View source for Geology of the Iberian Peninsula

{{Short description|Geology of Spain, Portugal, Andorra, and Gibraltar}} 
[[File:Geological units of the Iberian Peninsula EN.svg|thumb|300px|right|Major components of the geology of the Iberian Peninsula]]
[[File:Iberian Peninsula geological map EN.svg|thumb|300px|right|Geological map of the Iberian Peninsula]]
The '''geology of the Iberian Peninsula''' consists of the study of the rock formations on the [[Iberian Peninsula]], connected to the rest of the European landmass by the [[Pyrenees]]. The peninsula contains rocks from every geological [[period (geology)|period]] from the [[Ediacaran]] to the [[Quaternary]], and many types of rock are represented. World-class [[mineral deposit]]s are also found there.

The core of the Iberian Peninsula consists of a [[Variscan orogeny|Hercynian]] [[craton]]ic block known as the [[Hesperian Massif|Iberian Massif]]. On the northeast, this is bounded by the [[Pyrenees|Pyrenean fold belt]], and on the southeast, it is bounded by the [[Baetic Cordillera|Betic fold mountain chain]]. These two mountain chains are part of the [[Geology of the Alps|Alpine belt]]. To the west, the peninsula is delimited by the continental boundary formed by the opening of the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The Hercynian fold belt is mostly buried by [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] cover rocks to the east but nevertheless outcrops through the [[Iberian Chain]] and the [[Catalan Coastal Range]]s.<ref name=Julivert/>

==Iberian Massif==
{{Main|Hesperian Massif}}
The Iberian Massif consists of rocks from the Paleozoic Era.  It was assembled about 310 [[annum|Ma]].
Several zones occur in the Iberian Massif.  These were the pieces that were assembled to form the block. On the north coast of Spain occurs the [[Cantabria]]n Zone. Then to the west and also in the Iberian Chain and [[Catalan Coastal Ranges]] is the West Asturian-Leonese Zone.  Then the Central Iberian Zone appears near [[A Coruña]], through the north of Portugal, and through the middle of Spain, including the [[Montes de Toledo]].  The Ossa-Morena Zone outcrops out to the east of [[Lisbon]].  This includes some [[Precambrian]] rocks.  The furthest south part is the South-Portuguese Zone.<ref name=Julivert>{{cite book|author1=M. Julivert|author2=F. J. Martinez|author3=A. Ribeiro|chapter=The Iberian segment of the European Hercynian foldbelt|title=Geology of Europe from Precambrian to the post-Hercynian sedimentary basins|publisher=Bureau de Recherches Gélogiques et Minières Société Géologique du Nord|pages=132–158|date=1980}}<!-- forms the original base of the article for the basement rocks of Iberian Peninsula--></ref>

The Variscan Orogeny occurred as the European Hunic Terrane (split off from [[Gondwana]]) and [[Laurentia]]-Baltica continents collided.  In Iberia this occurred in the pre-Stephanian Carboniferous (354–305 Ma).  The external part of the orogeny was the Cantabrian Zone.  This was deformed in the upper crustal layers.  The West Asturian Leonese Zone and Central Iberian Zone are the external parts of the orogeny and are more deeply deformed and metamorphosed, and intruded.  These three zones are part of one [[terrane]].  The Ossa-Morena Zone and South Portuguese Zone are two different terranes that have become attached.  In the Mesozoic this was mostly covered with other sediments, which have since eroded.<ref name=Julivert/>

===Cantabrian Zone===
[[Image:Relieve karstico-Karst topography.jpg|thumb|300px|The Cantabrian Mountains. The peak ''Alto de Brenas'' in [[Riotuerto]] has a height of {{convert|579|m}}.]]

The Cantabrian Zone consists of Carboniferous and older Paleozoic unmetamorphosed rocks.

It is bounded on the west and south-west sides by a concave arc of Precambrian rocks called the Narcea [[Window (geology)|window]], and the Villabandin window in the Narcea [[antiform]].

The Herreria Formation from the Lower Cambrian consists of [[shale]] and feldspathic [[sandstone]] alternating, with some [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]].  These have a thickness of 1 to 1.5&nbsp;km.

The Lancara Formation consists of a couple of hundred metres of [[limestone]].  The lower part was formed in [[peritidal zone]]s in the [[Lower Cambrian]], and the upper member from the [[Middle Cambrian]] contains fossils and is red or green glauconictic and nodular limestone.

The Oville Formation from Middle to [[Upper Cambrian]] contains alternating shale and sandstone.  [[Trilobite]] fossils are common in the shale.

The Barrios Formation is [[Arenigian]] and up to {{convert|500|m|ft}} thick.  It consists of a white massive [[quartzite]].

The [[Penas]] and [[Vidrias]] area, close to the western boundary of the Cantabrian zone has a complete succession of [[Ordovician]] deposits.  Black shales from [[Llanvirnian]] times  are found in the Central Coal Basin eastern side.  But mostly in the Ordovician Period, this zone was above water and eroding.

The Formigoso Formation dates from Middle [[Llandovery Epoch|Llandovery]] time in the Silurian.  It consists of [[Monograptus]] black shales and is up to 150 m thick.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/bs.sats.2016.10.004 |title=Chemostratigraphy and Chemofacies of Source Rock Analogues |series=Stratigraphy & Timescales |date=2016 |last1=Ferriday |first1=T. |last2=Montenari |first2=M. |volume=1 |pages=123–255 |isbn=978-0-12-811549-7 }}</ref>

The San Pedro and Furada Formations are up to 300 metres thick and consists of  shale and iron bearing sandstone interbedded,  These are from [[Wenlock Group|Wenlock]] [[Ludlow]] and Lower [[Gedinian]] times.

In the Devonian Period deposition occurred on the western side, with dolomite, [[argillaceous minerals|argillaceous limestone]], [[marl]] and shale from the Raneces Complex or La Vid Formation.  It is {{convert|600|m|ft}} thick and Gedinian to Emsian in age.

The Santa Lucia Formation is of limestone. It contains coral near the Narcea Antiform in the west and has peritidal facies in the east near the Central Coal Basin.  The Huergas Formation alternates between red sandstone and shale and is of [[Couvinian]] to [[Givetian]] age.  The Portilla formation is of coralline limestone of Givetian to [[Frasnian]] age.  This is topped off by sandstone layers up to 500 m thick from the Frasnian to [[Fammenian]] age.  Devonian sediments are not found to the east of the central coal basin, and are thickest in the west.

A pelagic facies comes from the Pisuerga-Carrion province.

In [[Carboniferous]] times deposition started with black shales and cherts from the [[Tournaisian]] age, and then red limestone, red shale and radiolarites were formed in the [[Visean]] age.  Mountain Limestone is a thick black lifeless limestone of [[Serpukhovian]] age.  [[Turbidite]]s with [[olistolith]]s also appear in the Serpukhovian, indicating the first sign of the Hercynian (Variscan) tectonic events.  These first events happened in the Pisuerga-Carrion province.

Variscan compression lifted the west side, turning a sedimentary basin into a mountain range.  Over time the compressed zone moved towards the east.  In the Namurian A stage,  the Olleros formation was built from turbidites in a trough in front of the orgen, and the Barcallente formation was a carbonate platform further off shore.  In the Namurian B stage the trough was forming San Emillano Formation, and the Valdeteja Formation was offshore, but in deeper marine conditions. During Westphalian A time the trough was filled and deposits of terrestrial material formed the San Emiliano Formation and Sama Group and the Lena group being thickest in the Central Coal Basin Unit.  Further east in the Picos de Europa it remained covered in shallow water with continuous formation of a carbonate platform.

The [[Westphalian (stage)|Westphalian]] age is represented by 5000 m of the Central Coal Basin, which as the name suggests contains [[coal]].  To the east this grades into the marine carbonates of the Picos de Europa. In the Pisuerga-Carrion province, there are conglomerates composed of quartzite, turbidites with slump deposits from deeper sea water.  There are also some limestone layers with fossils.

The source of the Westphalian sediments was from the west and south.  These were the mountains of the Hercynian chain, formed at the same time as these deposits.  During the Westphalian the rocks in the Cantabrian zone were folded and overthrust.  The Paleozoic rocks broke off at the level of the Lancara Formation and were thrust over the top the upper layers forming [[nappe]]s and thrust sheets.  The Ponga Nappe Province is to the east of the Central Coal Basin,

[[Stephanian (stage)|Stephanian]] age molasse deposits overlie  the other Carboniferous rocks and are unrelated to the Hercynian (Variscan) orogeny.  Some final folding occurred at right angles to the Westphalian structures.

Further uplift occurred, and in the Stephanian period there were some land locked basins in the mountains over the west and south nappes.  But the Picos de Europa Unit was still a marine area.

In the Permian and into the Mesozoic there was extension tectonics.  The Permian Autunian succession – Viñon Formation formed when basins were created by downwards normal faulting. It is mostly limestone with layers of conglomerate, shale, gypsum and alkaline volcanics.  The Villaviciosa Formation from the [[Saxonian]] formed on an arid continent with sandstone and conglomerate. Conditions in the Triassic were very arid, and lagoons evaporated depositing gypsum and marl. During the Jurassic and Cretaceous Periods the zone was underwater, but most deposits from these time have been eroded away.

Another way to look at the zone is by its structure:
It consists of several thrust units: Somiedo-Correcilla, Sobia-Bodón,
Aramo, (the first to move in Early Westphalian) Central Coal Basin, Ponga (second to move) and Picos de Europa (last to move in Early Stephanian) and Pisuerga-Carrión Unit (or Palantine) (which went nowhere).

In the Late Stephanian the zone was bent around a vertical axis to make the current crescent shape.  This kind of bending is called an [[orocline]].

Two theories explain the Permian basin formation due to crustal extension, [[lithosphere]] delamination as solid mantle sinks from the bottom of the lithosphere, being replaced by hot [[asthenosphere]]; or a continental rift.<ref name=Julivert/>

===West Asturian Leonese Zone===
[[File:PicosDeEuropa.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Picos de Europa]] mountain range.]]
The West [[Asturias|Asturian]] [[León (province)|Leonese]] Zone lies to the west and south-west of the [[Precambrian]] rocks of the Narcea antiform, and extend east to the Precambrian rocks of the [[Ollo de Sapo]] antiform. Rocks in this zone are mostly from Cambrian and Ordovician, with few from Silurian to Carboniferous. The Cambrian and Ordovician rocks were formed in shallow water in a subsiding trough. Later deposits were formed in deeper water. They have been metamorphosed to [[greenschist]] or low grade [[amphibolite]]. Also they mostly have a slaty [[Cleavage (geology)|cleavage]].  Folds face the centre of the arc. In the west the folds are recumbent and large: [[Mondoñedo]] and [[Serra do Courel|Courel]] folds. In the east the folds are asymmetrical. The base of the Mondoñedo fold is an overthrust with the same name. Another overthrust forms the edge of this zone where it meets the Narcean Antiform. Crenulation cleavage occurs near these overthrusts.  All these structures formed between [[Lower Devonian]] and [[Stephanian (stage)|Stephanian]] B-C.

From the Cambrian Period, the [[Candana]] [[Quartzite]] is equivalent to the Herreria Formation and is 1 to 2&nbsp;km thick. The Vegadeo [[Limestone]] is equivalent to the Lancara Formation and is 0.1 to 0.2&nbsp;km thick. The Cabos Series is equivalent to the Oville and Barrios Formations and is 4&nbsp;km thick.

Black [[shale]]s, called the Luarca [[Slate]]s are [[Llanvirnian]] to [[Llandeilian]] age (middle to upper [[Ordovician]]) and are 0.5 to 1&nbsp;km thick. The Agüeira Formation consists of [[turbidite]]s of [[Caradocian]] age and is 3&nbsp;km thick. Following a [[disconformity]] the [[Silurian]] black slates are laid down 0.4&nbsp;km thick.

There are few outcrops of lower Devonian rocks in the San Clodio area. And in the Carboniferous Period, this was an erosional zone forming the source of material for the Cantabrian Carboniferous deposits.<ref name=Julivert/>

===Central Iberian Zone===

The Central Iberian Zone covers the middle part of the west side of the peninsula, including north and central Portugal. The top north west corner has been replaced with the Galicia-Tras-Os-Montes Zone.  The constituent rocks are metamorphosed sediments.

The oldest rocks are Proterozoic, metamorphosed sediments.  They have been deformed by the [[Cadomian Orogeny]]. There are volcanics and further sediments from the end of the [[Ediacaran]] and [[Cambrian]] periods.

Before the Carboniferous this was deformed in a north east direction with thrusts and folds.

