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{{distinguish|grandiose delusion|illusory superiority}}
{{distinguish|grandiose delusion|illusory superiority}}


In the field of psychology, the term '''grandiosity''' refers to an unrealistic sense of [[Superior (hierarchy)|superiority]], characterized by a sustained view of one's self as better than other people, which is expressed by [[disdain|disdainfully]] viewing them as inferior; and refers to a sense of personal [[uniqueness]], the belief that few other people have anything in common with oneself, and that one can only be understood by a few, very special people.<ref>{{cite book|author=Elsa F. Ronningstam|title=Identifying and Understanding the Narcissistic Personality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAOaiWWA9D8C|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803396-7}}</ref> The personality trait of grandiosity is principally associated with [[narcissistic personality disorder]] (NPD), but also is a feature in the occurrence and expression of [[antisocial personality disorder]], and the [[mania|manic]] and [[hypomania|hypomanic]] episodes of [[Current diagnostic criteria for bipolar disorder|bipolar disorder]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR">[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] Fourth edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) [[American Psychiatric Association]] (2000)</ref>
In [[psychology]], '''grandiosity''' is a sense of [[Superior (hierarchy)|superiority]], [[uniqueness]], or invulnerability that is unrealistic and not based on personal capability. It may be expressed by exaggerated beliefs regarding one's abilities, the belief that few other people have anything in common with oneself, and that one can only be understood by a few, very special people.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Ronningstam EF |title=Identifying and Understanding the Narcissistic Personality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rAOaiWWA9D8C|date=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-803396-7}}</ref> The personality trait of grandiosity is principally associated with [[narcissistic personality disorder]] (NPD), but also is a feature in the occurrence and expression of [[antisocial personality disorder]], and the [[mania|manic]] and [[hypomania|hypomanic]] episodes of [[Current diagnostic criteria for bipolar disorder|bipolar disorder]].<ref name="DSM-IV-TR">[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] Fourth edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) [[American Psychiatric Association]] (2000)</ref>


==Measurement==
==Narcissist-Grandiose (oblivious) Subtype==
Few scales exist for the sole purpose of measuring grandiosity, though one recent attempt is the Narcissistic Grandiosity Scale (NGS), an adjective rating scale where one indicates the applicability of a word to oneself (e.g. superior, glorious).<ref name="Rosenthal_2020">{{cite journal | vauthors = Rosenthal SA, Hooley JM, Montoya RM, van der Linden SL, Steshenko Y | title = The Narcissistic Grandiosity Scale: A Measure to Distinguish Narcissistic Grandiosity From High Self-Esteem | journal = Assessment | volume = 27 | issue = 3 | pages = 487–507 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 31267782 | doi = 10.1177/1073191119858410 | s2cid = 195786931 | url = }}</ref>
Pathological grandiosity has been associated with one of the two subtypes of [[narcissistic personality disorder]] (Gabbard, 1989).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gabbard |first=G. O. |title=Narcissists divided into two sub types: vulnerable and grandiose |journal=Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic |year=1989 |issue=53 |pages=527–532}}</ref> Characteristics of the narcissist-grandiose subtype (as opposed to the narcissist-vulnerable subtype) include:
* Being labeled the “oblivious narcissists” as they are oblivious to the impact of their actions on others or how they are perceived.
* [[Idealization and devaluation|Devaluation]] and criticism of people that [[egotism|threaten self-esteem]].
* More likely to regulate self-esteem through overt self-enhancement (over-claiming abilities or exaggerating situations to project superiority)
* [[Denial]] of weaknesses. Exaggeration of abilities.
* Controlling others whilst both belittling (criticizing) and taking credit for their actions.
* Inflated demands of [[Entitlement#Psychology|entitlement]], superiority ("Don't you know who I am?"). Exaggerated beliefs of self-importance, superiority, achievement, and ability; manipulative behaviors as well as expectations of obedience, admiration, and entitlement; and preoccupation with “fantasies about success, power, brilliance, beauty, or the perfect mate."
* Consistent [[anger]] when confronted with unmet expectations or any perceived slight or accountability for actions. Prone to easily exploding into rage, overreacting, and possibly even becoming aggressive whenever they feel attacked by even the slightest criticism. Blame shifts when accountable.
* Diminished awareness of the [[Cultural dissonance|dissonance]] between their expectations and reality, along with the impact this has on relationships
* Overt presentation of grandiose fantasies, wealth, success, and status.
* Oblivious that expectations of entitlement (overspending, taking advantage) may make a poor impression on other people.
* Conflict within the environment is generally experienced as [[Externalization|external]] to these individuals (i.e., not their fault), rather than as a measure of their own unrealistic expectations


Grandiosity is also measured as part of other tests, including the Personality Assessment for DSM-5 (PID-5), [[Psychopathy Checklist|Psychopathy Checklist-Revised]], and diagnostic interviews for NPD. The Grandiosity section of the Diagnostic Interview for Narcissism (DIN), for instance, describes:<ref name="Gunderson_1990">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gunderson JG, Ronningstam E, Bodkin A | title = The diagnostic interview for narcissistic patients | journal = Archives of General Psychiatry | volume = 47 | issue = 7 | pages = 676–180 | date = July 1990 | pmid = 2360861 | doi = 10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810190076011 }}</ref>
The differences between grandiose and vulnerable narcissist subtypes have been studied (Dickinson & Pincus, 2003):<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dickinson|first=Kelly A.|author2=Pincus, Aaron L.|title=Interpersonal Analysis of Grandiose and Vulnerable Narcissism|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|year=2003|issue=17(3)|pages=188–207}}</ref>
: This overall finding confirms past theory and research that suggests that these [grandiose subtype] individuals lack knowledge of the impact they have upon others, and thus, have an unrealistic view of themselves in relation to others (Gabbard, 1989, 1998; Kernberg, 1975; Kohut, 1971, 1977). Indeed, this very lack of insight into their impact upon others is what incited Gabbard (1989) to enlist the label “oblivious narcissists” to describe their social presentation and distinguish them from their vulnerable counterparts. Grandiose narcissistic individuals expect another’s immediate and undivided attention, and are oblivious to the effect their direct demands of entitlement have on others. And, by virtue of their ability to maintain the grandiose self through self-enhancement, grandiose narcissistic individuals are less susceptible than their vulnerable peers to the chronic emotional consequences of threats to entitled expectations (e.g., distress, lowered self-esteem, interpersonal fearfulness).


