elements, in making [[laser]] materials and commercial lighting. Because of dysprosium's high [[thermal neutron|thermal-neutron]] absorption cross-section, dysprosium-oxide–nickel [[cermet]]s are used in neutron-absorbing [[control rod]]s in [[nuclear reactor]]s.<ref name="nbb" /><ref>{{cite journal |title= Development of Dysprosium Titanate Based Ceramics |first1 = Sinha |last1 = Amit |journal = Journal of the American Ceramic Society |volume = 88 |issue = 4 |year = 2005 |pages = 1064–1066 |doi = 10.1111/j.1551-2916.2005.00211.x |last2= Sharma |first2= Beant Prakash}}</ref> Dysprosium–[[cadmium]] [[chalcogen]]ides are sources of [[infrared]] radiation, which is useful for studying chemical reactions.<ref name="CRC" /> Because dysprosium and its compounds are highly susceptible to magnetization, they are employed in various data-storage applications, such as in [[hard disk drive|hard disks]].<ref name="lagowski">{{cite book |title = Chemistry Foundations and Applications |volume = 2 |editor = Lagowski, J. J. |pages = [https://archive.org/details/chemistryfoundat0000unse/page/267 267–268] |year = 2004 |isbn = 978-0-02-865724-0 |publisher = Thomson Gale |url = https://archive.org/details/chemistryfoundat0000unse/page/267}}</ref> Dysprosium is increasingly in demand for the permanent magnets used in electric-car motors and wind-turbine generators.<ref name="MIT-TechRev">{{cite web |last1=Bourzac |first1=Katherine |title=The Rare Earth Crisis |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/423730/the-rare-earth-crisis/ |publisher=MIT Technology Review |date=19 April 2011 |access-date=18 June 2016}}</ref>

[[Neodymium]]–iron–boron [[Neodymium magnet|magnets]] can have up to 6% of the neodymium substituted by dysprosium<ref>{{cite journal |journal = IEEE Transactions on Magnetics |title = Modeling of magnetic properties of heat treated Dy-doped NdFeB particles bonded in isotropic and anisotropic arrangements |last1 = Shi |first1 = Fang, X. |year = 1998 |volume = 34 |issue = 4 |pages = 1291–1293 |doi = 10.1109/20.706525 |last2 = Shi |first2 = Y. |last3 = Jiles |first3 = D. C. |bibcode = 1998ITM....34.1291F |url = https://zenodo.org/record/1232140 |type = Submitted manuscript}}</ref> to raise the [[coercivity]] for demanding applications, such as drive motors for electric vehicles and generators for wind turbines. This substitution would require up to 100&nbsp;grams of dysprosium per electric car produced. Based on [[Toyota]]'s projected 2&nbsp;million units per year, the use of dysprosium in applications such as this would quickly exhaust its available supply.<ref>{{cite web |title=Supply and Demand, Part 2 |first=Peter |last=Campbell |publisher=Princeton Electro-Technology, Inc. |date=February 2008 |url=http://www.magnetweb.com/Col05.htm |access-date =2008-11-09 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080604005700/http://www.magnetweb.com/Col05.htm |archive-date = June 4, 2008 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The dysprosium substitution may also be useful in other applications because it improves the corrosion resistance of the magnets.<ref>{{cite journal |journal = Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials |volume = 283 |issue = 2–3 |year = 2004 |pages =353–356 |doi = 10.1016/j.jmmm.2004.06.006 |title = Effects of Dy and Nb on the magnetic properties and corrosion resistance of sintered NdFeB |first1 = L. Q. |last1 = Yu |last2 = Wen |first2 = Y. |last3 = Yan |first3 = M. |bibcode = 2004JMMM..283..353Y }}</ref>