The oldest rocks are from the [[Cambrian]], possibly the [[Precambrian]], and are [[orthogneiss]] and [[paragneiss]].  These are found near [[Foz do Douro]], and [[Miranda do Douro]]. Above this are schists or shales with beds of turbidites or limestone interleaved.  The stratigraphic sequence can be observed south west of [[Salamanca]] in the Tamames Syncline, and in the [[Montes de Toledo]].  These are followed by an unconformity.  Above the unconformity can be found reddish [[sandstone]], [[shale]] and conglomerate of [[Tremadocian]] age up to 1&nbsp;km thick.  An [[Arenigian]] age [[quartzite]] formation is equivalent to the Amorican Quartzite.  Then there is black shale or [[slate]] matching the Luarca Slate of [[Llanvirn]] to [[Llandeilo (age)|Llandeilo]] Age.  On top of this is the Botella or Cantera Quartzite, 0.1&nbsp;km thick of Llandeilian to [[Ordovician#Subdivisions|Caradocian Age]].

Above this is a lenticular limestone called Urbana Limestone and shale and sandstone of Caradocian to Asghilian Age.  Then comes the Criadero Quartzite in the Almaden area at the base of the Silurian Period.  Black graptolytic shale and basic volcanic rocks overlay this.

Granite appeared with the Variscan Orogeny.

Devonian age terrigenous deposits up to 2&nbsp;km thick occur in the south of the zone.  There is a large amount of volcanic rock in the Almaden Syncline.

The lower Carboniferous has a flysch facies along the southern boundary of the zone, and also in the San Vitero area and around the [[Morais ophiolite complex|Morais]] and Bragança Massifs.<ref name=Julivert/>

===Galicia-Trás-os-Montes Zone===
[[File:Ribeira Sacra. Río Sil. Lugo. Galiza.jpg|thumb|The [[Galician Massif]] mountains surrounding the [[Sil River]] in [[Lugo]], [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]].]]
The Galicia-Trás-os-Montes Zone is a bean-shaped tectonic unit in the northwest corner of Spain and northeast Portugal ([[Trás-os-Montes (region)|Trás-os-Montes]]). It has also been called the allochthonous complexes. The zone consists of a [[nappe stack]] which is highly metamorphosed. It was formed by the collision of the [[Iberian Plate]] with a thinned piece of crust from another continent called the [[Meguma terrane]]. There are five units in the stack. At the lowest level are high pressure, low temperature metamorphosed rocks.  Second is an [[ophiolite]].  Third is the lower part of a continental crust which has been metamorphosed to high temperature with high pressure. Fourth is a layer of sediments derived from weathering land with low-grade metamorphism. There is also an underlying [[Ediacaran]] and early Paleozoic layer called the autochthenous sequence. Metamorphism of the allochthenous nappe occurred 390–380 Ma in the Middle Devonian. This is possibly from the Rheic Ocean. Finally, above this are other schists called the schistose domain of Galicia-Trás-os-Montes or Para-autochthenon. There are five oval shaped masses of mafic to ultramafic rocks making up the ophiolite. These are the Cabo Ortegal, [[Ordes]], [[Lalín]], Bragança and [[Morais ophiolite complex|Morais]] Massifs. Each of these are in a syncline and are surrounded by Silurian metamorphic rocks with an inward-dipping thrust zone forming the boundary. The kinds of rock in the mafic massifs are [[schists]], [[gneiss]], [[amphibolite]], [[metagabbro]], [[granulite]], [[eclogite]], and [[serpentine group|serpentine]]. The Ordes Massif dates from 380 to 390 Ma, and represents part of the Rheno-Hercynian Ocean as part of an [[accretionary wedge]]. It became joined to the European Hunic Terrane between the Channel Block and the allochthenous nappe. It has a corresponding block, the [[Lizard complex]] in southwest England. The Cabo Ortegal complex is dated around 345–340 Ma and is the remains of a Paleo-[[Tethys Ocean]] [[mid-oceanic ridge]]

The Malpica-Lamego line is a shear zone forming a line running north–south on the west side of the Galicia-Trás-os-Montes Zone.  It is 275&nbsp;km long and associated with intrusions of granodiorite.  There is over 10&nbsp;km of vertical offset along the shear zone.<ref>{{cite journal | doi = 10.1016/S0191-8141(00)00173-5 | last1 = Funez | first1 = SL | last2 = Marcos | first2 = A. | year = 2001 | title = The Malpica-Lamego Line: a Major Crustal-scale Shear Zone in the Variscan Belt of Iberia | journal = Journal of Structural Geology | volume = 23 | issue = 6–7| pages = 1015–1030 |bibcode = 2001JSG....23.1015L }}</ref>

===Ossa Morena Zone===
The Ossa Morena Zone (OMZ) forms a band in the southern part of Portugal and the south west corner of Spain.  The oldest rocks are [[Precambrian]] forming bands in two elongated anticlines between [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] and [[Abrantes]].  The [[Cambrian]] rocks start with [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]], and then have shallow water deposits and [[limestone]].  The Ordovician Period is represented by [[pelitic]] facies.  In the Late [[Ordovician]] [[syenite]] and alkaline [[granite]] intrusions rose along the Córdoba Abrantes belt The [[Silurian]] Period has volcanic rocks both acid and basic, and also pelitic deposits.  The Lower Devonian was formed in shallow water.  The [[Upper Devonian]] follows a break and is of [[flysch]].

In the [[Carboniferous]] it starts with a [[turbidite]] sequence containing basic volcanics.  This is about 200&nbsp;metres thick.  Above this are [[coal]] bearing layers.  Mountain building occurred at this point. In the [[Westphalian (stage)|Westphalian]] age this was deposited in lakes lying between mountain ranges.  In the [[Stephanian (stage)|Stephanian]] age [[molasse]] occurs, also in basins between mountains.

The Ossa-Morena Zone was [[transform fault]]ed with the Central Iberian Zone.  As it slid past (200&nbsp;km horizontally to the south-east and 10&nbsp;km vertically), it formed the Peñarroya Basin during the late Langsettian and early Duckmantian part of Carboniferous.  The basin is about 50&nbsp;km long and 1&nbsp;wide.

The Tomar-Badajoz-Córdoba Shear Zone (TBCZ)  consists of rock that has been sheared in a ductile fashion in the left lateral direction.  It is 350&nbsp;km long and from 2 to 15&nbsp;km wide.  Granite from the Cambrian and Ordovician has turned into orthogneiss.  Migmatites and metamorphosed sediments constitute the bulk of the zone.  But there are also lens shaped bodies consisting of eclogite and garnet amphibolite.  The shearing occurred from the end of the Devonian to Carboniferous.  The zone is a suture between different terranes (CIZ and OMZ) making up the Iberian Massif.<ref name=SWIBERIA/>

The boundary or suture between the Ossa Morena Zone and the South Portuguese Zone is formed by an ophiolite: the Beja-Acebuches Ophiolite Complex (BAOC).   This is made up of high-pressure metamorphic rocks, eclogite and blueschist.  These have been thrust in the southwest direction over the top of the rock from the South Portuguese Zone.<ref name=SWIBERIA>{{cite book|author1=Antonio Ribeiro|author2=David Sanderson|chapter=SW-IBERIA: Transpressional Orogeny in the Variscides|title=Lithosphere. Dynamics: Origin and Evolution of Continents|editor1=David G. Gee |editor2=H. J. Zeyen|publisher=EUROPROBE|date=1996|location=Uppsala|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpkwOgAACAAJ|pages=90–98|isbn=9782903148911}} <!--[ep_iber.pdf]--></ref>

===South Portuguese Zone===
The South Portuguese Zone (SPZ) is an exotic terrane coming from a different continent to the more northern parts of the Iberian Plate.  Prior to 380 Ma the SPZ was part of the Laurasia and attached next to what later became the [[Grand Banks]].  This continent was actually to the north of Iberia, which in turn was part of the [[European Hunic Terrane]] (EHT).  At 380 Ma SPZ impacted the EHT between allochthonous units of the Galicia-Tras-Os-Montes Zone and Meseta.  At about 320 Ma, the SPZ again headed south sliding past the west side of the Ossa Morena Zone.

The South Portuguese Zone now forms a thin triangle on the south end of Portugal.
Only rocks from the Upper Devonian to Carboniferous are found in the south Portuguese Zone.  The Late Devonian is represented by [[phyllite]] and [[quartzite]] beds with [[graded bedding]].  Volcanic rocks from Tournaisian and Lower Visean contain [[manganese]], [[zinc]] and [[pyrite]] ores.  This is known as the [[Iberian Pyrite Belt]].  This is the remains of seafloor [[hydrothermal vent]]s.  The majority of the zone is covered by Late Visean turbidite sequences several kilometres thick.

Mines in the pyrite belt area include [[Neves-Corvo mine]] in Portugal, [[Rio Tinto (river)|Rio Tinto]] which has been mined for 2000 years, Aguas Teñidas, Las Cruces mine, Los Frailes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geo.utexas.edu/courses/381R/spain-port'01.html|title=Field Excursion to the Iberian Peninsula|author=Mac McGuire|date=2002|website=DGS Newsletter|access-date=6 December 2015}}</ref>

The Via Basin existed on the northeast edge in Permian times.<ref name=Julivert/>

===Intrusions===
During the Hercynian cycle, some [[pluton]]s were formed in the peninsula.  [[Gabbro]] appeared in northwest [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] as Monte Castelo Gabbro, and also at [[Beja (Portugal)|Beja]] in Portugal.  Two different kinds of [[granite]] occur.  One comes from the middle crust and is high in [[felspar]] and low in [[Calcium]], and the other kind comes from the lower crust mixed with mantle magmas, and is a calcalkaline granite.

The first kind of granite is subdivided into [[granodiorite]] and [[muscovite]]-[[biotite]] [[leucogranite]] (two [[mica]] granites).  The granodiorite can be found at [[Fisterra|Finisterre]], western [[Salamanca]], [[Province of Zamora|Zamora]], [[Navarredonda de Gredos|Gredos]], [[Aracena]].  The two mica leucogranites can be found at [[Friol]], [[Porto-Viseu]], Moncorvo-Vila Real, [[Vigo]], [[Fisterra|Finisterre]], [[Gil Ibarguchi]], [[La Guardia, Spain|La Guardia]] and also near Salamanca.  Most of the granites are 318&nbsp;Ma to 319&nbsp;Ma.  But some are from 340&nbsp;Ma.

The calcalkaline granites were intruded at two times.  The older one consists of granodiorite and adamellite with inclusions of [[tonalite]], [[diorite]], and gabbro.  In western Galicia they are 316&nbsp;Ma.

The younger calcalkaline granites mostly have coarse crystals, they are [[biotite]] and [[hornblende]] granodiorites.  These have intruded later than the two mica granites and are frequent in northern and central Portugal.  The radiometric age is around 300 Ma.  Some of the batholiths of this mixed type of granite are in [[Cabeza de Araya]], [[Forgoselo]], [[Ponferrada]] and [[Boal]], and [[La Runa]].<ref name=Julivert/>

==Mesozoic==
The Iberian Peninsula was joined to [[Armorica]] (Northern France) before the Late Mesozoic.  In the early Cretaceous, the [[Bay of Biscay]] started opening around 126&nbsp;Ma and completed by 85&nbsp;Ma.  This created the Biscay Abyssal Plain, and parted the peninsula from the [[Trevelyan Escarpment]].  During this time Iberia rotated anticlockwise relative to Eurasia.  This caused the subduction of the Ligurian Basin onto the eastern side.  This formed the Betic nappe stack.  After 85&nbsp;Ma the Atlantic Ocean opening started between Ireland and [[Greenland]].  This left the Bay of Biscay as a failed rift. The new Atlantic spreading caused Eurasia to rotate clockwise back towards Iberia causing underthrusting and subduction on the east side of the northern edge of Iberia, forming the [[Pyrenees]].<ref name=Andeweg>{{cite thesis|author=Bernd Andeweg|url=http://www.geo.vu.nl/~andb/iberia/index-en.html|title=Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Iberian Peninsula, causes and effects of changing stress fields|location=Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam|date=2002}}</ref>

In Late [[Triassic]] and Early [[Jurassic]] there were two stages of rifting involving extension and subsistence on the western margin of Iberia.  It also extended the western margin. The Iberian Abyssal Plain, off the west coast of Portugal and Spain, formed 126&nbsp;Ma. This separated [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]]'s [[Grand Banks]], with Galica Bank and Flemish Cap being split at 118&nbsp;Ma. By Early [[Cretaceous]], 110&nbsp;Ma rifting occurs on west and north west edges.

In the Mesozoic, Late Jurassic Africa started moving east, and the Alpine Tethys opened.  Subsistence related to this caused deep deposits of sediments on the east and some sediment remnants in ''pop downs'' in central parts of Spain.  Two stages of rifting occurred in the east, one from Later [[Permian]] to Triassic, and the second from Late Jurassic to early Cretaceous.