The grandiosity section of the Diagnostic Interview for Narcissism (DIN) (Second edition) is as follows:<ref name=gunderson>Gunderson J, Ronningstam E, Bodkin A. "The diagnostic interview for narcissistic patients". ''Archives of General Psychiatry'', 47, 676-80 (1990)</ref>
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
# The person [[Exaggeration|exaggerates]] talents, capacity, and achievements in an unrealistic way.
# The person [[Exaggeration|exaggerates]] talents, capacity, and achievements in an unrealistic way.
# The person believes their invulnerability or do not recognize their limitations.
# The person believes in their invulnerability or does not recognize their limitations.
# The person has grandiose fantasies.
# The person has grandiose fantasies.
# The person believes that they do not need other people.
# The person believes that they do not need other people.
# The person overexamines and downgrades other people, projects, statements, or dreams in an unrealistic manner.
# The person overexamines and downgrades other people's projects, statements, or dreams in an unrealistic manner.
⚫
# The person regards themself as unique or special when compared to other people.
{{Col-2}}
<ol start="6"><li>The person regards themselves as unique or special when compared to other people.</li>
# The person regards themself as generally superior to other people.
# The person behaves self-centeredly and/or self-referentially.
⚫
<li>The person regards themselves as generally superior to other people.</li>
<li>The person behaves self-centeredly and/or self-referentially.</li>
# The person behaves in a [[boastful]] or pretentious way.

<li>The person behaves in a [[boastful]] or pretentious way.</li></ol>
==In narcissism==
{{Col-end}}
Grandiose narcissism is a subtype of [[narcissism]] with grandiosity as its central feature, in addition to other agentic and antagonistic traits (e.g., dominance, attention-seeking, entitlement, manipulation). Confusingly, the term "narcissistic grandiosity" is sometimes used as a synonym for grandiose narcissism and other times used to refer to the subject of this article (superiority feelings).<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" />


==In mania==
==In mania==
In mania, grandiosity is typically more pro-active and aggressive than in narcissism. The manic character may boast of future achievements<ref>{{cite book | ref = harv | last1 = Goffman | first1 = Erving | year = 1972 | title = Relations in Public | publisher = Penguin | pages = 421 }}</ref> or exaggerate their personal qualities.<ref>{{harvp | Goffman | 1972 | loc = p. 413 & notes }}</ref>
In mania, grandiosity is typically more pro-active and aggressive than in [[narcissism]]. The manic character may boast of future achievements<ref name = "Goffman_1972">{{cite book | vauthors = Goffman E | year = 1972 | title = Relations in Public: Microstudies of the Public Order | publisher = Pelican Books | isbn = 978-0-14-021614-1 }}</ref>{{rp|421}} or exaggerate their personal qualities.<ref name = "Goffman_1972" />{{rp|413 & notes}}


They may also begin unrealistically ambitious undertakings, before being cut down, or cutting themselves back down, to size.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Skynner | first1 = Robin | last2 = Cleese | first2 = John | year = 1994 | title = Families and how to survive them | location = London | pages = 168-69 }}</ref>
They may also begin unrealistically ambitious undertakings, before being cut down, or cutting themselves back down, to size.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Skynner R, Cleese J | year = 1994 | title = Families and how to survive them | location = London | pages = 168–169 | isbn = 978-0-7493-1410-1 }}</ref>


==In psychopathy==
==In psychopathy==
Grandiosity features in Factor 1 Facet 1:Interpersonal in the Hare [[Psychopathy Checklist]] -Revised (PCL-R) test.<ref name=factorstructure>{{cite journal |last1 = Harpur |first1 = TJ |last2 = Hare |first2 = RD |last3 = Hakstian |first3 = AR |title = Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications |journal = Psychological Assessment |volume = 1 |issue = 1 |pages = 6-17 |year = 1989 |doi = 10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.6}}</ref> Individuals endorsing this criterion appear arrogant and boastful, and may be unrealistically optimistic about their future. The [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s [[DSM-5]] also notes that persons with [[antisocial personality disorder]] often display an inflated self-image, and can appear excessively self-important, opinionated and cocky, and often hold others in contempt.
Grandiosity features in Factor 1, Facet 1 (Interpersonal) in the [[Hare Psychopathy Checklist|Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R)]] test.<ref name=factorstructure>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harpur TJ, Hare RD, Hakstian AR | title = Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications | journal = Psychological Assessment | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–17 | date = March 1989 | doi = 10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.6}}</ref> Individuals endorsing this criterion appear arrogant and boastful, and may be unrealistically optimistic about their future. The [[American Psychiatric Association]]'s [[DSM-5]] also notes that persons with [[antisocial personality disorder]] often display an inflated self-image, and can appear excessively self-important, opinionated and cocky, and often hold others in contempt.
==Relationship with other variables==

Grandiosity is well documented to have associations with ''both'' positive/adaptive and negative/maladaptive outcomes, leading some researchers to question whether it is necessarily pathological.

