View source for Himalayas

{{Short description|Mountain range in Asia, separating Indo-Gangetic plain from Tibetan Plateau}}
{{About|a mountain range|other uses|Himalaya (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-move}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2016}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}}

{{Infobox mountain
| name = The Himalayas
| photo = Himalayas and allied ranges NASA Landsat showing the eight thousanders, annotated with major rivers.jpg
| photo_caption = The arc of the Himalayas showing the [[eight-thousanders]] (in red); [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]; [[Tibetan plateau]]; rivers [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Ganges]], and [[Yarlung Tsangpo]]-[[Brahmaputra]]; and the two anchors of the range (in yellow)
| country_type = [[Country|Countries]]
| country = {{hlist||[[Afghanistan]]|[[Bhutan]]|[[China]]|[[India]]|[[Nepal]]|[[Pakistan]]}}{{efn|name=Kashmir|Sovereignty over the range is contested in several places, most notably in the [[Kashmir region]].<ref name="Brit"/>{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=8-12}}}}
| subdivision2_type = [[Continent]]
| subdivision2 = [[Asia]]
| highest = [[Mount Everest]]
| elevation_m = 8848.86
| highest_location = Nepal/China
| coordinates = {{coord|27|59|N|86|55|E|region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates =
| length_km = 2,400
| area_km2 = 595,000
| geology = {{hlist|[[Metamorphic rock|Metamorphic]]|[[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]]}}
| age = [[Cretaceous]] to [[Cenozoic]]
| orogeny = [[Alpine orogeny]]
| map_image = Himalayas Map.png
| map_caption = Map of the Himalayan-[[Hindu Kush]] region
}}
The '''Himalayas''', or '''Himalaya''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɪ|m|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|.|ə|,_|h|ɪ|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|ə|j|ə}} {{respell|HIM|ə|LAY|ə|,_|hih|MAH|lə|yə}}){{Efn|{{IPA|sa|ɦɪmaːlɐjɐ|lang}}; {{etymology|sa|{{IAST|himá}}|snow, frost||{{IAST|ā-laya}}|dwelling, abode}}),<ref>{{cite OED|Himalayan |access-date=1 June 2021 |quote=Etymology: < ''Himālaya'' (Sanskrit < ''hima'' snow + ''ālaya'' dwelling, abode) + -an suffix)}}</ref>}} is a [[mountain range]] in Asia, separating the [[plain]]s of the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. The range has [[eight-thousanders|several peaks]] exceeding an elevation of {{cvt|8000|m}} including [[Mount Everest]], the [[List of highest mountains on Earth|highest mountain]] on Earth. The mountain range runs for {{cvt|2400|km}} as an arc from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the Indian subcontinent.

The Himalayas occupy an area of {{cvt|595,000|km2}} across [[Himalayan states|six countries]]&ndash;[[Afghanistan]], [[Bhutan]], [[China]], [[India]], [[Nepal]], and [[Pakistan]]. The sovereignty of the range in the [[Kashmir]] region is disputed among India, Pakistan, and China. It is bordered by the [[Karakoram]] and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges on the northwest, Tibetan Plateau in the north, and by the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] in the south. Its western anchor [[Nanga Parbat]] lies south of the northernmost bend of the [[Indus river]] and its eastern anchor [[Namcha Barwa]] lies to the west of the great bend of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]]. The Himalayas consists of four parallel mountain ranges: the [[Sivalik Hills]] on the south; the [[Lower Himalayan Range|Lower Himalayas]]; the [[Great Himalayas]], which is the highest and central range; and the [[Tibetan Himalayas]] on the north. The range varies in width from {{cvt|350|km}} in the north-west to {{cvt|150|km}} in the south-east.

The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on [[Earth]] and is made up of uplifted [[sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic]] rocks. It was 
[[Tectonic uplift|formed]] more than 10 [[Million years ago|mya]] due to the [[subduction]] of the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]] with the [[Eurasian Plate]] along the [[Main Himalayan Thrust|convergent boundary]]. Due to the continuous movement of the Indian plate, the Himalayas keep rising every year, making them geologically and [[seismic|seismically]] active. The mountains consist of large [[glaciers]], which are remnants of the last [[ice age]], and give rise to some of the [[List of river systems by length|world's major rivers]] such as the [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Ganges]], and [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]]–[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]]. Their combined [[drainage basin]] is home to nearly 600 million people including 52.8 million living in the vicinity of the Himalayas.  The region is also home to many [[endorheic]] lakes.