On the south side deposits of carbonates and clastic sediments formed a shelf in shallow water during late Triassic and [[Lias Group|Liassic]] times.  This was rifted in [[Toarcian]] times (Early Jurassic 190&nbsp;Ma).  Active rifting was complete by 160&nbsp;Ma.  After this [[thermal subsidence]] occurred till the end of Cretaceous.  During this time rifting separated North America from Africa forming a transform zone.<ref name=Andeweg/>

===Iberian Basin===
[[File:Iberian mesozoic sedimentary basins EN.svg|thumb|Current sediment outcrops from the Iberian peninsula Mesozoic basins. It has also been featured the Messejana-Plasencia dyke, whose activity was mainly [[Jurassic]].]]
The Iberian Basin is in the east of Spain.  A rift system formed in the Variscan basement from Permian to Late Cretaceous.  At the end of the Cretaceous the basin was stretched by 35&nbsp;km.<ref name=range/> In Early Neogene times the basin was [[Inversion (geology)|inverted]] as a result of the Pyrenean Orogeny, part of the Alpine Chain formation.  This inversion resulted in the formation of mountains called the Iberian Range.  Rifting occurred at several different times in the Mesozoic repeating the same pattern of sedimentation.

Minas de Henarejos basin filled from in the [[Cisuralian|Early Permian]].  It was a small continental basin with internal drainage.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=A. Arche |author2=J. López-Gómez |author3=J. Broutin |title=The Minas de Henarejos basin (Iberian Ranges, Central Spain): precursor of the Mesozoic rifting or a relict of the late Variscan orogeny? New sedimentological, structural and biostratigraphic data |journal=[[Journal of Iberian Geology]] |volume=33 |issue=2 |date=2007 |pages=237–248 |url=http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_237_248_arche.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217170754/http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_237_248_arche.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref>

Firstly from Late Permian to Late Triassic the Aragonese Branch sediments were deposited.  These started with early layers of quartz rich sandstone derived from sedimentary and metasedimentary rocks.  This first layer was 0.1&nbsp;km thick.  Later the deposits were derived from plutonic rocks and were feldspar rich and cemented by clay.  These early deposits were alluvial and lacustrine.  Finally the basin was below sea level and shallow marine carbonates were deposited followed by coastal evaporites.  The thickness of these were determined by tectonic depression of the basin floor, and varies from 1 to 6&nbsp;km.  The names of the formations are Saxonian (Araviana Unit from the Permian), Buntsandstein (Tierga Unit, Calcena Unit, Trasobares Unit), Muschelkalk (shallow coastal marine calcareous conditions) and Keuper (evaporites).  The Saxonian facies consists of  sandstone over quartz conglomerate, and [[paleosoil]]s.  The sandstone almost entirely consists of rounded quartz grains.  Rock fragments in this are shales and cherts.  The grains are very compacted and cemented by quartz. The Buntsandstein contains sandstone with large crystals from plutonic rocks as well as shale and chert fragments.  They are cemented by quartz, feldspar and some carbonate matrix.  The presence of Potassium felspar indicates arid conditions were prevalent at the time.  During the Olenekian the average temperature was  in the low 30s, and the rainfall was less than 180&nbsp;mm per year.<ref name=ptb/>

Also part of the Iberian Basin is the Castilian Branch.  Formation in this are from the Permian: Boniches, Alcotas, an unconformity followed by Hoz de Gallo Conglomerate, this is capped by sandstone and silcrete at another unconformity marking the end of the Permian.  Then in the Triassic was deposited the Chequilla Conglomerate, Rillo de Gallo Formation, Cañizar Sandstone Fm, Prados Fm, Eslida Fm, Marines Fm, Landete Fm, El Mas Fm, Canete Fm,<ref name=ptb>{{cite journal |author1=S. Bourquin |author2=M. Durand |author3=J. B. Diez |author4=J. Broutin |author5=F. Fluteau |title=The Permian-Triassic boundary and lower Triassic sedimentation in western European basins: an overview |journal=Journal of Iberian Geology |volume=33 |issue=2 |date=2007 |pages=221–236 |url=http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_221_236_bourquin.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081031010655/http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_221_236_bourquin.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-31 }}</ref>

Secondly the Cameros Basin was formed and filled from Late Jurassic, [[Tithonian]] to [[Berriasian]] and [[Valanginian]] to early [[Albian]].  These are in cycles with alluvial fragments at the bottom and lake limestones and marl towards the top of each cycle.  The source of the clastics was the Iberian Massif to the south west of the basin.  Formations from this basin include Tera, Oncala, Urbion, Enciso, Olivan and Escucha.  The sandstone in the Tithonian is mostly rounded quartz grains, but also 14% of carbonate rock fragments.  Next the Berrieasian time deposits are sandstone with mostly quartz, but some albite.  The quartz has  35% of polycrystalline grains.  It is cemented by clay minerals. This was mainly derived from low grade metamorphic rocks of the Variscan basement.  The sandstone from Valanginian is formed from windblown quartz grains.  The source of the material was probably Jurassic sedimentary rocks (carbonates and shales).  From Hauterivian to Albion ages the sandstones are more mixed with more feldspar.  Kaolinite is frequently found filling the space between grains.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=J. Arribas |author2=M. Ochoa |author3=R. Mas |author4=Mª E. Arribas |author5=L. González-Acebrón |title=Sandstone petrofacies in the northwestern sector of the Iberian Basin |journal=Journal of Iberian Geology |volume=33 |issue=2 |date=2007 |pages=191–206 |url=http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_191_206_arribas.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217170720/http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_191_206_arribas.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref>

The Mesozoic basins were folded and thrust, to form the Iberian Ranges.  30&nbsp;km of shortening occurred.  The ranges trend north west – south east.  In the northwest the ranges are buried under the Douro Basin. Sierra de Altomira is a north–south-oriented range separated from the Iberian Ranges by [[Tagus Basin]].  This was formed from a thrust sheet that split through evaporite beds from the Triassic.

===Atlantic opening===
The Atlantic continental margin off Portugal and Spain is unique.{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}  In the zone between continental crust and oceanic crust there is a 100&nbsp;km wide zone of [[exhumed mantle|exhumed continental mantle]].  During the rift splitting Newfoundland from Iberia there was very little vulcanism and the rift was starved of magma.  This resulted in faults uplifting mantle from under the continent to the sea floor.  Hyperextended rifting is the name for this phenomenon. The mantle rock is [[peridotite]].  The peridotite had been formed from a melt, that was depleted in crustal materials, but then was re-enriched in [[plagioclase]] felspar.  The mantle exhumation occurred in two phases.  First from [[Valanginian]] to [[Hauterivian]] (142–130&nbsp;Ma) expansion happened at around 7&nbsp;mm per year.  Secondly from Hauterivian to [[Albian]] (130–113&nbsp;Ma) the mantle was exhumed at around 13&nbsp;mm per year.  After this, the asthenosphere penetrated to the surface, a mid-oceanic ridge formed and normal oceanic crust was formed.  The shallower 2–3&nbsp;km of peridotite has been converted to green serpentine by alteration by seawater at depth.  The very surface skin (40&nbsp;m thick) of the serpentine was then altered to yellow serpentine by low temperature seawater treatment.

====Gorringe Bank====

The [[Gorringe Bank]] is part of the ridge along the [[Azores–Gibraltar Transform Fault|Azores-Gibraltar fault zone]]. It is about 60&nbsp;km wide and 180&nbsp;km long in the northeast direction. Two high [[seamount]]s exist: the Gettysburg Seamount has a depth of 25&nbsp;m, and the Ormonde Seamount is 65&nbsp;m below the surface. The plate boundaries here are converging at 4&nbsp;mm/y, as well as sliding past each other. [[Upper mantle (Earth)|Upper mantle]] and oceanic crust are exposed along this bank. Ferrogabbro dated at 77&nbsp;Ma has been intruded. Also at 66&nbsp;Ma the [[Canary hotspot]] [[mantle plume]] passed by and caused alkaline magma to intrude. Where there is crust, it is very thin, so that the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity|Moho]] comes up to the sea floor. Sediment overlies the mantle, so this could be considered as crust. Since the [[Miocene]] there has been shortening of the ocean crust absorbed by folding, and thrusting.

====Tagus Abyssal Plain====
North of the Gorringe Bank is the [[Tagus Abyssal Plain]].  To the east is the continental shelf of Portugal, and to the west is the [[Madeira Tore Rise]]. On the south an [[olistostrome]], the remains of a landslip from the Gorringe Bank, resulting in chaotic sediments.  In most of the Tagus Plain the crust is 8&nbsp;km thick, however in the north it is only 2&nbsp;km thick.  Northwest is the [[Estremadura Spur]].

====Horseshoe Abyssal Plain====
South of the Gorringe Bank is the [[Horseshoe Abyssal Plain]]. This plain extends south to the Ampere and Coral Patch Seamounts, the Madeira Tore Rise in the west and the continental slope in the east.  The crust below this plain is 15&nbsp;km thick.  Crustal shortening has been accommodated in the plain by reverse faults every few kilometers.

====Gulf of Cadiz====
Where the Guadalquivir basin extends to the west off the shore, it forms the [[Gulf of Cadiz]].  In the mid Miocene there was mountain building, then from Miocene to Pliocene there was stretching, and finally in Pleistocene the sea floor was compressed again.  The gulf has [[mud volcano]]es on the sea floor: Darwin Mud Volcano, Mercator mud volcano and Challenger Mud Volcano.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.defra.gov.uk/environ/fcd/studies/tsunami/tsurp06a.pdf |title=Appendix A Tectonics of the Azores-Gibraltar fault zone |pages=81–85 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070206071408/http://www.defra.gov.uk/environ/fcd/studies/tsunami/tsurp06a.pdf |archive-date=2007-02-06 }}</ref>

====Lusitanian Basin====
[[File:Lusitanian Basin Location.jpg|thumb|Map of the Lusitanian Basin]]
The [[Lusitanian Basin]] stretches along the mid Portuguese coast with part on land and part off shore.  In Sinemurian–Callovian thick layers of carbonates were deposited {{Ma|196|162}}. Off the northern coast of Portugal is the [[Porto Basin]], also elongated in the north–south direction.  Further offshore from this, and also off shore from the west coast of Spain is the [[Galicia Interior Basin]].  These basins were formed by rifting in the Late Triassic ({{Ma|220|195}}).  Further out to sea off the  west coast of Spain is the [[Galicia Bank]], which consists of continental crust, and was formerly attached to the [[Flemish Cap]].  The Galicia Bank has limestone and [[marl]] deposited in shallow water from the [[Tithonian]] age.  This is capped by dolomite from the [[Berriasian]] age ({{Ma|143}}).

From Tithonian–Berriasian ({{Ma|150|140}}) the rift had shallow platforms with carbonates deposited, and sand in the depths.  From Valanginian–Hauterivian ({{Ma|140|130}}) carbonate cemented sediments were formed.  From [[Valanginian]]–[[Hauterivian]] ({{Ma|130|94}}) oxygen was poor, and there were six periods with no oxygen ([[anoxic event]]s). From Turonian–Paleocene ({{Ma|94|66}}) oxygen was again available and sediments were reddish or multicoloured.  Some areas had strong currents.  In the Paleocene ({{Ma|66|59}}) dark black shales mark the lack of oxygen in stagnant water.  From [[Thanetian]] to Oligocene ({{Ma|59|34}}) and through to the present day, calcareous and siliceous sediments are laid down.  A strong deep water circulation started about {{Ma|34}} and continues till now.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Brian E. Tucholke|author2=Jean-Claude Sibuet|chapter=Leg 210 synthesis: Tectonic, Magmatic, And Sedimentary Evolution Of The Newfoundland-Iberia Rift|title=Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results|volume=210|doi=10.2973/odp.proc.sr.210.101.2007|year=2007}}<!--[SYNTH.PDF]--></ref>

The oceanic anoxic events have been called Bonarelli event (OAE2 at {{Ma|93.5}}) (caused by volcanic eruptions in the Caribbean), the [[Mid-Cenomanian Event]] at {{Ma|96}} and OAE 1b, OAE 1c, and OAE 1d in the Albian (around {{Ma|100|112}}).  The carbon in the  black shales appears to come from land as well as the oceans, and nitrogen fixation was also high during these periods.