=== Positive/Adaptive ===

Grandiosity demonstrates moderate-to-strong positive correlations with self-esteem, typically becoming larger in size when controlling for confounding variables.<ref name="Brunell_2018" /><ref name="Rosenthal_2020" /><ref name="Brown_2009">{{cite journal | vauthors = Brown RP, Budzek K, Tamborski M | title = On the meaning and measure of narcissism | journal = Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin | volume = 35 | issue = 7 | pages = 951–64 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19487486 | doi = 10.1177/0146167209335461 | hdl = 11244/24964 | s2cid = 8494258 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> It relates positively to self-rated superiority and is inversely associated with self-rated worthlessness.<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" /> It is also associated with a host of other variables (often even when controlling for self-esteem), including positive affect, optimism, life satisfaction, [[Gray's biopsychological theory of personality|behavioural activation system]] functioning, and all forms of emotional resilience.<ref name="Brunell_2018" /><ref name="Brown_2009" /><ref name="Rosenthal_2020" /> It also correlates positively with adaptive narcissism, namely authoritativeness, charisma, self-assurance and ambitiousness.<ref name="Brunell_2018" /><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Flett GL, Sherry SB, Hewitt PL, Nepon T | chapter = Understanding the narcissistic perfectionists among us: Grandiosity, vulnerability, and the quest for the perfect self. | chapter-url = https://cruxpsychology.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/Flettetal.2014.43-66.pdf | veditors = Besser A | title = Handbook of psychology of narcissism: Diverse perspectives. | date = 2014 | pages = 43–66 | publisher = Nova Science Publishers, Inc. | isbn = 978-1-63463-005-4 }}</ref> Moreover, it exhibits negative associations with depression, anxiety, pessimism and shame.<ref name="Brown_2009" /><ref name="Hampton_2018">{{Cite journal | vauthors = Hampton SL, Vitacco MJ, Kosson DS |date=November 2018 |title=Construct Validity of the Three-Factor Model of the Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy |journal=Criminal Justice and Behavior |language=en |volume=45 |issue=11 |pages=1613–1633 |doi=10.1177/0093854818786759 |s2cid=149624205 |issn=0093-8548}}</ref> Grandiosity has a small positive relationship with intelligence and achievement.<ref name="Hampton_2018" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vitacco MJ, Kosson DS | title = Understanding psychopathy through an evaluation of interpersonal behavior: testing the factor structure of the interpersonal measure of psychopathy in a large sample of jail detainees | journal = Psychological Assessment | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 638–649 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20822276 | pmc = 3962268 | doi = 10.1037/a0019780 }}</ref><ref>Zajenkowski, M., & Gignac, G. E. (2021). Telling people they are intelligent correlates with the feeling of narcissistic uniqueness: The influence of IQ feedback on temporary state narcissism. ''Intelligence'', ''89'', 101595.</ref>

=== Negative/Maladaptive ===

Grandiosity has a well-studied association with aggression (both physical and verbal), risk-taking (e.g. financial, social, sexual) and competitiveness.<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" /><ref name="Brunell_2018" /> It also has reliable associations with maladaptive narcissistic traits like entitlement and interpersonal exploitativeness.<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" /><ref name="Brunell_2018" /> Even when controlling for exploitativeness, however, grandiosity still predicts unethical behaviours like lying, cheating and stealing.<ref name="Brunell_2018" /> Grandiosity seems to be specifically related to rationalised cheating (i.e. opportunistic cheating behaviour whose context allows the behaviour to be construed as something other than cheating), but not deliberative cheating (i.e. conscious premeditation to violate rules and cheat).<ref name="Brunell_2018" />

==Mechanisms==

Despite the prominence of grandiosity in the research literature, few theories or even studies of its underlying mechanisms exist. Approximately 23% of the variance in grandiosity is explained by genetics, with the majority of remaining variance attributable to non-shared environmental factors.<ref name="Luo_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Luo YL, Cai H, Song H | title = A behavioral genetic study of intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of narcissism | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = e93403 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24695616 | pmc = 3973692 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0093403 | bibcode = 2014PLoSO...993403L | doi-access = free }}</ref>

=== Cognitive ===

Research has consistently indicated a role of positive rumination (repetitive positive self-focused thoughts). Recently, an experimental study found that having neurotypical participants engage in overly-positive rumination (i.e. think about times when they felt special, unique, important or superior) lead to increases in state grandiosity, whereas a control distraction condition conferred no such increment.<ref name="Bortolon_2021">{{cite journal | vauthors = Bortolon C, Raffard S | title = Pondering on how great I am: Does rumination play a role in grandiose ideas? | journal = Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry | volume = 70 | issue = | pages = 101596 | date = March 2021 | pmid = 32841922 | doi = 10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101596 | s2cid = 221326822 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Another study confirmed that positive ruminations confer grandiose self-perceptions in the moment, and found that (grandiosity-prone) patients with bipolar disorder (compared with healthy controls) exhibited heightened connectivity between brain regions associated with self-relevant information-processing during this task ([[Prefrontal cortex|medial prefrontal]] and [[Anterior cingulate cortex|anterior cingulate cortices]])<ref name="Ghaznavi_2023">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ghaznavi S, Chou T, Dougherty DD, Nierenberg AA | title = Differential patterns of default mode network activity associated with negative and positive rumination in bipolar disorder | journal = Journal of Affective Disorders | volume = 323 | issue = | pages = 607–616 | date = February 2023 | pmid = 36503047 | doi = 10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.014 | pmc = 9871916 }}</ref> Further, experimental studies suggest that grandiose narcissists maintain their inflated self-esteem following criticism by recalling self-aggrandizing memories.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rhodewalt F, Eddings SK | title = Narcissus reflects: Memory distortion in response to ego-relevant feedback among high-and low-narcissistic men. | journal = Journal of Research in Personality | date = April 2002 | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 97–116 | doi =10.1006/jrpe.2002.2342 }}</ref>

Correlational designs further confirm the associations of mania/hypomania and grandiose narcissism with positive self-rumination, and to specific expressions of positive rumination after success (e.g. believing that success in one domain indicates likely success in another).<ref name="Fulford_2008">{{cite journal | vauthors = Fulford D, Johnson SL, Carver CS | title = Commonalities and differences in characteristics of persons at risk for narcissism and mania | journal = Journal of Research in Personality | volume = 42 | issue = 6 | pages = 1427–1438 | date = December 2008 | pmid = 20376289 | pmc = 2849176 | doi = 10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.002 }}</ref> Grandiose fantasies, conceptually similar to positive rumination, also feature in narcissism.<ref name="Glover_2012">{{cite journal | vauthors = Glover N, Miller JD, Lynam DR, Crego C, Widiger TA | title = The five-factor narcissism inventory: a five-factor measure of narcissistic personality traits | journal = Journal of Personality Assessment | volume = 94 | issue = 5 | pages = 500–512 | date = 2012 | pmid = 22475323 | doi = 10.1080/00223891.2012.670680 | s2cid = 28500708 }}</ref><ref name="Raskin_1991">{{cite journal | vauthors = Raskin R, Novacek J | title = Narcissism and the use of fantasy | journal = Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 47 | issue = 4 | pages = 490–9 | date = July 1991 | pmid = 1939692 | doi = 10.1002/1097-4679(199107)47:4<490::aid-jclp2270470404>3.0.co;2-j }}</ref> While grandiose narcissism has been associated with attentional and mnemonic biases to positive self-related words,<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Jones LL | title = Handbook of Trait Narcissism | chapter = Narcissism and Memory | veditors = Hermann A, Brunell A, Foster J | date = 2018 | pages = 225–231 | publisher = Springer | location = Cham | doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_24 | isbn = 978-3-319-92171-6 }}</ref> it remains to be seen whether this reflects grandiosity or some other trait specific to narcissism (e.g. entitlement).