Dysprosium is one of the components of [[Terfenol-D]], along with iron and terbium. Terfenol-D has the highest room-temperature [[magnetostriction]] of any known material,<ref name="etrema">{{cite web |title=What is Terfenol-D? |url=http://etrema-usa.com/core/terfenold/ |publisher=ETREMA Products, Inc. |year=2003 |access-date=2008-11-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510114041/http://etrema-usa.com/core/terfenold/ |archive-date=2015-05-10 }}</ref> which is employed in [[transducer]]s, wide-band [[Resonator#Mechanical|mechanical resonators]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Wide Band Tunable Mechanical Resonator Employing the Δ''E'' Effect of Terfenol-D |author=Kellogg, Rick |journal = Journal of Intelligent Material Systems & Structures |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=355–368 |date=May 2004 |doi=10.1177/1045389X04040649 |last2=Flatau |first2=Alison|author2-link=Alison Flatau|s2cid=110609960 }}</ref> and high-precision liquid-fuel injectors.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Take Terfenol-D and call me |author = Leavitt, Wendy |journal = Fleet Owner |volume = 95 |issue = 2 |pages =97 |date = February 2000 |url=http://fleetowner.com/mag/fleet_terfenold_call |access-date = 2008-11-06}}</ref>

Dysprosium is used in [[dosimeter]]s for measuring [[ionizing radiation]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stanfordmaterials.com/blog/dysprosium-properties-and-applications.html |title=Dysprosium: Properties and Applications |last=Loewen |first=Eric |website=Standford Advanced Materials |access-date=Sep 15, 2024}}</ref> Crystals of [[calcium sulfate]] or [[calcium fluoride]] are doped with dysprosium. When these crystals are exposed to radiation, the dysprosium atoms become [[excited state|excited]] and [[luminescent]]. The luminescence can be measured to determine the degree of exposure to which the dosimeter has been subjected.<ref name="nbb" />

Nanofibers of dysprosium compounds have high strength and a large surface area. Therefore, they can be used to reinforce other materials and act as a catalyst. Fibers of dysprosium oxide fluoride can be produced by heating an aqueous solution of DyBr<sub>3</sub> and NaF to 450&nbsp;°C at 450&nbsp;[[bar (unit)|bars]] for 17&nbsp;hours. This material is remarkably robust, surviving over 100&nbsp;hours in various aqueous solutions at temperatures exceeding 400&nbsp;°C without redissolving or aggregating.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pnl.gov/supercriticalfluid/tech_oxidation.stm |title=Supercritical Water Oxidation/Synthesis |publisher=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |access-date=2009-06-06 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080420144601/http://www.pnl.gov/supercriticalfluid/tech_oxidation.stm |archive-date = 2008-04-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://availabletechnologies.pnl.gov/technology.asp?id=152 |title=Rare Earth Oxide Fluoride: Ceramic Nano-particles via a Hydrothermal Method |publisher=Pacific Northwest National Laboratory |access-date=2009-06-06 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527103533/http://availabletechnologies.pnl.gov/technology.asp?id=152 |archive-date=2010-05-27}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Unusual dysprosium ceramic nano-fiber growth in a supercritical aqueous solution |author1=Hoffman, M. M. |author2=Young, J. S. |author3=Fulton, J. L. |journal= J. Mater. Sci. |volume =35 |year =2000 |page = 4177 |doi=10.1023/A:1004875413406 |issue=16 |bibcode = 2000JMatS..35.4177H |s2cid=55710942 }}</ref> Additionally, dysprosium has been used to create a two dimensional [[supersolid]] in a laboratory environment. Supersolids are expected to exhibit unusual properties, including superfluidity.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.livescience.com/first-2d-supersolid.html | title=Physicists give weird new phase of matter an extra dimension | publisher=Live Science |date=18 August 2021 |access-date=18 August 2021 }}</ref>

Dysprosium iodide and dysprosium bromide are used in high-intensity [[metal-halide lamp]]s. These compounds dissociate near the hot center of the lamp, releasing isolated dysprosium atoms. The latter re-emit light in the green and red part of the spectrum, thereby effectively producing bright light.<ref name="nbb" /><ref name="gray">{{cite book |title = The Elements |author = Gray, Theodore |pages = [https://archive.org/details/elementsvisualex0000gray/page/152 152–153] |year = 2009 |isbn = 978-1-57912-814-2 |publisher = Black Dog and Leventhal Publishers |url = https://archive.org/details/elementsvisualex0000gray/page/152}}</ref>