The Lusitanian Basin is very rich in fossils, mostly marine invertebrates<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Pereira, B. C.|author2=Benton M. J.|author3=Ruta M.|author4=O. Mateus|date=2015|title=Mesozoic echinoid diversity in Portugal: Investigating fossil record quality and environmental constraints on a regional scale|journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology|volume=424|pages=132–146|doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2015.02.014|bibcode=2015PPP...424..132P|doi-access=free}}</ref> and vertebrates, including dinosaur bones and tracks.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Jesper Milàn|author2=Per Christiansen|author3=Octavio Mateus|date=18 July 2005|title=A three-dimensionally preserved sauropod manus impression from the Upper Jurassic of Portugal: implications for sauropod manus shape and locomotor mechanics|journal=Kaupia|volume=14|pages=47–52|url=http://docentes.fct.unl.pt/sites/default/files/omateus/files/milan_et_al_mateus_2005_-_3d_sauropod_manus_track_l_j_portugal.pdf}}</ref>

===Movement===
From 170 to 120&nbsp;Ma more than 200&nbsp;km of left lateral slip occurred between Europe and Iberia as it was rifted from the Grand Banks.  From 120 to 83&nbsp;Ma 115&nbsp;km of convergence in Sardinia and Corsica region. At 83&nbsp;Ma convergence with Europe happened till 67.7&nbsp;Ma when it stopped moving with respect to Europe.  In the Eocene 55–46&nbsp;Ma there was right lateral slip. Then convergence again till the Eocene till early Oligocene.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rosenbaum |first1=Gideon |last2=Lister |first2=Gordon S. |last3=Duboz |first3=Cécile |title=Relative motions of Africa, Iberia and Europe during Alpine orogeny |journal=Tectonophysics |date=November 2002 |volume=359 |issue=1–2 |pages=117–129 |doi=10.1016/S0040-1951(02)00442-0 |bibcode=2002Tectp.359..117R }}</ref>

=== Spanish Central System ===
[[File:Profile through the Central System EN.svg|thumb|300px|Central System geological section.]]
The Spanish Central System is a mountain range separating the [[Tagus Basin|Tagus]] and [[Douro Basin|Douro]] basins. [[Sierra de Gredos]] and [[Sierra de Guadarrama]] comprise the named ranges. The land was compressed and elevated as a result of the Alpine Orogeny.<ref>{{cite conference|author1=J. Álvarez|author2=K. R. McClay|author3=Gerado de Vicente|title=Intraplate mountain building in Iberia: Insights from scaled physical models|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266472540|date=2005|conference=Geophysical Research Abstracts|volume=7|access-date=26 May 2024|number=2874 }}</ref>

==Pyrenees==
[[File:Aneto 01.jpg|thumb|[[Aneto|Pico del Aneto]], the highest mountain of the Pyrenees]]
{{main|Geology of the Pyrenees}}
The [[Pyrenees]] were formed as the [[Iberian Plate]] impacted the European plate, it was partly subducted. Initial compression started in [[Santonian]] times with the thinned crust subducted.  Crust to the west was subducted later.  Thrusts were formed to the south resulted in inversion of  the Mesozoic basins. The Central Pyrenees had the greatest shortening, with smaller amounts to the west. Shortening continued for 40 Ma.
There are several Permian sedimentary basins, up to 1&nbsp;km deep. These start with grey siltstone, coal and volcanics, and are topped with red siltstone, sandstone and conglomerate.
At the end of Cretaceous there was about 150&nbsp;km separation between Iberia and France.

Gavarine Thrust Sheet:
*Jaca Basin: (near [[Jaca]]) — Eocene
*Ainsa Basin: north of [[Ainsa]] — Eocene ([[Sobrarbe Formation]] corresponding to a delta facies, [[Escanilla formation]] a transition from deltaic to alluvial facies and [[Collegats Formation]] being composed of alluvial fan deposits.
*Tremp-Graus Basin: from Tremp to Graus — Eocene
*Ager Basin — Lower Cenozoic

==Betics==
[[File:Iberian Tectonic EN.svg|thumb|300px|Tectonic map of major structures in the Iberian Peninsula]]
[[File:Rock of Gibraltar northwest.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Rock of Gibraltar]] is a [[monolith]]ic [[limestone]] [[promontory]] created during the Jurassic period some 200 million years ago and uplifted during the Betic Orogeny.]]
The [[Betic Cordillera]] is a mountain range in southern and southeastern Spain, oriented in an ENE direction.  It stretches from the [[Gulf of Cádiz]] to the [[Cabo de la Nao]].

The Betic Cordillera was formed as a result of a complex interaction of the [[African Plate]] with Iberia.  It consists of four parts, the internal Betics along the coast, the external Betics inland, the [[flysch]] units in the far south of Spain (and [[Gibraltar]]), and the foreland basin: the Guadalquivir River Basin. Formation happened with 250&nbsp;km of north–south convergence from mid-Oligocene to late Miocene. From 50&nbsp;km West North West convergence.

The Betics are part of the [[Gibraltar Arc]], which also includes the [[Rif Atlas|Rif]] in [[Morocco]].

During [[Triassic]] and [[Jurassic]] times the Betic and Maghrebian margins were opposite each other.

The Internal Betics or Alboran Crustal Domain are found along the coast. They are metamorphosed basement rocks from prior to the Miocene. Three thrusts make up these mountains (first Nevado–Filábride was buried 50 to 70&nbsp;km deep, then Alpujárride, and lastly Maláguide). The crust was substantially thickened and the lower thrust was high pressure metamorphosed. Within the Internal Betics there are many depressions that have created basins that have filled with sediments. They are called the Betic Neogene Basins, and some are forming even now.

The Maláguide thrust sheet contains rocks from Silurian to Oligocene. Although the Silurian rocks were deformed in the Variscan Orogeny, the rocks in this sheet have only low grade metamorphism. It can be found north and east of Málaga and in a strip along the border between the internal and external Betics. The rocks in the Maláguide thrust sheet include phyllite, [[metagreywacke]], limestone, [[metaconglomerate]]. The Devonian and Early Carboniferous is represented by gray slates and conglomerate, with smaller amounts of limestone, chert, and [[radiolarite]]. There are some Permian to Triassic red beds, starting with conglomerate and thinning to sandstone and [[lutite]].

The Alpujárride Thrust Sheet spreads from western Málaga province to Cartagena in the east.  This layer has been more metamorphosed than the Maláguide thrust sheet. It was buried from 35 to 50&nbsp;km deep. At its base is [[mica schist]], with some gneiss and [[migmatite]] formed from sediments older than the Permian.  Above this is a bluish grey schist from the Permian, and the next layer is carbonate from the Middle to Late Triassic.  Above this is a black mica schist, and the top layers are a brown coloured [[metapelite]] and a quartzite.

The Triassic Mesozoic to Miocene deposits form the External Betics. Subbetic zone with deeper water deposits is in the southeast and the Prebetic zone to the northwest contains shallow water deposits. The [[Campo de Gibraltar]] Unit is a prism accreted from terrigenous deposits formed in the Oligocene.

The Fortuna Basin makes up the Eastern Betics. It is from Tortonian to Pliocene (younger than 11.6 Ma). The basin floor subsided rapidly at first. It started filling with marine sediments as it was connected with the Mediterranean Sea. Later it became isolated and evaporites started to appear. These were then covered with continental sediments by late Tortonian 7.2&nbsp;Ma.  The basin became isolated as the edges were tectonically raised. During the Messinian to lower Pliocene 7.2–3.6&nbsp;Ma the basin floor was lowered another 1&nbsp;km and continental sediments filled it. During the Pliocene the basin was compressed, sheared and uplifted.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=M. Garcés|author2=Walt Krijgsman|author3= J. Augusti|title=Late Neogene Chronology and Tectonosedimentary Evolution of the Fortuna Basin (Eastern Betics)|journal=Geo-Temas|volume=2|pages=81–85}}</ref>

Ronda Peridotites outcrop in the western Internal Betics in the Alpujárride thrust sheet.  These have been partly serpentinized. The variety of peridotite is [[lherzolite]]. These were intruded at a pressure of 1 [[gigapascal]] (GPa). Beneath the Ronda Peridotites is an [[eclogite]] formed at a pressure of 1.5 GPa. Two massifs, Sierra Bermeja and Sierra Alpujata have been rotated by 40° to the west since their solidification, as has the western External Betics.<ref>{{cite journal |author=V. Villasante-Marcos |author2=M.L. Osete |author3=F. Gervilla |author4=V. García-Dueñas |title=Palaeomagnetic Study Of The Ronda Peridotites (Betic Cordillera, Southern Spain)|doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2003.08.023|journal=Tectonophysics|date=18 December 2003|volume=377|issue=1–2|pages=119–141|bibcode=2003Tectp.377..119V}}</ref>

The Nevado–Filábride Thrust Sheet was buried 50 to 70&nbsp;km deep. It contains rocks originally from the Paleozoic to the Cretaceous. It has undergone high pressure low temperature metamorphism. It consists of three units. The Ragua Unit  consists of albite and graphite containing mica schist, and quartzite. The Calar Alto Unit has chloritoid and graphite containing mica schist, from the Paleozoic, light coloured Permo-Triassic schist, and marble from the Triassic, which have been metamorphosed to upper greenschist level at up to 450&nbsp;°C.  The Bédar-Macael Unit was metamorphosed to the amphibolite level, and contains marble, serpentinite, and tourmaline gneiss, as well as the more common schist. This unit was heated to 550&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=F. M. Alonso-Chaves|author2=J. Soto|author3=M. Orozco|author4=A. A. Kilias|author5=M. D. Tranos|title=Tectonic Evolution Of The Betic Cordillera: An Overview|journal=Bulletin of the Geological Society of Greece|volume=XXXVI|date=2004|url=http://www.geo.auth.gr/ege2004/articles/SG17_260.pdf}}</ref>

At the west end of the Betics lies the Guadalquivir Basin. It unconformably overlies the South Portugal Zone, Ossa Morena Zone and Central Iberian Zone. It contains Neogene to Quaternary aged material.

The Betics were compressed about 300&nbsp;km in the Cenozoic.

In Late Miocene a sill (land bridge) formed in the Gibraltar arc, disconnecting the Mediterranean from the Atlantic Ocean several times. This caused the evaporation of the Mediterranean Sea.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Krijgsman | first1 = W. | last2 = Garcés | first2 = M. | last3 = Hilgen | first3 = F.J. | last4 = Sierro | first4 = F.J. | title = Late Miocene Evaporite Deposition In The Mediterranean Area: Chronology, Causes And Consequences | journal = Geophysical Research Abstracts | volume = 2 | page = 2000 }}</ref>

The [[Rock of Gibraltar]] is a monolithic limestone promontory. The rock was created during the Jurassic period some 200 million years ago and uplifted during the Betic Orogeny.

===Alboran Sea===
The Alboran Basin south of Spain and Gibraltar formed in the early Miocene by extending and thinning continental crust to only 12 or 15&nbsp;km thick. It is still filling with sediment to this day beneath the [[Alboran Sea]]. So far 8&nbsp;km of sediments have accumulated. The Alboran sea has numerous areas on its floor formed from volcanic flows. This includes the Alboran Island halfway across the sea.<ref name=westmed>{{cite web|author1=Dr Manuel Fernandez Ortiga|title=Imaging The Western Mediterranean Margins: A Key Target To Understand The Interaction Between Deep And Shallow Processes|url=http://www.esf.org/coordinating-research/eurocores/completed-programmes/euromargins/projects/fp22.html|access-date=6 December 2015}}<!--[west_med.pdf]--></ref> During the Pliocene and Pleistocene volcanism continued.

===Trans Alboran Shear Zone===
The Trans Alboran Shear Zone is a 35° (north east) trending fault zone extending from [[Alicante]] in Spain, along the coast of [[Murcia]] through the Betic range, across the [[Alboran Sea]] to the [[Tidiquin Mountains]] in [[Morocco]]. This zone shows itself with [[earthquakes]]. The south east side is moving north east, and the north west side is moving south west.

==Balearic Islands==
The Balearic Islands are on a raised platform called the Balearic Promontory.

Majorca:
* [[Port d’es Canonge Formation]] — Permian period, [[Guadalupian]] epoch
* [[Asa Formation]] — Permian period, Lopingian epoch
* [[Son Serralta Formation]]— Triassic period, Anisian stage

Minorca:
* [[Saxonian Facies]] = Asa Formation — Permian period, Lopingian epoch: 260–251 Ma
* Conglomerate{{clarify|date=December 2013}} — Triassic period, Olenekian stage, Smithian substage: 249 Ma
* [[Buntsandstein]] — Triassic period, Olenekian and Anisian stages: 248–237 Ma
* [[Muschelkalk]] — Triassic period, Ladinian stage: 237–238 Ma

The southern margin consists of a narrow shelf where carbonates are deposited.  Sediments spill over the ledge.  South of Cabrera Island between Formentera and Cabrera islands is a small volcanic province with a few dozen outlets.  The slope to the south of the shelf is the Emile-Baudot escarpment.  It only has one canyon, the Menorca Canyon, with Menorca Fan at its base.<ref name=westmed/>  The crust in the Balearic Promontory is 25&nbsp;km thick.  The lithosphere is only 30&nbsp;km and there is a low seismic velocity asthenosphere below.