=== Other theories ===

A common characteristic of disorders and traits associated with grandiosity is heightened positive affect and potential dysregulation thereof.<ref name="Fulford_2008" /><ref name="Krizan_2018">{{cite journal | vauthors = Krizan Z, Herlache AD | title = The Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Synthetic View of Narcissistic Personality | journal = Personality and Social Psychology Review| volume = 22 | issue = 1 | pages = 3–31 | date = February 2018 | pmid = 28132598 | doi = 10.1177/1088868316685018 | s2cid = 206682971 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This is true of mania/hypomania in bipolar disorder, grandiose narcissism, and the interpersonal facet of psychopathy.<ref name="Fulford_2008" /><ref name="Krizan_2018" /><ref name="pmid14994949">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hall JR, Benning SD, Patrick CJ | title = Criterion-related validity of the three-factor model of psychopathy: personality, behavior, and adaptive functioning | journal = Assessment | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 4–16 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 14994949 | doi = 10.1177/1073191103261466 | s2cid = 23015753 }}</ref> Such associations partially inspired the Narcissism Spectrum Model,<ref name="Krizan_2018" /><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Krizan Z | title = Handbook of Trait Narcissism | chapter = The Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Spectrum Perspective on Narcissistic Personality | publisher = Springer | location = Cham | date = 2018 | pages = 15–25 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_2 | isbn = 978-3-319-92171-6 }}</ref> which posits grandiosity reflects the combination of self-preoccupation and "boldness" - exaggerated positive emotionality, self-confidence, and reward-seeking, which is ostensibly linked with [[Mesolimbic pathway|neurobiological systems]] mediating [[Gray's biopsychological theory of personality|behavioural approach motivation]].

While no neuroimaging studies have specifically assessed the association between grandiosity and the reward system (or any other system), some neuroimaging studies using composite scales of grandiosity with other traits offer tentative support of these assertions,<ref name="pmid26048178">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chester DS, Lynam DR, Powell DK, DeWall CN | title = Narcissism is associated with weakened frontostriatal connectivity: a DTI study | journal = Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience | volume = 11 | issue = 7 | pages = 1036–1040 | date = July 2016 | pmid = 26048178 | pmc = 4927024 | doi = 10.1093/scan/nsv069 }}</ref><ref name="pmid19683706">{{cite journal | vauthors = Glenn AL, Raine A, Yaralian PS, Yang Y | title = Increased volume of the striatum in psychopathic individuals | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 52–8 | date = January 2010 | pmid = 19683706 | pmc = 2794920 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.018 }}</ref> while others using the same measure suggest no association.<ref name="pmid32584089">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gao Y, Zhang W | title = Reward processing and psychopathic traits in children | journal = Personality Disorders | volume = 12 | issue = 4 | pages = 339–346 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 32584089 | pmc = 8350845 | doi = 10.1037/per0000430 }}</ref><ref name="pmid25497690">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohn MD, Veltman DJ, Pape LE, van Lith K, Vermeiren RR, van den Brink W, Doreleijers TA, Popma A | title = Incentive Processing in Persistent Disruptive Behavior and Psychopathic Traits: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study in Adolescents | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 78 | issue = 9 | pages = 615–24 | date = November 2015 | pmid = 25497690 | doi = 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.08.017 | s2cid = 27235645 }}</ref>

Contrary to frequent assertions by narcissism researchers, and despite much study of the matter, there is only weak and inconsistent evidence that grandiosity (when specifically and reliably measured) and grandiose narcissism have any association with parental overvaluation.<ref name="Luo_2014" /><ref name="pmid24684075">{{cite journal | vauthors = Horton RS, Tritch T | title = Clarifying the links between grandiose narcissism and parenting | journal = The Journal of Psychology | volume = 148 | issue = 2 | pages = 133–43 | date = 2014 | pmid = 24684075 | doi = 10.1080/00223980.2012.752337 | s2cid = 15076014 }}</ref> The largest study on the matter found no association whatsoever.<ref name="pmid35217322">{{cite journal | vauthors = Clemens V, Fegert JM, Allroggen M | title = Adverse childhood experiences and grandiose narcissism - Findings from a population-representative sample | journal = Child Abuse & Neglect | volume = 127 | issue = | pages = 105545 | date = May 2022 | pmid = 35217322 | doi = 10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105545 | s2cid = 247068880 }}</ref>


==Reality-testing==
==Reality-testing==


A distinction is made between individuals exhibiting grandiosity, which includes a degree of [[Insight in psychology and psychiatry|insight]] into their unrealistic thoughts (they are aware that their behavior is considered unusual), in contrast to those experiencing [[grandiose delusions]], who lack this capability for reality-testing. Some individuals may transition between these two states, with grandiose ideas initially developing as "daydreams" that the patient recognises as untrue, but which can subsequently turn into full delusions that the patient becomes convinced reflect reality.<ref>Otto Fenichel, ''The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis'' (London 1946) pp. 421, 444</ref>
A distinction is made between individuals exhibiting grandiosity which includes a degree of [[Insight in psychology and psychiatry|insight]] into their unrealistic thoughts (they are aware that their behavior is considered unusual), and those experiencing [[grandiose delusions]] who lack this capability for reality-testing. Some individuals may transition between these two states, with grandiose ideas initially developing as "daydreams" that the patient recognises as untrue, but which can subsequently turn into full delusions that the patient becomes convinced reflect reality.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Fenichel O | title = The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis | location = London | publisher = Norton | date = 1946 | pages = 421, 444 | isbn = 978-0-393-01019-0 }}</ref>


==Psychoanalysis and the grandiose self==
==Psychoanalysis and the grandiose self==