The Himalayas have a major impact on the climate of the Indian subcontinent. It blocks the cold winds from [[Central Asia]], and plays a significant roles in influencing the [[monsoons]]. The vast size, varying altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas result in a wide range of climates, from [[humid]] and [[subtropical]] to [[cold desert|cold and dry desert]] conditions. The mountains have profoundly shaped the cultures of [[South Asia]] and [[Tibet]]. Many Himalayan peaks are considered sacred across various [[Indian religions|Indian]] and [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] religions such as [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], and [[Bon]]. Hence, the summits of several peaks in the region such as [[Gangkhar Puensum]], [[Machapuchare]], and [[Kailash]] have been off-limits to climbers.

== Etymology ==
The name of the range is derived from the [[Sanskrit]] word {{lang|sa-Latn|Himālay}} ({{wikt-lang|sa|हिमालय}}) meaning 'abode of snow'.<ref>{{cite web |title=BEN Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=BEN&page=1115-a |access-date=27 March 2022 |work=Sanskrit-lexicon |page=1115 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327134842/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=BEN&page=1115-a |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=WIL Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=WIL&page=976 |access-date=27 March 2022 |work=Sanskrit-lexicon |author=H.H. Wilson |year=1832 |page=976 |archive-date=27 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327134842/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=WIL&page=976 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Himālay |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=1299 |access-date=27 March 2022 |work=Sanskrit-lexicon |page=1299}}</ref> It is a combination of the words {{lang|sa-Latn|him}} ({{wikt-lang|sa|हिम}}) meaning 'frost/cold' and {{lang|sa-Latn|ālay}} ({{wikt-lang|sa|आलय}}) meaning 'dwelling/house'.<ref>{{cite web |title=Him |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=1298 |access-date=27 March 2022 |work=Sanskrit-lexicon |page=1298}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Alaya, a dictionary in Sanskrit and English |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=WIL&page=121 |access-date=27 March 2022 |work=Sanskrit-lexicon |author=H.H. Wilson |year=1832 |page=121 |archive-date=6 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006020210/https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=WIL&page=121 |url-status=live }}</ref> The name of the range is mentioned as [[Himavat]] ([[Sanskrit]]: हिमवत्) in older literature such as the [[Indian epic]] ''[[Mahabharata]]'', which is the personification of the Hindu deity [[Himavan]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Roshen Dalal|author-link=Roshen Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ&q=himavan|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|date=2014|isbn=978-8-184-75277-9}}</ref> The mountain range is known as {{lang|ne-Latn|Himālaya}} in [[Hindi language|Hindi]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]] (both written {{lang|hi|हिमालय}}),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://languages.nepalresearch.org/nep-eng.pdf|title=Nepali-English Dictionary|work=Nepal Research|page=56|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> ''Himalaya'' ({{lang|bo|ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་}}) in [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://glosbe.com/bo/en/%E0%BD%A7%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1|title=Translation of ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ into English|work=Glosbe|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=11 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111081847/https://glosbe.com/bo/en/%E0%BD%A7%E0%BD%B2%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A1|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Himāliya'' ({{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ}}}}) in [[Urdu]],<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/urdu/articles/c0kkkxwgy1go|title=Himaliya death zone|work=[[BBC News]]|date=26 June 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|lang=ur|archive-date=26 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240626134000/https://www.bbc.com/urdu/articles/c0kkkxwgy1go|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Himaloy'' ({{lang|bn|হিমালয়}}) in [[Bengali language|Bengali]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.english-bangla.com/bntoen/index/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%9F|title=হিমালয় in English|work=English-Bangla|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=11 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111081853/https://www.english-bangla.com/bntoen/index/%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%9F|url-status=live}}</ref> and ''Ximalaya'' ({{lang-zh|s=喜马拉雅|p=Xǐmǎlāyǎ|c=|t=喜馬拉雅}}) in [[Chinese language|Chinese]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://context.reverso.net/translation/chinese-english/%E5%96%9C%E9%A9%AC%E6%8B%89%E9%9B%85|title=Ximalaya|work=Reverso|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> It was mentioned as ''Himmaleh'' in western literature such as [[Emily Dickinson]]'s poetry and [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s essays.<ref>{{citation |last=Dickinson |first=Emily |title=The Himmaleh was known to stoop |author-link=Emily Dickinson |title-link=:s:The Himmaleh was known to stoop}}.</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Thoreau |first=Henry David |title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers |date=1849 |author-link=Henry David Thoreau}}.</ref>