In Menorca there are extensive outcrops of the Variscan basement.  In the Triassic deposits similar to those in Germany were formed.  In the early Jurassic it was covered with shallow sea water and limestone formed.  From Middle to Late in the Jurassic marl and limestone formed in deep water.  In the Cretaceous marl and shallow water limestone was formed.  From the Late Cretaceous to the Paleogene there were few deposits.  From the Eocene there is some shallow water limestone in the southeast.  During the Eocene to early Oligocene, the island of [[Sardinia]] was located northeast of the Balearic Promontory (Menorca).  Sardinia and Corsica rotated away from 19 to 15 Ma.  From the Oligocene there is some conglomerate.

Orogeny (mountain building) started again during the Neogene.  As the ground was deformed conglomerate, calcareous sandstone, limestone, and calcareous turbidites appeared.  During the orogeny from Late Oligocene to Middle Miocene  the ground was shortened (compressed) by 50%.  On the southeast of Majorca overturned folds were produced in the Late Oligocene to Langhian. In the Middle and Late Miocene (mostly Serravallian) the ground was stretched (extended) and faults formed and created basins. In the Late Miocene they filled with water and sediment.  After the orogeny, limestone marl and calcareous sandstone were added.  Later in the Pliocene till now contraction has taken place again.

From the Early Miocene there are two volcanoes of calc-alkaline volcanics.

South of the Balearics there is the Algerian Basin floored by oceanic style crust from 4 to 6&nbsp;km and a [[Mohorovičić discontinuity|moho]] less than 15&nbsp;km deep.  The floor of this basin is 0.5&nbsp;km of Pliocene to Quaternary sediments overlying the Messinian evaporites 1.2&nbsp;km thick, which from diapirs into the sediments.<ref name=carmin>{{cite book|author1=E. Carminati|author2=C. Doglioni|author3=B. Gelabert|author4=G. F. Panza|author5=R. B. Raykova|author6=E. Roca|author7=F. Sabat|author8=D. Scrocca|chapter=Evolution of the Western Mediterranean|title=Principles of Phanerozoic Regional Geology|editor1=A.W. Bally  |editor2=D. Roberts|chapter-url=http://www.mantleplumes.org/WebDocuments/WestMed.pdf}}</ref>

==Cenozoic==
Compression conditions were experienced spreading to the west along the northern margin of Iberia.  This caused narrowing of the Bay of Biscay, with subduction of the bay floor happening forming the [[Cantabrian Mountains]], starting at the very end of [[Cretaceous]] and into early [[Eocene]].  The subduction ceased at 54&nbsp;Ma.

Stress from the northeast edge of Spain's collision with Eurasia affected the interior, raising the Iberian Basin to form the Iberian Chain mountain range, north east of the centre.  The Azores–Gibraltar transform zone activated at about 30&nbsp;Ma.  This zone appears as a ridge on the Atlantic Ocean floor, and is apparent even today as an earthquake zone.  Africa moved eastwards with respect to Iberia and Eurasia.  This opened up the Valencia Trough and the Balearic Basin.  Extension in this south east side of Iberia spread from southern France.  The spreading reached and formed the Alborian Basin between 23 and 20&nbsp;Ma.

Africa converged towards Eurasia, and the direction changed from north north west to north west in the [[Tortonian]].  This change in compression formed the [[Baetic Cordillera]] on the Mediterranean coast in the Middle [[Miocene]].  Basins were inverted and raised up in the Iberian Central System, and also the Alboran Basin.  The crust still continues to fold in these areas since the [[Pliocene]].  Some coastal areas have been uplifted hundreds of meters in the Pliocene.  Also new shear zones appeared in the Alboran Basin.
<ref name=Andeweg/>

The Ninyerola Gypsum unit is fifteen kilometres south of Valencia.  It consists of layers of gypsum and marl and limestone.  Nodules of gypsum from this formation have been used as alabaster for carving sculptures.  This was deposited from a freshwater lake, high in sulphates but low in chlorides.

[[File:Iberian Cenozoic sedimentary basins.svg|thumb|Iberian Cenozoic sedimentary basins]]
The Douro Basin in northwest Spain is the largest Cenozoic basin in Iberia.  Oligocene and Miocene continental deposits are up to 2.5&nbsp;km thick. It is bounded by the central system to the south, the Iberian range to the east, and the Cantabrian Mountains to the northeast.  The Cantabrian Mountains are the main source of the sediments in this basin. The [[Douro|Douro River]] started to drain the basin 9.6 Ma by connecting it the Atlantic Ocean.  Gold was mined in Roman times in the basin. Las Medulas is the most famous mine.  Greasy wool was used to trap gold flakes washing past from the alluvial deposits. North of Ribón is another 2000-year-old [[gold mine]].

Two Eocene basins in Portugal are the Mondego and Lower Tagus basins which are elongated in the southwest direction.  Simultaneous with the formation of these grabens the [[Algarve Basin]] was uplifted.  In the Miocene the Lusitanian Basin was compressed, and the Portuguese Central Range and Western Mountains were formed.  These too trend south west.  The mountains also form piedmont or fore-deep basins.  Faults developed aligned south-southwest.  These faults developed some pull-apart basins.

In the Late Pliocene (2.6&nbsp;Ma) there was increased uplifting and previously deposited sediments were incised by erosion.  The coast of Portugal has been rising at about 0.1&nbsp; mm per year since then.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=J. Cabral|author2=P. Cunha|author3=A. Martins|author4=A. Ribeiro|title=Late Cenozoic vertical tectonic displacements in mainland Portugal (West Iberia)|journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts|volume=9|number=1591|year=2007}}</ref>

===Ebro Basin===
The Ebro Basin formed as a downwarp at the same time as the Pyrenees.  From 55 to 37 Ma the basin was below sea level and filled with marine sediments.  In the mid to late Eocene evaporites were formed as the sea dried up forming the Cardona Evaporites.  It became a continental basin, until the end of the Oligocene.  From Oligocene to Miocene the area was covered in an [[endorheic]] lake<ref name="JGR2003">{{cite journal |last1=Garcia-Castellanos |first1=Daniel |last2=Vergés |first2=Jaume |last3=Gaspar-Escribano |first3=Jorge |last4=Cloetingh |first4=Sierd |title=Interplay between tectonics, climate, and fluvial transport during the Cenozoic evolution of the Ebro Basin (NE Iberia) |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=July 2003 |volume=108 |issue=B7 |page=2347 |doi=10.1029/2002JB002073 |bibcode=2003JGRB..108.2347G |doi-access=free |hdl=10261/227771 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> trapping the eroded rocks of the surrounding mountain ranges: [[Pyrenees]], [[Iberian Range]], and [[Catalan Coastal Range]].  From late Miocene the [[Ebro River]] drained this basin flowing to the Mediterranean.

===Tagus Basin===
The [[Tagus Basin]] received continental deposits from the end of Oligocene to the end of Miocene  This basin is drained by the [[Tagus River]] to the Atlantic past [[Lisbon]].

The As Pontes Basin in the far northwest of Iberia filled with alluvium and lacustrine deposits from late Oligocene to early Miocene.

===Catalan Coastal Ranges===
The Catalan Coastal Ranges were formed in the Eocene with compression, contributing to the closure of the [[Ebro Basin]].<ref name="JGR2003" />  Later in the Oligocene and Miocene extension occurred as the Valencia trough was opened up.  The whole crust in the area was bent into a [[monocline]].  The mountains have a north east – south west trend, at an oblique angle to the original basin.

===Volcanoes===
Volcanoes along the Mediterranean margin formed due to mantle lithospheric thinning.
The Levante field is at the south west end of the Valencia trough.  Volcanoes are from 8 to 1&nbsp;Ma.  The north east volcanic province at the east end of the Pyrenees, dates from 14&nbsp;Ma to 11,000 years ago.  Volcanoes first formed in the Empordà Basin, then in the La Selva Basin and finally in the Cerdanya Basin. Almeria and Murcia have alkaline volcanoes.<ref name=range>{{cite journal |last1=Vergés |first1=Jaume |last2=Fernàndez |first2=Manel |title=Ranges and basins in the Iberian Peninsula: their contribution to the present topography |journal=Geological Society, London, Memoirs |date=January 2006 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=223–234 |doi=10.1144/GSL.MEM.2006.032.01.13 |s2cid=129273713 }}<!--Verges_Fernandez_2006.pdf--></ref>

==Quaternary==

===Valencia Trough===
The Valencia Trough lies between the Mediterranean north east coast of Spain, near [[Barcelona]], and the [[Balearic Islands]].  This is a northeast to southwest oriented depression between the [[continental slope]] of the Iberian Peninsula and the slope off the shelf around the Balearic Islands.  This originally opened between Late [[Oligocene]] and early [[Miocene]], at the same time as the [[Provençal Basin]].  The continental shelf off the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] coast is from six to 30&nbsp;km wide.  Several V-shaped canyons cut deeply into the shelf, among them the Foix, Besós, Arenys, La Fonda, and Creus Canyons.  The Ebro margin, a shallow coastal shelf, is fed by the [[Ebro River]],  The shelf here is 70&nbsp;km wide.  The shelves on the Balearic margin are under 20&nbsp;km wide; they have a low influx of sediments, and instead are dominated by carbonates.

At the base of the Valencia Trough is the '''Valencia Channel''',  This is a gully that carries sediment to the north east to the Provençal Basin.

The Valencia Trough consists of extended continental crust.  At the deepest point the [[Mohorovičić discontinuity]] ("Moho") is only 8&nbsp;km deep, whereas under the mainland it is 32&nbsp;km down.  Beneath the Balearics the depth rises back to 23–25&nbsp;km.  Other points under the Valencia Trough axis have a Moho at 15 to 10&nbsp;km down.  The lithosphere is only 50 to 80&nbsp;km thick, and the mantle has an abnormally low speed of transmitted sound.

The crust in the trough went through a history similar to that of the mainland.  It was compressed in the [[Variscan Orogeny]], extended in the Mesozoic so that resulting basins filled with sediment, compressed back and lifted up in the Cretaceous, then eroded.  In the Eocene and late Oligocene there were a couple of basins filled with terrestrial deposits.

In the uppermost Oligocene and lower Miocene rifting started, and continental deposits were made. followed by marine deposits on a shallow shelf.  During this period the trough grew by extension to its present dimensions. In the middle and Upper Miocene clastic sediments were deposited under sea water.  Then the level of the Mediterranean drastically dropped due to evaporation.  During this [[Messinian salinity crisis]] gullies were cut deeply into the sediments exposed to the atmosphere, and Messinian salt deposits were encrusted onto the deeper parts.  In the Pliocene and Holocene deltas were formed over the shallow parts and deep sea fans in the deeper parts.<ref name=carmin/>

The slopes around the trough have been affected by many underwater landslides.  Mostly these are small, under 100&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> in area. The so-called "Big '95" debris flow, is a large landslide off the coast from [[Castellón de la Plana]], beyond the [[Columbretes Islands]].  This slide covers 2200&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, containing 26&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>, or 50 gigatonnes of sediment.  It is 110&nbsp;km long, has an average thickness of 13&nbsp;m, ranging from 600&nbsp;m, to 1800&nbsp;m below sea level.  A [[carbon 14]] date indicates the slide occurred before 9500 BC.  It is believed to have been triggered by a volcanic dome, the same one that raised the Columbretes Islands above sea level.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=G. Lastras|author2=M. Canals|author3=D. Amblas|author4=J. Frogola|author5=R. Urgeles|author6=A.M. Calafat|author7=J. Acosta |title=Slope instability along the northeastern Iberian and Balearic continental margins|journal=[[Geologica Acta]]|volume=5|number=1|year=2007|pages=35–47 |doi=10.1344/105.000000308 }}</ref>

===Balearic Abyssal Plain===
The Balearic Abyssal Plain lies to the east of the [[Balearic Islands]].  A large undersea slip deposit of unknown origin called the Balearic mega[[turbidite]] covers 77,000&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, and contains 600&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup> of sediment, at 10&nbsp;m thick.  The slip happened at the last [[Last Glacial Maximum|low stand]].