[[Otto Kernberg]] saw the unhealthily grandiose self as merging childhood feelings of specialness, personal ideals, and fantasies of an ideal parent.<ref>Otto F. Kernberg, ''Borderline Conditions and Pathological Narcissism'' (London 1990) p. 265</ref>
[[Otto Kernberg]] saw the unhealthily grandiose self as merging childhood feelings of specialness, personal ideals, and fantasies of an ideal parent.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kernberg OF |title=Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism |date=1990 |publisher=J. Aronson |location=London |isbn=978-0-87668-762-8 | page = 265}}</ref>

⚫
[[Heinz Kohut]] saw the grandiose self as a normal part of the developmental process, only pathological when the grand and humble parts of the self became decisively divided.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Klein J | title = Our Need for Others | location = London | date = 1994 | page = 222 | isbn = 978-0-415-05879-7 }}</ref> Kohut's recommendations for dealing with the patient with a disordered grandiose self were to tolerate and so re-integrate the grandiosity with the realistic self.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Siegal AM | title = Heinz Kohut and the psychology of the Self | date = 1996 | page = 95 | publisher = Routledge | isbn = 978-0-415-08638-7 }}</ref>

⚫
==Reactive attachment disorder==

⚫
The personality trait of grandiosity also is a component of the [[reactive attachment disorder]] (RAD), a severe and relatively uncommon [[attachment disorder]] that affects children.<ref>{{cite journal| vauthors = King MC |title=Reactive Attachment Disorder: A Review|journal=Journal of Special Education|volume=1-4|url=http://www.lynchburg.edu/wp-content/uploads/volume-1-2006/KingM-Reactive-Attachment-Disorder-Review.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101092829/http://www.lynchburg.edu/wp-content/uploads/volume-1-2006/KingM-Reactive-Attachment-Disorder-Review.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> The expression of RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating to other people in most social contexts, such as the persistent failure to initiate or to respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way, known as the "inhibited form" of reactive attachment disorder.<ref name="DSM-IV-TR 2000 p. 129">DSM-IV-TR (2000) American Psychiatric Association, p. 129.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schechter DS, Willheim E | title = Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood | journal = Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 665–686 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19486844 | pmc = 2690512 | doi = 10.1016/j.chc.2009.03.001 }}</ref>

==Related traits==
Grandiosity is associated and often confused with other personality traits, including self-esteem, entitlement, and contemptuousness.<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" />


;Self-esteem: While the exact difference between high self-esteem and grandiosity has yet to be fully elucidated, research suggests that, while strongly correlated, they predict different outcomes. While both predict positive outcomes like optimism, life and job satisfaction, extraversion and positive affect, grandiosity uniquely predicts entitlement, exploitativeness and aggression.<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" />
⚫
[[Heinz Kohut]] saw the grandiose self as a normal part of the developmental process, only pathological when the grand and humble parts of the self became decisively divided.<ref>Josephine Klein, ''Our Need for Others'' (London 1994) p. 222</ref> Kohut's recommendations for dealing with the patient with a disordered grandiose self were to tolerate and so re-integrate the grandiosity with the realistic self.<ref>Allen M. Siegal, ''Heinz Kohut and the psychology of the Self'' (1996) p. 95</ref>


;Entitlement: Entitlement is regularly confused with grandiosity even in peer-reviewed articles, but the literature nevertheless offers a clear discrimination of the two. Psychological entitlement is a sense of deservingness to positive outcomes, and can be founded on ''either'' grandiosity or feelings of deprivation.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hart W, Tortoriello GK, Richardson K | title = Deprived and Grandiose Explanations for Psychological Entitlement: Implications for Theory and Measurement | journal = Journal of Personality Assessment | volume = 102 | issue = 4 | pages = 488–498 | date = 2020-07-03 | pmid = 30907660 | doi = 10.1080/00223891.2019.1565573 | s2cid = 85498007 }}</ref> Like self-esteem, grandiosity and entitlement are well documented to predict different outcomes. Entitlement appears to be associated with more maladaptive outcomes, including low empathy, antisocial behaviour, and poor mental health, whereas grandiosity predicts better mental health.<ref name="Brunell_2018">{{cite book | vauthors = Brunell AB, Buelow MT |title=Handbook of Trait Narcissism |chapter=Using Homogenous Scales to Understand Narcissism: Grandiosity, Entitlement, and Exploitativeness |date=2018 |work=Handbook of Trait Narcissism: Key Advances, Research Methods, and Controversies |pages=133–139 | veditors = Hermann AD, Brunell AB, Foster JD |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_14 |isbn=978-3-319-92171-6 }}</ref>
⚫
==Reactive Attachment Disorder==


;Devaluation/contempt: Surprisingly, and quite counterintuitively, grandiosity is only weakly related to regarding others as worthless (devaluation or contemptuousness).<ref name="Rosenthal_2020" /> Moreover, grandiosity should not be conflated with arrogant social behaviour.
⚫
The personality trait of grandiosity also is a component of the [[reactive attachment disorder]] (RAD), a severe and relatively uncommon [[attachment disorder]] that affects children.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Malia C. King|title=Reactive Attachment Disorder: A Review|journal=Journal of Special Education|volume=1-4|url=http://www.lynchburg.edu/wp-content/uploads/volume-1-2006/KingM-Reactive-Attachment-Disorder-Review.pdf|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101092829/http://www.lynchburg.edu/wp-content/uploads/volume-1-2006/KingM-Reactive-Attachment-Disorder-Review.pdf|archivedate=2017-01-01}}</ref> The expression of RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating to other people in most social contexts, such as the persistent failure to initiate or to respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way, known as the "inhibited form" of reactive attachment disorder.<ref name="DSM-IV-TR 2000 p. 129">DSM-IV-TR (2000) American Psychiatric Association, p. 129.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=[[Daniel Schechter|Schechter]] DS, Willheim E|title=Disturbances of Attachment and Parental Psychopathology in Early Childhood|journal=Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America|volume=18|issue=3| pages= 665–686|date=July 2009|pmid=19486844|doi=10.1016/j.chc.2009.03.001|pmc=2690512}}</ref>


==See also==
== See also ==
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
{{Columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [[God complex]]
* [[Ego ideal]]
* [[Ego ideal]]
* [[Ego reduction]]
* [[Ego reduction]]
* [[Egotism]]
* [[Egotism]]
* [[Narcissism]]
* [[Neville Symington]]
* [[Neville Symington]]
* [[Omnipotence]]
* [[Omnipotence]]
* [[Special snowflake]]
* [[Snowflake (slang)]]
* [[Supremacism]]
* [[Supremacism]]
}}
}}


==References==
== References ==
{{Reflist}}
{{Reflist}}


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{{Psychopathy}}
{{Psychopathy}}


[[Category:Abnormal psychology]]
[[Category:Symptoms and signs of mental disorders]]
[[Category:Narcissism]]
[[Category:Psychopathy]]

Latest revision as of 10:31, 15 July 2024

Not to be confused with grandiose delusion or illusory superiority.