Several paramagnetic crystal salts of dysprosium (dysprosium gallium garnet, DGG; dysprosium aluminium garnet, DAG; dysprosium iron garnet, DyIG) are used in [[Magnetic refrigeration|adiabatic demagnetization refrigerators]].<ref>Milward, Steve et al. (2004). [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/cryogenics/documents/5LH01.pdf "Design, Manufacture and Test of an Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator Magnet for use in Space"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215527/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/cryogenics/documents/5LH01.pdf |date=2013-10-04 }}. University College London.</ref><ref>Hepburn, Ian. [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/cryogenics/documents/ADR_presentation__Compatibility_Mode_.pdf "Adiabatic Demagnetization Refrigerator: A Practical Point of View"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004212731/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/mssl/cryogenics/documents/ADR_presentation__Compatibility_Mode_.pdf |date=2013-10-04 }}. Cryogenic Physics Group, Mullard Space Science Laboratory, University College London.</ref>

The trivalent dysprosium ion (Dy<sup>3+</sup>) has been studied due to its downshifting luminescence properties. Dy-doped [[yttrium aluminium garnet]] ([[Yttrium aluminium garnet#Dy:YAG|Dy:YAG]]) excited in the ultraviolet region of the electromagnetic spectrum results in the emission of photons of longer wavelength in the visible region. This idea is the basis for a new generation of UV-pumped white light-emitting diodes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carreira |first1=J. F. C. |title=YAG:Dy – Based single white light emitting phosphor produced by solution combustion synthesis |journal=Journal of Luminescence |date=2017 |volume=183 |pages=251–258 |doi=10.1016/j.jlumin.2016.11.017 |bibcode=2017JLum..183..251C}}</ref>

The stable isotopes of dysprosium have been [[laser cooled]] and confined in [[magneto-optical trap]]s<ref name = DyMOT>{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=M.|last2=Youn|first2=S.-H.|last3=Lev|first3=B.|date=2010|title=Trapping Ultracold Dysprosium: A Highly Magnetic Gas for Dipolar Physics|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=104|issue=6 |pages=063001| doi=10.1103/physrevlett.104.063001  |pmid=20366817 |arxiv=0912.0050 |bibcode=2010PhRvL.104f3001L |s2cid=7614035 }}</ref> for [[quantum physics]] experiments.  The first Bose and Fermi [[Bose–Einstein condensate|quantum degenerate gases]] of an [[electron configuration|open shell]] lanthanide were created with dysprosium.<ref name = DyBec>{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=M.|last2=Burdick|first2=N.|last3=Youn|first3=S.-H.|last4=Lev|first4=B.|date=2011|title=Strongly Dipolar Bose–Einstein Condensate of Dysprosium|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=107|issue=19 |pages=190401 | doi=10.1103/physrevlett.107.190401  |pmid=22181585 |arxiv=1108.5993 |bibcode=2011PhRvL.107s0401L |s2cid=21945255 }}</ref><ref name = DyFermi>{{Cite journal|last1=Lu|first1=M.|last2=Burdick|first2=N.|last3=Lev|first3=B.|date=2012|title=Quantum Degenerate Dipolar Fermi Gas|journal=Physical Review Letters|volume=108|issue=21 |pages=215301 | doi=10.1103/physrevlett.108.215301  |pmid=23003275 |arxiv=1202.4444 |bibcode=2012PhRvL.108u5301L |s2cid=15650840 }}</ref>  Because dysprosium is highly magnetic—indeed it is the most magnetic [[fermion]]ic element and nearly tied with terbium for most magnetic [[boson]]ic atom<ref name=NIST>{{cite journal | last1=Martin | first1=W C | last2=Zalubas | first2=R | last3=Hagan | first3=L | title=Atomic energy levels - the rare earth elements.| website=OSTI.GOV | date=January 1978 | osti=6507735 | url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/6507735 | access-date=2023-03-11}}</ref>—such gases serve as the basis for [[quantum simulation]] with strongly [[dipole|dipolar]] atoms.<ref name = DipolarRev>{{Cite journal|last1=Chomaz|first1=L.|last2=Ferrier-Barbut|first2=I.|last3=Ferlaino|first3=F.|last4=Laburthe-Tolra|first4=B.|last5=Lev|first5=B.|last6=Pfau|first6=T.|date=2022|title=Dipolar physics: a review of experiments with magnetic quantum gases|journal=Rep. Prog. Phys.|volume=86|issue=2 |page=026401 | doi=10.1088/1361-6633/aca814|pmid=36583342 |arxiv=2201.02672 |s2cid=245837061 }}</ref>