==Pleistocene==
There are raised sandy or pebbly beaches along the coasts which have been partially cemented.  These have been dated to 53,700 to 75,800 years old.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Alonso |first1=A. |last2=Pagés |first2=J.L. |title=Stratigraphy of Late Pleistocene coastal deposits in Northern Spain |url=http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_207_220_alonso.pdf |journal=Journal of Iberian Geology |volume=33 |issue=2 |page=2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217170808/http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/JIG/vol332/JIG_33_2_207_220_alonso.pdf |archive-date=2008-12-17 }}</ref>  [[Torca del Carlista]] has the largest cavern (La Grand Sala del GEV) in Europe.  It is found in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]].  It has an area of 76,620 square meters, with dimensions of 245 by 520 meters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caverbob.com/room.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060515145732/http://www.caverbob.com/room.htm|url-status=usurped|archive-date=May 15, 2006|title=The Largest Underground Chambers by Surface Area}}</ref>

==Paleontology==
[[File:Concavenator.jpg|thumb|''Concavenator corcovatus'' dinosaur fossil from Las Hoyas, Spain]]
Iberia is quite a rich region for paleontology, mainly Mesozoic and Miocene. Several important dinosaur localities are known in Portugal and Spain. In Portugal, the [[Lourinhã Formation]] is one of the richer Mesozoic units, mainly for dinosaurs and mammals. A bizarre dinosaur was discovered in [[Las Hoyas]] in [[Cuenca, Spain]].  The original animal was 6 meters long, had a hump and had feathers. The fossil dates from the [[Barremian stage]] of the Late Cretaceous and is called ''[[Concavenator corcovatus]]''.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Nature|volume=467|issue=7312|pages= 203–206|date=9 September 2010 | doi=10.1038/nature09181|author1=Francisco Ortega |author2=Fernando Escaso |author3=José L. Sanz |title=A bizarre, humped Carcharodontosauria (Theropoda) from the Lower Cretaceous of Spain|pmid=20829793|bibcode = 2010Natur.467..203O |s2cid=4395795}}</ref> ''[[Turiasaurus]] riodevensis'', a truly giant dinosaur that lived between the Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous, was also found in [[Riodeva]] in [[Teruel]] Spain. The animal was 37 meters long and weighed 40–48 tons.<ref name="royo2006">{{cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1132885 | last1 = Royo-Torres | first1 = R. | last2 = Cobos | first2 = A. | last3 = Alcalá | first3 = L. | year = 2006 | title = A Giant European Dinosaur and a New Sauropod Clade | journal = Science | volume = 314 | issue = 5807| pages = 1925–1927 | pmid = 17185599 |bibcode = 2006Sci...314.1925R | s2cid = 9343711 | url = http://doc.rero.ch/record/14800/files/PAL_E1949.pdf }}</ref>

The most recent remains of [[Neanderthals]] are known from [[Cueva Antón]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zilhão|first1=João|last2=Anesin|first2=Daniela|last3=Aubry|first3=Thierry|last4=Badal|first4=Ernestina|last5=Cabanes|first5=Dan|last6=Kehl|first6=Martin|last7=Klasen|first7=Nicole|last8=Lucena|first8=Armando|last9=Martín-Lerma|first9=Ignacio|last10=Martínez|first10=Susana|last11=Matias|first11=Henrique|last12=Susini|first12=Davide|last13=Steier|first13=Peter|last14=Wild|first14=Eva Maria|last15=Angelucci|first15=Diego E.|last16=Villaverde|first16=Valentín|last17=Zapata|first17=Josefina|title=Precise dating of the Middle-to-Upper Paleolithic transition in Murcia (Spain) supports late Neandertal persistence in Iberia|journal=Heliyon|date=November 2017|volume=3|issue=11|pages=e00435|doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2017.e00435|doi-access=free |pmid=29188235|pmc=5696381|bibcode=2017Heliy...300435Z }}</ref>

==Geophysical measurements==
The crustal thickness is 30 to 35&nbsp;km through most of Iberia, but thins to 28&nbsp;km on the west coast. However mountainous areas are thicker. The crustal depth in the Iberian Massif is 30 to 35&nbsp;km. The western Betics have crust 39&nbsp;km thick and in three layers whereas the eastern Betics have a crust of 23&nbsp;km thick in two layers.
Along the coast near the Betics the crust is 23 to 25&nbsp;km thick. Betic lithosphere (crust and solid mantle) is 100 to 110&nbsp;km thick. Under the Alboran Sea the crust is 16&nbsp;km thick. Alboran lithosphere is 40&nbsp;km thick.

The [[Tagus Basin|Tagus]] and [[Douro Basin|Douro]] basins are elevated and yet show a negative [[Bouguer anomaly]].  This is likely due to a less dense crust.  In the Ossa Moena zone and South Portuguese Zone there is a positive Bouguer anomaly, due to higher crustal density.  Along the Mediterranean coast there is a positive Bouguer anomaly due to lithosphere thinned to less than 75&nbsp;km.

The force exerted by the [[ridge push]] from the Atlantic sea floor is 3.0 TN/m (10<sup>12</sup> [[newton (unit)|newtons]] per meter); 54&nbsp;Ma the force was lower at 2&nbsp;TN/m.

GPS stations measure the slow movements due to continental drift and tectonic movements:
{| class="wikitable"
|GAIA
|Vila Nova de Gaia
|-
|CASC
|Cascais
|-
|OALN
| Observatório Astronómico de Lisboa Norte
|-
| OALS
| Observatório Astronómico de Lisboa Sul
|-
|LAGO
|Lagos
|-
| SFER
| San Fernando
|-
|VILL
|Villa Franca del Campo
|-
|MADR
|Madrid
|}

Heat flow is 60–70&nbsp;mW/m<sup>2</sup> on the Iberian Massif and in the Betics it is 100–120&nbsp;mW/m<sup>2</sup> in the Alboran Sea where the lithosphere is thinner.  A low heat flow of 40&nbsp;mW/m<sup>2</sup> is measured in the far south of Portugal.

==Economic geology==

===Mining===
[[File:Kalomel auf Cinnabarit - Almaden, Spanien.jpg|thumb|[[Cinnabar]] (mercury ore) from Almadén, Spain]]
[[File:Portman Museo Arqueologico4.jpg|thumb|left|Roman mining tools from [[Portmán]]]]
Mining has a long history in Spain. Copper mining has taken place at [[Rio Tinto (river)|Rio Tinto]] for 5,000 years.<ref name ="Carleton">
{{cite web  | last = Bordenstein  | first = Sarah  | title = Rio Tinto, Spain  | website = Science Education Resource Center  | publisher = Carleton College  | url = http://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/riotinto/  | access-date = March 3, 2009}}
</ref> The world's largest deposit of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] is located [[Almadén]], Spain, which has produced 250,000 tons.<ref>{{cite journal
|author1=A. Hernández |author2=M. Jébrak |author3=P. Higueras |author4=R. Oyarzun |author5=D. Morata |author6=J. Munhá | title= The Almadén mercury mining district, Spain| journal=Mineralium Deposita  | year=1999| volume=34 | pages=539–548 |doi=10.1007/s001260050219 | issue= 5–6|bibcode = 1999MinDe..34..539H |hdl=10578/1287 |s2cid=130772120 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

Mines at [[La Unión, Murcia]] produced lead, iron, silver, and zinc since Roman times but closed in 1991 due to depletion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.regmurcia.com/servlet/s.Sl?sit=a,59,c,373,m,1871&r=ReP-5203-DETALLE_REPORTAJESPADRE|title=Historia de La Unión – Edad Contemporánea – Región de Murcia Digital|publisher=Fundación Integra|language=es|access-date=15 March 2013}}</ref> Lead mines at [[Castulo]] near Linares, Jaén operated from ancient times until 1991. This is a part of the Linares–La Carolina mining district, where in the Bronze Age copper was mined. Roman mines operated at [[Arrayanes, Spain|Arrayanes]], [[La Cruz mine|La Cruz]], and [[El Centenillo]] and [[Salas de Galiarda]] in [[Sierra Morena]].<ref name="Ángel Perez">{{cite web|url=http://www.proyectoarrayanes.org/descargas/Mining%20a%20Shared%20Heritage%28Borrador%29.pdf|title=Mining a Shared Heritage: The Cornish and the Lead Mines of Linares, Spain|last=Ángel Perez|first=Antonio|author2=Sharron P. Schwartz|date=6 March 2006|website=Cornwall FHS Journal no 119|access-date=16 March 2013}}</ref><ref name="Fletcher">{{cite journal|last=Fletcher|first=Steve|date=Winter 2011|title=Lead Mining in Spain in the 19th Century:Spanish Industry or British Adventure|journal=Bulletin of the Peak Sitrict Historical Mining Society|volume=11|issue=4|pages=195–202|url=https://pdmhs.co.uk/bulletins/bulletin-11-4---lead-mining-industry-in-the-19th-century--.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422044012/http://www.pdmhs.com/PDFs/ScannedBulletinArticles/Bulletin%2011-4%20-%20Lead%20Mining%20Industry%20in%20the%2019th%20Century%20-%20.pdf|archive-date=2012-04-22}}</ref>

Black coal and [[anthracite]] was mined in the [[Palencia mining basin]] from [[Carboniferous]] deposits.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Rodríguez Fernández |first1=L. R. |url=http://www.udc.es/iux/almacen/articulos/cd12_art17.pdf |title=La estratigrafía del Carbonífero y la estructura de la unidad del Pisuerga-Carrión. NO de España |last2=Heredia |first2=N. |publisher=Universidade da Coruña |pages=1 |language=Spanish |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120413102130/http://www.udc.es/iux/almacen/articulos/cd12_art17.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 13, 2012}} [https://www.udc.es/iux/almacen/articulos/cd12_art17.pdf Alt URL]</ref>

===Geohazards===
The [[Great Lisbon earthquake]] of 1 November 1755 was one of the most destructive earthquakes in history, killing around 100,000 people. The [[1969 Portugal earthquake]] was much less severe; 13 people were killed in Morocco and Portugal.

== Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points==
Several [[List of Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points|Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points]] are defined in the Iberian Peninsula.
{| class="wikitable"  style="font-size:90%; width:90%; text-align:center;"
|-
! style="width:75px;"| Epoch
! style="width:75px;"| Stage
! style="width:55px;"| Age (mya)
! width="15px;" | Status
! style="width:200px;"| GSSP location
! width="" | Defining markers
! width="" | Geographic Coordinates
! width="" | References
|- style="background:rgb(254,185,138)"
| [[Eocene]]
| [[Lutetian]]
| {{Period start|Lutetian}}
| [[Image:GSSP Golden Spike.svg|15px|frameless|center]]
| Gorrondatxe sea-cliff section,