In psychology, grandiosity is a sense of superiority, uniqueness, or invulnerability that is unrealistic and not based on personal capability. It may be expressed by exaggerated beliefs regarding one's abilities, the belief that few other people have anything in common with oneself, and that one can only be understood by a few, very special people.[1] The personality trait of grandiosity is principally associated with narcissistic personality disorder (NPD), but also is a feature in the occurrence and expression of antisocial personality disorder, and the manic and hypomanic episodes of bipolar disorder.[2]

Measurement

[edit]

Few scales exist for the sole purpose of measuring grandiosity, though one recent attempt is the Narcissistic Grandiosity Scale (NGS), an adjective rating scale where one indicates the applicability of a word to oneself (e.g. superior, glorious).[3]

Grandiosity is also measured as part of other tests, including the Personality Assessment for DSM-5 (PID-5), Psychopathy Checklist-Revised, and diagnostic interviews for NPD. The Grandiosity section of the Diagnostic Interview for Narcissism (DIN), for instance, describes:[4]

  1. The person exaggerates talents, capacity, and achievements in an unrealistic way.
  2. The person believes in their invulnerability or does not recognize their limitations.
  3. The person has grandiose fantasies.
  4. The person believes that they do not need other people.
  5. The person overexamines and downgrades other people's projects, statements, or dreams in an unrealistic manner.
  6. The person regards themself as unique or special when compared to other people.
  7. The person regards themself as generally superior to other people.
  8. The person behaves self-centeredly and/or self-referentially.
  9. The person behaves in a boastful or pretentious way.

In narcissism

[edit]

Grandiose narcissism is a subtype of narcissism with grandiosity as its central feature, in addition to other agentic and antagonistic traits (e.g., dominance, attention-seeking, entitlement, manipulation). Confusingly, the term "narcissistic grandiosity" is sometimes used as a synonym for grandiose narcissism and other times used to refer to the subject of this article (superiority feelings).[3]

In mania

[edit]

In mania, grandiosity is typically more pro-active and aggressive than in narcissism. The manic character may boast of future achievements[5]: 421  or exaggerate their personal qualities.[5]: 413 & notes 

They may also begin unrealistically ambitious undertakings, before being cut down, or cutting themselves back down, to size.[6]

In psychopathy

[edit]

Grandiosity features in Factor 1, Facet 1 (Interpersonal) in the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) test.[7] Individuals endorsing this criterion appear arrogant and boastful, and may be unrealistically optimistic about their future. The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 also notes that persons with antisocial personality disorder often display an inflated self-image, and can appear excessively self-important, opinionated and cocky, and often hold others in contempt.

Relationship with other variables

[edit]

Grandiosity is well documented to have associations with both positive/adaptive and negative/maladaptive outcomes, leading some researchers to question whether it is necessarily pathological.

Positive/Adaptive

[edit]

Grandiosity demonstrates moderate-to-strong positive correlations with self-esteem, typically becoming larger in size when controlling for confounding variables.[8][3][9] It relates positively to self-rated superiority and is inversely associated with self-rated worthlessness.[3] It is also associated with a host of other variables (often even when controlling for self-esteem), including positive affect, optimism, life satisfaction, behavioural activation system functioning, and all forms of emotional resilience.[8][9][3] It also correlates positively with adaptive narcissism, namely authoritativeness, charisma, self-assurance and ambitiousness.[8][10] Moreover, it exhibits negative associations with depression, anxiety, pessimism and shame.[9][11] Grandiosity has a small positive relationship with intelligence and achievement.[11][12][13]

Negative/Maladaptive

[edit]

Grandiosity has a well-studied association with aggression (both physical and verbal), risk-taking (e.g. financial, social, sexual) and competitiveness.[3][8] It also has reliable associations with maladaptive narcissistic traits like entitlement and interpersonal exploitativeness.[3][8] Even when controlling for exploitativeness, however, grandiosity still predicts unethical behaviours like lying, cheating and stealing.[8] Grandiosity seems to be specifically related to rationalised cheating (i.e. opportunistic cheating behaviour whose context allows the behaviour to be construed as something other than cheating), but not deliberative cheating (i.e. conscious premeditation to violate rules and cheat).[8]

Mechanisms

[edit]

Despite the prominence of grandiosity in the research literature, few theories or even studies of its underlying mechanisms exist. Approximately 23% of the variance in grandiosity is explained by genetics, with the majority of remaining variance attributable to non-shared environmental factors.[14]

Cognitive

[edit]

Research has consistently indicated a role of positive rumination (repetitive positive self-focused thoughts). Recently, an experimental study found that having neurotypical participants engage in overly-positive rumination (i.e. think about times when they felt special, unique, important or superior) lead to increases in state grandiosity, whereas a control distraction condition conferred no such increment.[15] Another study confirmed that positive ruminations confer grandiose self-perceptions in the moment, and found that (grandiosity-prone) patients with bipolar disorder (compared with healthy controls) exhibited heightened connectivity between brain regions associated with self-relevant information-processing during this task (medial prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices)[16] Further, experimental studies suggest that grandiose narcissists maintain their inflated self-esteem following criticism by recalling self-aggrandizing memories.[17]

Correlational designs further confirm the associations of mania/hypomania and grandiose narcissism with positive self-rumination, and to specific expressions of positive rumination after success (e.g. believing that success in one domain indicates likely success in another).[18] Grandiose fantasies, conceptually similar to positive rumination, also feature in narcissism.[19][20] While grandiose narcissism has been associated with attentional and mnemonic biases to positive self-related words,[21] it remains to be seen whether this reflects grandiosity or some other trait specific to narcissism (e.g. entitlement).