Due to its strong magnetic properties, Dysprosium alloys are used in the marine industry's sound navigation and ranging ([[SONAR]]) system.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.stanfordmaterials.com/blog/lanthanide.html |title=What Are the Lanthanide Series? |last=Lowen |first=Eric |website=Stanford Advanced Materials |access-date=Aug 2, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |title=Department of Defense Appropriation Bill, 1999 |year=1998 |author=United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Appropriations |publisher=U.S. Government Publishing Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xf3KgwmoXbwC&q=Department+of+Defense+Appropriation+Bill,+1999 |page=111 |access-date=Aug 2, 2024}}</ref> The inclusion of dysprosium alloys in the design of [[SONAR]] [[transducers]] and receivers can improve sensitivity and accuracy by providing more stable and efficient magnetic fields.<ref>{{cite book |author=Charles Sherman, John Butler |year=2007 |title=Transducers and Arrays for Underwater Sound |publisher=Springer New York |page=46 |chapter=Chapter 2 - Electroacoustic Transduction |isbn=9780387331393}}</ref>

==Precautions==
Like many powders, dysprosium powder may present an explosion hazard when mixed with air and when an ignition source is present. Thin foils of the substance can also be ignited by sparks or by [[static electricity]]. Dysprosium fires cannot be extinguished with water. It can react with water to produce flammable [[hydrogen]] gas.<ref name="ESPI">{{cite web|title = Dysprosium|work = Material Safety Data Sheets|url = http://www.espi-metals.com/msds's/Dysprosium.htm|author = Dierks, Steve|date = January 2003|publisher = Electronic Space Products International|access-date = 2008-10-20|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150922145520/http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium.htm|archive-date = 2015-09-22}}</ref> Dysprosium chloride fires can be extinguished with water.<ref>{{cite web|title = Dysprosium Chloride|work = Material Safety Data Sheets|url = http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium%20Chloride.htm|author = Dierks, Steve|date = January 1995|publisher = Electronic Space Products International|access-date = 2008-11-07|url-status = bot: unknown|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150922145520/http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium%20Chloride.htm|archive-date = 2015-09-22}}</ref> Dysprosium fluoride and dysprosium oxide are non-flammable.<ref>{{cite web|title = Dysprosium Fluoride|work = Material Safety Data Sheets|url = http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium%20Fluoride.htm|author = Dierks, Steve|date = December 1995|publisher = Electronic Space Products International|access-date = 2008-11-07|url-status = bot: unknown|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150922145520/http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium%20Fluoride.htm|archive-date = 2015-09-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Dysprosium Oxide|work = Material Safety Data Sheets|url = http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium%20Oxide.htm|author = Dierks, Steve|date = November 1988|publisher = Electronic Space Products International|access-date = 2008-11-07|url-status = bot: unknown|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150922145520/http://www.espi-metals.com/msds%27s/Dysprosium%20Oxide.htm|archive-date = 2015-09-22}}</ref> Dysprosium nitrate, Dy(NO<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>, is a strong [[oxidizing agent]] and readily ignites on contact with organic substances.<ref name="krebs">{{cite book|title = The History and Use of our Earth's Chemical Elements|author = Krebs, Robert E.|chapter = Dysprosium|pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure00kreb/page/234 234–235]|publisher = Greenwood Press|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0-313-30123-0|chapter-url = https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure00kreb|url = https://archive.org/details/historyuseofoure00kreb/page/234}}</ref>

Soluble dysprosium salts, such as dysprosium chloride and dysprosium nitrate are mildly toxic when ingested. Based on the toxicity of dysprosium chloride to [[mice]], it is estimated that the ingestion of 500&nbsp;grams or more could be fatal to a human (c.f. [[salt poisoning|lethal dose of 300 grams of common table salt]] for a 100 kilogram human). The insoluble salts are non-toxic.<ref name="nbb" />

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Dysprosium}}
{{wiktionary|dysprosium}}
* [https://education.jlab.org/itselemental/ele066.html It's Elemental – Dysprosium]

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[[Category:Dysprosium| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure]]
[[Category:Lanthanides]]
[[Category:Energy development]]
[[Category:Ferromagnetic materials]]
[[Category:Reducing agents]]
[[Category:Renewable energy technology]]