[[Pyrenees|Western Pyrenees]], [[Basque Country (greater region)|Basque Country]], Spain
|
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Hantkenina]]'' ([[Foraminifera|Planktonic foraminifera]]).
| {{Coord|43.3796|N|3.0143|W|display=inline}}
|<ref name="Molina 2011">{{cite journal|last=Molina|first=Eustoquio |author2=Laia Alegret |author3=Estibaliz Apellaniz |author4=Gilen Bernaola |author5=Fernando Caballero |author6=Jaume Dinarès-Turell |author7=Jan Hardenbol |author8=Claus Heilmann-Clausen |author9=Juan C. Larrasoana |author10=Hanspeter Luterbacher |author11=Simonetta Monechi |author12=Silvia Ortiz |author13=Xabier Orue-Etxebarria |author14=Aitor Payros |author15=Victoriano Pujalte |author16=Francisco J. Rodríguez-Tobar |author17=Flavia Tori |author18=Josep Tosquella |author19=Alfred Uchman |title=The Global Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) for the base of the Lutetian Stage at the Gorrondatxe section, Spain|journal=Episodes|year=2011|volume=34|issue=2|pages=86–108|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2011/v34i2/006 |s2cid=131503804 |url=http://wzar.unizar.es/perso/emolina/pdf/Molina2011Episodes.pdf|access-date=14 September 2012}}</ref>
|- style="background:rgb(254,195,125)"
| [[Paleocene]]
| [[Thanetian]]
| {{Period start|Thanetian}}
| [[Image:GSSP Golden Spike.svg|15px|frameless|center]]
| Zumaia Section,
[[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], Spain
|
* Magnetic: Base of magnetic polarity [[chronozone]] C26n.
| {{Coord|43.2996|N|2.2609|W|display=inline}}
|<ref name="Schmitz 2011">{{cite journal|last1=Schmitz|first1=B. |author2=Pujalte, V. |author3=Molina, E. |author4=Monechi, S. |author5=Orue-Etxebarria, X. |author6=Speijer, R. P. |author7=Alegret, L. |author8=Apellaniz, E. |author9=Arenillas, I. |author10=Aubry, M.-P. |author11=Baceta, J.-I. |author12=Berggren, W. A. |author13=Bernaola, G. |author14=Caballero, F. |author15=Clemmensen, A. |author16=Dinarès-Turell, J. |author17=Dupuis, C. |author18=Heilmann-Clausen, C. |author19=Orús, A. H. |author20=Knox, R. |author21=Martín-Rubio, M. |author22=Ortiz, S. |author23=Payros, A. |author24=Petrizzo, M. R. |author25=von Salis, K. |author26=Sprong, J. |author27=Steurbaut, E. |author28=Thomsen, E. |title=The global Stratotype Sections and Points for the bases of the Selandian (Middle Paleocene) and Thanetian (Upper Paleocene Paleocene) stages at Zumaia, Spain|journal=Episodes|year=2011|volume=34|issue=4|pages=220–243 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2011/v34i4/002|doi-access=free }}</ref>
|- style="background:rgb(254,194,116)"
| [[Paleocene]]
| [[Selandian]]
| {{Period start|Selandian}}
| [[Image:GSSP Golden Spike.svg|15px|frameless|center]]
| Zumaia Section,
[[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], Spain
|
* Chemical: Onset of sea-level drop and carbon isotope shift.
* Magnetic: 30 precession cycles after the top of magnetic polarity [[chronozone|Chron]] 27n
| {{Coord|43.2992|N|2.2610|W|display=inline}}
|<ref name="Schmitz 2011"/>
|- style="background:rgb(222,231,138)"
| [[Cretaceous]]
| [[Santonian]]
| {{Period start|Santonian}}
|
| Candidate section:
* [[Olazagutia]], Spain
|
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Cladoceramus|Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus]]'' ([[Inoceramid]] [[Bivalvia|bivalve]]).
| –
|<ref name="GSSP Web">{{cite web |title=Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/index.html |publisher=International Commission of Stratigraphy |access-date=14 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115175854/http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/index.html |archive-date=15 November 2012 }}</ref>
|- style="background:rgb(175,221,151)"
| [[Cretaceous]]
| [[Barremian]]
| {{Period start|Barremian}}
|
| Candidate section:
* [[Río Argos]], [[Caravaca de la Cruz]], [[Region of Murcia|Murcia Province]], Spain
|
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Spitidiscus|Spitidiscus hugii]]'' or ''[[Spitidiscus|Spitidiscus vandeckii]]'' group ([[Ammonite]]).
| –
| –
|- style="background:rgb(141,210,133)"
| [[Cretaceous]]
| [[Valanginian]]
| {{Period start|Valanginian}}
|
| Candidates section:
* [[Cañada Luenga]], [[Betic Cordillera]], Spain
|
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Calpionellites darderi]]'' ([[Calpionellid]]).
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Thurmanniceras|Thurmanniceras pertransiens]]'' ([[Ammonite]]).
| –
| –
|- style="background:{{period color|Bajocian}}"
| [[Jurassic]]
| [[Bajocian]]
| {{Period start|Bajocian}}
| [[Image:GSSP Golden Spike.svg|15px|frameless|center]]
| [[Cabo Mondego]], [[Portugal]]
|
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Hyperlioceras|Hyperlioceras mundum]]'', ''[[Hyperlioceras|Hyperlioceras furcatum]]'', ''[[Braunsina|Braunsina aspera]]'', and ''[[Braunsina|Braunsina elegantula]]''([[Ammonite]])
* Biologic: First appearance of genus ''[[Hyperlioceras]]'' ([[Ammonite]]).
| {{Coord|40.1992|N|8.9042|W|display=inline}}
|<ref name="Pavia 1997">{{cite journal|last=Pavia |first=G. |author2=R. Enay |title=Definition of the Aalenian–Bajocian Stage boundary |journal=Episodes |date=March 1997 |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=16–22 |doi=10.18814/epiiugs/1997/v20i1/004 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
|- style="background:{{period color|Aalenian}}"
| [[Jurassic]]
| [[Aalenian]]
| {{Period start|Aalenian}}
| [[Image:GSSP Golden Spike.svg|15px|frameless|center]]
| [[Fuentelsaz]], Spain
|
* Biologic: First appearance of ''[[Leioceras opalinum]]'' and ''[[Leioceras lineatum]]''
* Biologic: First appearance of genus ''[[Leioceras]]'' ([[Ammonite]]).
| {{Coord|41.1708|N|1.8333|W|display=inline}}
|<ref name="Cresta 2001">{{cite journal|last=Cresta|first=S. |author2=A. Goy |author3=S. Ureta |author4=C. Arias |author5=E. Barrón |author6=J. Bernad |author7=M. L. Canales |author8=F. García-Joral |author9=E. García-Romero |author10=P. R. Gialanella |author11=J. J. Gómez |author12=J. A. González |author13=C. Herrero |author14=G. Martínez |author15=M. L. Osete |author16=N. Perilli |author17=J. J. Villalaín |title=The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) of the Toarcian-Aalenian Boundary (Lower-Middle Jurassic)|journal=Episodes|year=2001|volume=24|issue=3|pages=166–175|doi=10.18814/epiiugs/2001/v24i3/003 |url=http://www.stratigraphy.org/GSSP/file18.pdf|access-date=17 September 2012}}</ref>
|- style="background:{{period color|Toarcian}}"
| [[Jurassic]]
| [[Toarcian]]
| {{Period start|Toarcian}}
|
| [[Peniche, Portugal|Peniche]], [[Portugal]]
|
* Biologic: Near first appearance of ''[[Eodactylites]]'' fauna ([[Ammonite]]).
* Biologic: Coincides with ''[[Protogrammoceras paltus]]'' horizon of NW-Europe.
| –
| –
|}

==History of geology==
===Spain===
[[File:Aparato.JPG|thumb|Title page of Aparato para la Historia Natural Española]]
In the 17th century [[physician]] {{ill|Alfonso Limón Montero|es|Alfonso Limón Montero}} studied [[evaporation]] of water from rivers and springs in Spain and proposed a model of the [[Water Cycle]].<ref name=baltuille2009>{{cite book |author=J. M. Baltuille Martín|title= La profesión de geólogo|chapter-url= http://www.icog.es/files/pgeologo.pdf|language=es |year= 2009|editor=Ilustre Colegio Profesional de Geólogos |isbn= 978-84-920-0978-7|chapter= Reseña histórica de la profesión geológica en España |pages= 29–53}}</ref>  However it was only in the 18th century that treatises on geology were published.<ref name=biblio2003/>  In the year 1754 [[José Torrubia]] published ''{{ill|Aparato para la Historia Natural Española|es|Aparato para la Historia Natural Española}}'' considered the first treatise written in Spanish defending the thesis of the [[universal flood]]<ref name=sequeiros2003>{{cite journal|author1= L. Sequeiros|author2= F. Anguita|year= 2003|title= Nuevos saberes y nuevos paradigmas en Geología: Historia de las nuevas propuestas en las Ciencias de la Tierra en España entre 1978 y 2003|journal= Llull: Revista de la Sociedad Española de Historia de las Ciencias y de las Técnicas|volume= 26|pages= 279–307|issn= 0210-8615|url= http://www.aepect.org/hemeroteca/Anguita-Sequeiros_Llull2003.pdf|access-date= 2013-03-13|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130709002444/http://www.aepect.org/hemeroteca/Anguita-Sequeiros_Llull2003.pdf|archive-date= 2013-07-09|url-status= dead}}</ref> and drawing fossils from the Iberian Peninsula and elsewhere.<ref name=sequeiros>{{cite web |url= http://www.ugr.es/~mlamolda/galeria/biografia/torrubia.html|title= José Torrubia|access-date=6 Feb 2013 |author=L. Sequeiros|website= Galería de paleontólogos|language=es  }}</ref> In 1771, King Carlos III founded the {{ill|Real Gabinete de Historia Natural de Madrid|es|Real Gabinete de Historia Natural}} (Royal Chamber of Natural History of Madrid) [[Guillermo Bowles]], with the assistance of [[Nicolás de Azara]], published ''[[Introducción a la Historia Natural y a la Geografía Física de España]]'' (Introduction to the Natural History and Physical Geography of Spain) a work which collected data on geological sites, rocks and minerals he collected in his travels around the peninsula.<ref name=biblio2003 /><ref name=mcn>{{cite web |url= http://www.mcnbiografias.com/app-bio/do/show?key=bowles-guillermo|title= Bowles, Guillermo (1720–1780)|access-date=8 Feb 2013 |author= Enciclonet |website= mcn|language=es }}</ref> Between 1797 and 1798 the German {{ill| Christian Herrgen|de|Christian Herrgen}} translated the work of {{ill|Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Widenmann|de|Johann Friedrich Wilhelm Widenmann}}, ''[[Orictognosia]]''  into Spanish. Because of the prestige acquired by the translation, King Carlos IV named him editor of ''[[Anales de Historia Natural]]'' (''Annals of Natural History''), a publication that commenced in 1799.<ref name=casanova2009>{{cite web |url= http://www.minval.org/svm/?p=1908|title= Cristiano Herrgen|access-date=8 Feb 2013 |author= J. M. Casanova|date= 28 Oct 2009|website= Societat Valenciana de Mineralogia|language=es}}</ref>

Agustín Yáñez y Girona first used the term geology in his 1819 work called ''Descripción origlognóstica y geológica de la montaña de Montjuich''.<ref name=biblio2003/> Under the reign of [[Fernando VII]] the Mining Act of 1825 was enacted, which regulated private mining companies.<ref name=murcia>{{cite web |url= http://www.regmurcia.com/servlet/s.Sl?sit=c,373,m,2910&r=ReP-25311-DETALLE_REPORTAJESABUELO|title= La minería en La Unión|access-date=10 Feb 2013 |author= Región de Murcia Digital}}</ref> In 1834 [[Wilhelm Phillip Daniel Schulz|Guillermo Schulz]] produced the first geological map in Spain, a 1:400 000 scale map of the area of Galicia.<ref name=vera2004-01 >{{cite book |author=Vera, J. A. |author2=Ancoechea E. |author3=Barnolas, A. |author4=Bea, F. |author5=Calvo, J. P. |author6=Civis, J. |author7=Vicente, G. de |author8=Fernández Ganotti, J. |author9=García Cortés, A. |author10=Pérez Estaún, A |author11=Pujalte, V. |author12=Rodríguez Fernández, L. R. |author13=Sopeña, A. |author14=Tejero, R.|year=2004|chapter=Introducción|editor=J. A. Vera Torres|title=Geología de España|publisher=Sociedad Geológica de España e Instituto Geológico y Minero de España. |pages=1–17|isbn=978-84-7840-546-6}}</ref>

[[File:Geologico-españa-1851.png|thumb|the first geological map of Spain drawn by Joaquín Ezquerra del Bayo]]
[[Charles Lyell]] visited Spain in the summer of 1830 and also in the winter of 1853.  Lyell's visit to the Pyrenees led him to study the orogeny that produced the mountain chain.  He discovered that they had formed over a [[gradualism|long period of time]], and not the result of a single large [[catastrophism|catastrophe]], as was previously believed.  This led to Lyell's concept of geological history being developed.  His book ''[[Charles Lyell#Career and major writings|Elements of Geology]]'' from 1830 to 1833, was translated into Spanish by [[Ezquerra del Bayo]] in 1847.  This was used as a textbook, as it was the first modern geology text available for the general public in Spain.  This spread Lyell's ideas and terminology.<ref name=CVIRGILI>{{cite journal|author=C. Virgili|doi=10.1344/105.000000314| url=http://revistes.ub.edu/index.php/GEOACTA/article/view/105.000000314/4225|title=Lyell and the Spanish Geology|journal=Geologica Acta|volume=5|number=1|year=2007|pages=119–126|s2cid=54886531 |doi-access=free}}{{open access}}</ref>

Ezquerra del Bayo created the first geological map of Spain in 1850<ref name=CVIRGILI/> Joaquin Ezquerra del Bayo founded the Comisión para la Carta Geológica de Madrid y General del Reino in 1849.  In 1850 this renamed to Comisión del Mapa Geológico de España.  The organisation is now called [[Instituto Geológico y Minero de España]].<ref name=huerga2000>{{cite book |author=A. Huerga Rodríguez|title= Ciento cincuenta años, 1849–1999: Estudio e investigación en las Ciencias de la Tierra|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=jqzSNWgMnfAC&q=1849+creaci%C3%B3n+geologico&pg=PP23|year= 2000|editor= Custodio Gimena |editor2=E. y Huerga Rodríguez, A.|publisher= ITGE|isbn= 978-84-7840-394-3|chapter= Cronología |pages= 19–36 }}</ref>  Its purpose was to publish books and maps of Spain.<ref name=ordaz1978>{{cite journal|author=J. Ordaz |year=1978 |title=La geología de España en la época de Guillermo Schulz (1800–1877) |journal=Trabajos de Geología |volume=10 |pages=21–35 |issn=0474-9588 |url=http://www.geol.uniovi.es/TDG/Volumen10/TG10-02.PDF |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130617053628/http://geol.uniovi.es/TDG/Volumen10/TG10-02.PDF |archive-date=2013-06-17 }}</ref>  Guillermo Schulz drew a high quality map of the geology of the  Asturias.  This was followed by del Bayo's map of Spain and then Moritz Willkomm's geology map of the entire Iberian Peninsula.<ref name=frochoso2004>{{cite journal |author= Frochoso Sánchez|author2= M. y Sierra Álvarez, J |year= 2004|title= La construcción de los mapas geológicos españoles del siglo XIX: Observación, conceptuación y representación |journal= Ería|volume= 64–65|pages= 221–259|issn= 0211-0563 |url= http://www.unioviedo.es/reunido/index.php/RCG/article/view/1487/1403|language=es}}</ref>