Other theories

[edit]

A common characteristic of disorders and traits associated with grandiosity is heightened positive affect and potential dysregulation thereof.[18][22] This is true of mania/hypomania in bipolar disorder, grandiose narcissism, and the interpersonal facet of psychopathy.[18][22][23] Such associations partially inspired the Narcissism Spectrum Model,[22][24] which posits grandiosity reflects the combination of self-preoccupation and "boldness" - exaggerated positive emotionality, self-confidence, and reward-seeking, which is ostensibly linked with neurobiological systems mediating behavioural approach motivation.

While no neuroimaging studies have specifically assessed the association between grandiosity and the reward system (or any other system), some neuroimaging studies using composite scales of grandiosity with other traits offer tentative support of these assertions,[25][26] while others using the same measure suggest no association.[27][28]

Contrary to frequent assertions by narcissism researchers, and despite much study of the matter, there is only weak and inconsistent evidence that grandiosity (when specifically and reliably measured) and grandiose narcissism have any association with parental overvaluation.[14][29] The largest study on the matter found no association whatsoever.[30]

Reality-testing

[edit]

A distinction is made between individuals exhibiting grandiosity which includes a degree of insight into their unrealistic thoughts (they are aware that their behavior is considered unusual), and those experiencing grandiose delusions who lack this capability for reality-testing. Some individuals may transition between these two states, with grandiose ideas initially developing as "daydreams" that the patient recognises as untrue, but which can subsequently turn into full delusions that the patient becomes convinced reflect reality.[31]

Psychoanalysis and the grandiose self

[edit]

Otto Kernberg saw the unhealthily grandiose self as merging childhood feelings of specialness, personal ideals, and fantasies of an ideal parent.[32]

Heinz Kohut saw the grandiose self as a normal part of the developmental process, only pathological when the grand and humble parts of the self became decisively divided.[33] Kohut's recommendations for dealing with the patient with a disordered grandiose self were to tolerate and so re-integrate the grandiosity with the realistic self.[34]

Reactive attachment disorder

[edit]

The personality trait of grandiosity also is a component of the reactive attachment disorder (RAD), a severe and relatively uncommon attachment disorder that affects children.[35] The expression of RAD is characterized by markedly disturbed and developmentally inappropriate ways of relating to other people in most social contexts, such as the persistent failure to initiate or to respond to most social interactions in a developmentally appropriate way, known as the "inhibited form" of reactive attachment disorder.[36][37]

[edit]

Grandiosity is associated and often confused with other personality traits, including self-esteem, entitlement, and contemptuousness.[3]