The [[Complutense University of Madrid|University of Madrid]] first offered a subject called  "Geology and Paleontology" in 1854 when Juan Vilanova y Piera took up the chair of Geology and Paleontology.<ref name=gozalo1999>{{cite book |author= R. Gozalo |title= Actas XV Jornadas de Paleontología|chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=kl7nPS_PulgC&q=%22C%C3%A1tedra+de+Geolog%C3%ADa+y+Paleontolog%C3%ADa+de+la+Universidad+Central%22&pg=PT40|year= 1999|publisher= ITGE|isbn= 978-84-7840-381-3|chapter= La Paleontología española en la Universidad y centros asociados en el periodo 1849–1936 |pages= 21–29 |language=es}}</ref>

The [[Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural]] (Royal Spanish Society of Natural History) was established in 1871.<ref name=rsehn>{{cite web|url=http://rshn.geo.ucm.es/index.php?d=9 |title=La Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural |access-date=18 Feb 2013 |author=Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613002007/http://rshn.geo.ucm.es/index.php?d=9 |archive-date=2013-06-13 }}</ref> [[Miguel Colmeiro Penido|Miguel Colmeiro y Penido]] was the organisation's first president.<ref name=rsehn2>{{cite web|url=http://rshn.geo.ucm.es/index.php?d=23 |title=Socios fundadores y Presidentes de la Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural |access-date=18 Feb 2013 |author=Real Sociedad Española de Historia Natural |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130613002452/http://rshn.geo.ucm.es/index.php?d=23 |archive-date=2013-06-13 }}</ref> Comisión del Mapa Geológico de España went into a decline until 1873 when [[Manuel Fernández de Castro]] issued a decree to refound the commission and to start studying geology again.<ref name=madridorg>{{cite web |url= http://www.madrimasd.org/cienciaysociedad/patrimonio/personajes/manuel_fernandez_castro/default.asp|title= Manuel Fernández de Castro (1825–1895)|access-date=18 Feb 2013 |author= madri+d|language=es }}</ref> Between 1875 and 1891 [[Lucas Mallada y Pueyo]] published  in the Boletín Geológico y Minero the work ''Sinopsis de las especies fósiles que se han encontrado en España'' (Synopsis of the fossil species that have been found in Spain).  In 1892 he published the General Catalogue of fossil species found in Spain, a work that includes 4,058 species.<ref name=mallada>{{cite web |url= http://www.ugr.es/~mlamolda/galeria/biografia/mallada.html|title= Lucas Mallada y Pueyo|access-date=18 Feb 2013 |author= L. Sequeiros|publisher= Universidad de Granada|language=es }}</ref> In 1882, the Museu de Geologia (aka the Museu Martorell) was opened in Barcelona.

The 14th [[International Geological Congress]] was held in Madrid in 1926.<ref name=igc>{{cite web |url= https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:cPTgmuWrkpEJ:iugs.org/uploads/images/PDF/A%2520Brief%2520History.pdf+&hl=en&gl=es&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESh6MBD-nAeNtJYxPsKo8h6TjxsIfM0Xyd7GEHYXRz2LNjaI6MGFFhPP4hSATLlSvUKu8SIKimitQim23_F27FnUXxGLa0M45I2cOBtLNuuc60uuNMrE_yAl3AC0V7VdlIxcqAwu&sig=AHIEtbTX8_0Y9usbZB4jrw1uVUgpGVHENw|title= The International Geological Congress (A Brief History)|access-date=19 Feb 2013 |author= Unión Internacional de Ciencias Geológicas}}</ref> The Spanish Civil War and its aftermath marked a decline in the study of geology in Spain.<ref name=biblio2003>{{cite journal |author=F. J. Ayala-Carcedo |author2=Barrera, J. L. |author3=García Cruz, C. M. |author4=Gómez Alba, J. |author5=Gozalo, R. |author6=Martín Escorza, C. |author7=Montero, A. |author8=Ordaz, J. |author9=Pedrinaci, E. |author10=Pelayo, F. |author11=Perejón, A. |author12=Puche Riart, O. |author13=Sequeiros, L. |author14=Truyols, J. |year=2003 |title=Bibliografía básica de Historia de la Geología de España |journal=Boletín de la Comisión de Historia de la Geología de España |issue=22|page=20 |url=https://sociedadgeologica.org/comisiones/historia_geologia_espana/boletines_comision_historia/N22_DICIEMBRE_2003.pdf }}</ref>

In 1972 the MAGNA plan was created to produce 1:50000 scale maps of Spain (this work began in Portugal in 1952).<ref name=biblio2003/><ref name=mapoteca>{{cite web |url=http://web.letras.up.pt/mapoteca/em%20portugu%C3%AAs/ARQUIVO/arquivo_-_cartografia_geol%C3%B3gica.htm |title=Cartografia geológica |access-date=19 Feb 2013 |author=Oficina do mapa |website=Universidade do Porto |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120501124844/http://web.letras.up.pt/mapoteca/em%20portugu%C3%AAs/ARQUIVO/arquivo_-_cartografia_geol%C3%B3gica.htm |archive-date=2012-05-01 }}</ref>

Between 1986 and 1987 a Spanish-French collaboration called ECORS-Pirineos made a seismic vertical reflection profile 250&nbsp;km long through the Pyrenees.<ref name=vidal1994>{{cite journal |author=N. Vidal |author2=Gallart, J. |author3=Dañobeitia, J. J. |year=1994|title= Resultados de la estructura cortical en el margen catalán (NE de la Península Ibérica) a partir de la sísmica profunda de reflexión y refracción|journal= Acta Geológica Hispánica|volume= 29|issue= 1|pages= 41–55|issn= 0567-7505|url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:FZMkK9d8e9YJ:digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/6775/1/98274.pdf+&hl=en&gl=es&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESjm4uHER3HRhHlJvxbGMbHrD71FUycAuWvSvqihqNoUK_DlQ7r-72DkAv47FW4tsTmK1oSRyvD5JzyBxd4bubmrvlzvf1Dt3md1zrq3dqsl9XIl7dHB-KdFERISY7hcS5tzgP_K&sig=AHIEtbSg1VWon-DMwbfD8qBgrfX6C4vk8w}}</ref> By 2000 there were six seismic profiles through the Pyrenees which provided a wealth of information of the thickness of the crust and the internal structure of the orogen.<ref name=Teixell2000>{{cite journal|author= A. Teixell|year= 2000|title= Geotectónica de los Pirineos|journal= Investigación y Ciencia|issue= 288|pages= 54–65|issn= 0210-136X|url= https://webs.uab.cat/ateixell/wp-content/uploads/sites/96/2016/09/21.-TeixellInvCI.pdf}}</ref>

===Portugal===
Between 1852 and 1857, [[Carlos Ribeiro]] made a geological map at 1:480 000 scale of the Portuguese region between the [[Douro]] and [[Tagus]] rivers and did geological work in [[Alentejo]].<ref name=leitao>{{cite web |url=http://campus.fct.unl.pt/prmpedra/pt/ribeiro.htm |title=Carlos Ribeiro (1813–1882) |access-date=14 Feb 2013 |author=V. Leitão |publisher=Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia. Universidade Nova de Lisboa |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110205100403/http://campus.fct.unl.pt/prmpedra/pt/ribeiro.htm |archive-date=2011-02-05 }}</ref> Portugal started the [[Comissão Geológica do Reino]] in 1857.  It was directed by  Carlos Ribeiro and Pereira da Costa.<ref name=lneg>{{cite web|url=http://www.lneg.pt/MuseuGeologico/museu/historial |title=Um Pouco de História |access-date=14 Feb 2013 |publisher=LNEG |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109182636/http://www.lneg.pt/MuseuGeologico/museu/historial |archive-date=2013-11-09 }}</ref> Ribeiro with Nery Delgado, published the first geological map of Portugal, at a scale of 1:500 000. This was reissued and updated in 1899 by the Swiss geologist [[Paul Choffat]].<ref name=carneiro>{{cite web |url=http://campus.fct.unl.pt/prmpedra/pt/delgado.htm |title=Joaquim Filipe Nery da Encarnação Delgado (1835–1908) |access-date=14 Feb 2013 |author=A. Carneiro |publisher=Faculdade de Ciências e Tecnologia. Universidade Nova de Lisboa |language=pt |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405232241/http://campus.fct.unl.pt/prmpedra/pt/delgado.htm |archive-date=2012-04-05 }}</ref>

During World War II, the French government employed Georges Zbyszewski to document Portuguese mineral deposits, especially tungsten.<ref name=salome>{{cite web |url= http://cvc.instituto-camoes.pt/ciencia/p55.html|title= Georges Zbyszewski (1909–1999)|access-date=19 Feb 2013 |author=S. Salomé Mota|year= 2006|publisher= Instituto Camões |language= pt }}</ref> In the following years Zbyszewski published about 300 papers on geology and produced five 1:50 000 scale geological maps.<ref name=salome/> 
The [[Museu Geológico]] in Lisbon is part of the [[National Laboratory of Energy and Geology]]. It contains specimens dating back to 1859 collected by [[Carlos Ribeiro]], [[Nery Delgado]], [[Paul Choffat]] and others.<ref>{{cite web|title=LNEG - Laboratório Nacional de Energia e Geologia - The Geological Museum|url=https://www.lneg.pt/en/geological-museum/|website=www.lneg.pt|access-date=26 May 2024}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Topographical relief of Spain]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Geology of Portugal}}
{{Commons category|Geology of Spain}}
{{Commons category|Geology of Andorra}}
{{Commons category|Landforms of Gibraltar}}

===Publications===
*[http://www.ucm.es/info/estratig/journal.htm Journal of  Iberian Geology] ({{ISSN|1886-7995}}) was originally called ''[[Journal of Iberian Geology|Cuadernos de Geología Ibérica]]'' and began publication in 1970.  It was renamed in  1999.
*[http://www.igme.es/internet/default.asp IGME] Instituto Geológico y Minero de España: geological maps — [http://info.igme.es/cartografiadigital/geologica/Magna50.aspx list of 1:50,000 maps covering Spain].
*[http://www.sociedadgeologica.es/publicaciones_geogaceta.html Geogaceta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180118181506/http://www.sociedadgeologica.es/publicaciones_geogaceta.html |date=2018-01-18 }} from Sociedad Geológica de España
*[http://estudiosgeol.revistas.csic.es/ Estudios Geológicos] started  publication in 1945, edited by the Spanish Research Council and published by the [[Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales]].
*{{Cite web |title=TOPO-EUROPE: the Geoscience of Coupled Deep Earth – Surface Processes: 3.4. In Front of the Africa-Europe Collision Zone: the Iberian Microcontinent |url=http://www.topo-europe.eu/3-the-natural-laboratory-concept/3-4-the-iberian-microcontinent |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101014000935/http://www.topo-europe.eu/3-the-natural-laboratory-concept/3-4-the-iberian-microcontinent |archive-date=2010-10-14 }}
* Jenkyns H. C., B.W. Sellwood and L. Pomar (1990) "A Field Excursion Guide to the Island of Mallorca".  [https://geologistsassociation.org.uk/guidesales/ Geologists' Association Guide No.42] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417182213/https://geologistsassociation.org.uk/guidesales/ |date=2021-04-17 }}.
* Moseley F. (1990) "A Geological Field Guide to the Costa Blanca, Spain".  [https://geologistsassociation.org.uk/guidesales/ Geologists' Association Guide No.43] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417182213/https://geologistsassociation.org.uk/guidesales/ |date=2021-04-17 }}.
* Gibbons W. and T. Moreno (2012) "The Geology of Barcelona: an urban excursion guide". [https://geologistsassociation.org.uk/guidesales/ Geologists' Association Guide No.70] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417182213/https://geologistsassociation.org.uk/guidesales/ |date=2021-04-17 }}.  {{ISBN|978-0900717-56-7}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal |last1=Gomez |first1=M. D. P. |last2=Alonso |first2=M. D. R. |title=Duality of Cordierite Granites related to Melt-Restite Segregation in the Peña Negra Anatectic Complex, Central Spain |journal=The Canadian Mineralogist |date=December 2000 |volume=38 |issue=6 |pages=1329–1346 |doi=10.2113/gscanmin.38.6.1329 |bibcode=2000CaMin..38.1329G |hdl=10366/19422 |hdl-access=free }}

{{Geology of Europe}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geology Of The Iberian Peninsula}}
[[Category:Geology of the Iberian Peninsula| ]]
[[Category:Abyssal plains]]
[[Category:Geology of Andorra]]
[[Category:Geology of Gibraltar]]
[[Category:Geology of Portugal]]
[[Category:Geology of Spain]]
[[Category:Iberian Peninsula]]