Self-esteem
While the exact difference between high self-esteem and grandiosity has yet to be fully elucidated, research suggests that, while strongly correlated, they predict different outcomes. While both predict positive outcomes like optimism, life and job satisfaction, extraversion and positive affect, grandiosity uniquely predicts entitlement, exploitativeness and aggression.[3]
Entitlement
Entitlement is regularly confused with grandiosity even in peer-reviewed articles, but the literature nevertheless offers a clear discrimination of the two. Psychological entitlement is a sense of deservingness to positive outcomes, and can be founded on either grandiosity or feelings of deprivation.[38] Like self-esteem, grandiosity and entitlement are well documented to predict different outcomes. Entitlement appears to be associated with more maladaptive outcomes, including low empathy, antisocial behaviour, and poor mental health, whereas grandiosity predicts better mental health.[8]
Devaluation/contempt
Surprisingly, and quite counterintuitively, grandiosity is only weakly related to regarding others as worthless (devaluation or contemptuousness).[3] Moreover, grandiosity should not be conflated with arrogant social behaviour.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ronningstam EF (2005). Identifying and Understanding the Narcissistic Personality. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-803396-7.
  2. ^ Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Fourth edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR) American Psychiatric Association (2000)
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Rosenthal SA, Hooley JM, Montoya RM, van der Linden SL, Steshenko Y (April 2020). "The Narcissistic Grandiosity Scale: A Measure to Distinguish Narcissistic Grandiosity From High Self-Esteem". Assessment. 27 (3): 487–507. doi:10.1177/1073191119858410. PMID 31267782. S2CID 195786931.
  4. ^ Gunderson JG, Ronningstam E, Bodkin A (July 1990). "The diagnostic interview for narcissistic patients". Archives of General Psychiatry. 47 (7): 676–180. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1990.01810190076011. PMID 2360861.
  5. ^ a b Goffman E (1972). Relations in Public: Microstudies of the Public Order. Pelican Books. ISBN 978-0-14-021614-1.
  6. ^ Skynner R, Cleese J (1994). Families and how to survive them. London. pp. 168–169. ISBN 978-0-7493-1410-1.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  7. ^ Harpur TJ, Hare RD, Hakstian AR (March 1989). "Two-factor conceptualization of psychopathy: Construct validity and assessment implications". Psychological Assessment. 1 (1): 6–17. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.1.1.6.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h Brunell AB, Buelow MT (2018). "Using Homogenous Scales to Understand Narcissism: Grandiosity, Entitlement, and Exploitativeness". In Hermann AD, Brunell AB, Foster JD (eds.). Handbook of Trait Narcissism. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 133–139. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_14. ISBN 978-3-319-92171-6. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  9. ^ a b c Brown RP, Budzek K, Tamborski M (July 2009). "On the meaning and measure of narcissism". Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin. 35 (7): 951–64. doi:10.1177/0146167209335461. hdl:11244/24964. PMID 19487486. S2CID 8494258.
  10. ^ Flett GL, Sherry SB, Hewitt PL, Nepon T (2014). "Understanding the narcissistic perfectionists among us: Grandiosity, vulnerability, and the quest for the perfect self." (PDF). In Besser A (ed.). Handbook of psychology of narcissism: Diverse perspectives. Nova Science Publishers, Inc. pp. 43–66. ISBN 978-1-63463-005-4.
  11. ^ a b Hampton SL, Vitacco MJ, Kosson DS (November 2018). "Construct Validity of the Three-Factor Model of the Interpersonal Measure of Psychopathy". Criminal Justice and Behavior. 45 (11): 1613–1633. doi:10.1177/0093854818786759. ISSN 0093-8548. S2CID 149624205.
  12. ^ Vitacco MJ, Kosson DS (September 2010). "Understanding psychopathy through an evaluation of interpersonal behavior: testing the factor structure of the interpersonal measure of psychopathy in a large sample of jail detainees". Psychological Assessment. 22 (3): 638–649. doi:10.1037/a0019780. PMC 3962268. PMID 20822276.
  13. ^ Zajenkowski, M., & Gignac, G. E. (2021). Telling people they are intelligent correlates with the feeling of narcissistic uniqueness: The influence of IQ feedback on temporary state narcissism. Intelligence, 89, 101595.
  14. ^ a b Luo YL, Cai H, Song H (2014). "A behavioral genetic study of intrapersonal and interpersonal dimensions of narcissism". PLOS ONE. 9 (4): e93403. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...993403L. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0093403. PMC 3973692. PMID 24695616.
  15. ^ Bortolon C, Raffard S (March 2021). "Pondering on how great I am: Does rumination play a role in grandiose ideas?". Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry. 70: 101596. doi:10.1016/j.jbtep.2020.101596. PMID 32841922. S2CID 221326822.
  16. ^ Ghaznavi S, Chou T, Dougherty DD, Nierenberg AA (February 2023). "Differential patterns of default mode network activity associated with negative and positive rumination in bipolar disorder". Journal of Affective Disorders. 323: 607–616. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2022.12.014. PMC 9871916. PMID 36503047.
  17. ^ Rhodewalt F, Eddings SK (April 2002). "Narcissus reflects: Memory distortion in response to ego-relevant feedback among high-and low-narcissistic men". Journal of Research in Personality. 36 (2): 97–116. doi:10.1006/jrpe.2002.2342.
  18. ^ a b c Fulford D, Johnson SL, Carver CS (December 2008). "Commonalities and differences in characteristics of persons at risk for narcissism and mania". Journal of Research in Personality. 42 (6): 1427–1438. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2008.06.002. PMC 2849176. PMID 20376289.
  19. ^ Glover N, Miller JD, Lynam DR, Crego C, Widiger TA (2012). "The five-factor narcissism inventory: a five-factor measure of narcissistic personality traits". Journal of Personality Assessment. 94 (5): 500–512. doi:10.1080/00223891.2012.670680. PMID 22475323. S2CID 28500708.
  20. ^ Raskin R, Novacek J (July 1991). "Narcissism and the use of fantasy". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 47 (4): 490–9. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199107)47:4<490::aid-jclp2270470404>3.0.co;2-j. PMID 1939692.
  21. ^ Jones LL (2018). "Narcissism and Memory". In Hermann A, Brunell A, Foster J (eds.). Handbook of Trait Narcissism. Cham: Springer. pp. 225–231. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_24. ISBN 978-3-319-92171-6.
  22. ^ a b c Krizan Z, Herlache AD (February 2018). "The Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Synthetic View of Narcissistic Personality". Personality and Social Psychology Review. 22 (1): 3–31. doi:10.1177/1088868316685018. PMID 28132598. S2CID 206682971.
  23. ^ Hall JR, Benning SD, Patrick CJ (March 2004). "Criterion-related validity of the three-factor model of psychopathy: personality, behavior, and adaptive functioning". Assessment. 11 (1): 4–16. doi:10.1177/1073191103261466. PMID 14994949. S2CID 23015753.
  24. ^ Krizan Z (2018). "The Narcissism Spectrum Model: A Spectrum Perspective on Narcissistic Personality". Handbook of Trait Narcissism. Cham: Springer. pp. 15–25. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-92171-6_2. ISBN 978-3-319-92171-6.
  25. ^ Chester DS, Lynam DR, Powell DK, DeWall CN (July 2016). "Narcissism is associated with weakened frontostriatal connectivity: a DTI study". Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. 11 (7): 1036–1040. doi:10.1093/scan/nsv069. PMC 4927024. PMID 26048178.
  26. ^ Glenn AL, Raine A, Yaralian PS, Yang Y (January 2010). "Increased volume of the striatum in psychopathic individuals". Biological Psychiatry. 67 (1): 52–8. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.018. PMC 2794920. PMID 19683706.
  27. ^ Gao Y, Zhang W (July 2021). "Reward processing and psychopathic traits in children". Personality Disorders. 12 (4): 339–346. doi:10.1037/per0000430. PMC 8350845. PMID 32584089.
  28. ^ Cohn MD, Veltman DJ, Pape LE, van Lith K, Vermeiren RR, van den Brink W, Doreleijers TA, Popma A (November 2015). "Incentive Processing in Persistent Disruptive Behavior and Psychopathic Traits: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study in Adolescents". Biological Psychiatry. 78 (9): 615–24. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.08.017. PMID 25497690. S2CID 27235645.
  29. ^ Horton RS, Tritch T (2014). "Clarifying the links between grandiose narcissism and parenting". The Journal of Psychology. 148 (2): 133–43. doi:10.1080/00223980.2012.752337. PMID 24684075. S2CID 15076014.
  30. ^ Clemens V, Fegert JM, Allroggen M (May 2022). "Adverse childhood experiences and grandiose narcissism - Findings from a population-representative sample". Child Abuse & Neglect. 127: 105545. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2022.105545. PMID 35217322. S2CID 247068880.
  31. ^ Fenichel O (1946). The Psychoanalytic Theory of Neurosis. London: Norton. pp. 421, 444. ISBN 978-0-393-01019-0.
  32. ^ Kernberg OF (1990). Borderline conditions and pathological narcissism. London: J. Aronson. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-87668-762-8.
  33. ^ Klein J (1994). Our Need for Others. London. p. 222. ISBN 978-0-415-05879-7.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  34. ^ Siegal AM (1996). Heinz Kohut and the psychology of the Self. Routledge. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-415-08638-7.
  35. ^ King MC. "Reactive Attachment Disorder: A Review" (PDF). Journal of Special Education. 1–4. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-01-01.
  36. ^ DSM-IV-TR (2000) American Psychiatric Association, p. 129.
  37. ^ Schechter DS, Willheim E (July 2009). "Disturbances of attachment and parental psychopathology in early childhood". Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. 18 (3): 665–686. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2009.03.001. PMC 2690512. PMID 19486844.
  38. ^ Hart W, Tortoriello GK, Richardson K (2020-07-03). "Deprived and Grandiose Explanations for Psychological Entitlement: Implications for Theory and Measurement". Journal of Personality Assessment. 102 (4): 488–498. doi:10.1080/00223891.2019.1565573. PMID 30907660. S2CID 85498007.
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