== Geography and topography ==
{{anchor|Geo|Geography}}
[[File:Himalaya_political_map_EN.svg|thumb|Political map of the Himalayan region.]]

{{see also|List of Himalayan peaks and passes|Himalayan Rim}}

The Himalayas run as an arc for {{cvt|2400|km}} from west-northwest to east-southeast at the northern end of the [[Indian subcontinent]], separating the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]s from the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. It is bordered by the [[Karakoram]] and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges on the northwest, which extend into [[Central Asia]].<ref name="Brit">{{cite encyclopaedia|last1=Bishop|first1=Barry|author-link1=Barry Bishop (mountaineer)|last2=Chatterjee|first2=Shiba|title=Himalayas|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas|access-date=10 November 2024|archive-date=29 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150429164638/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266037/Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Wadia|first=D. N.|year=1931|title=The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny|journal=[[Geological Survey of India]]|volume=65|issue=2|pages=189–220}}</ref> Its western anchor [[Nanga Parbat]] lies south of the northernmost bend of the [[Indus river]] in [[Pakistan-administered Kashmir]] and its eastern anchor [[Namcha Barwa]] lies to the west of the great eastern bend of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]] in [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] of [[China]]. The Himalayas occupies an area of {{cvt|595,000|km2}} across [[Himalayan states|six countries]]&ndash;[[Afghanistan]], [[Bhutan]], China, [[India]], [[Nepal]], and [[Pakistan]]. The sovereignty of the range in the Kashmir region is disputed amongst India, Pakistan, and China. The range varies in width from {{cvt|350|km}} in the north-west to {{cvt|150|km}} in the south-east.<ref name="Brit"/><ref>{{cite book|title=Indian Shield: Precambrian Evolution and Phanerozoic Reconstitution|author1=A.B.Roy|author2=Ritesh Purohit|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|chapter=The Himalayas: Evolution Through Collision|year=2018|pages=311–327|isbn=978-0-128-09839-4}}</ref> The range has [[eight-thousanders|several peaks]] exceeding an elevation of {{cvt|8000|m}} including [[Mount Everest]], the [[List of highest mountains on Earth|highest mountain]] on Earth at {{cvt|8,848|m}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-eight-thousanders-of-the-himalayas-and-the-karakoram.html|title=The Eight-Thousanders Of The Himalayas And The Karakoram|work=World Atlas|date=16 August 2018|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=18 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418004355/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-eight-thousanders-of-the-himalayas-and-the-karakoram.html|url-status=live}}</ref> 

=== Sub-ranges ===
[[File:Geologische Karte des Himalayas.png|thumb|Geologic map showing the regions and major features of the Himalayas.]]

The Himalayas consist of four parallel mountain ranges from south to north: the [[Sivalik Hills]] on the south; the [[Lower Himalayan Range|Lower Himalayas]]; the [[Great Himalayas]], which is the highest and central range; and the [[Tibetan Himalayas]] on the north.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Biomes|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|chapter=Biogeography of the Mountain Ranges of South Asia|author1=S. Sathyakumar|author2=Mansi Mungee|author3=Ranjana Pal|year=2020|pages=543–554|isbn=978-0-124-09548-9}}</ref><ref name="Physio">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Physiography|title=Physiography of Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=13 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240913073008/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Physiography|url-status=live}}</ref> 

The [[Sivalik Hills]] form the lowest sub-Himalayan range and extends for about {{cvt|1600|km}} from the [[Teesta River]] in the Indian state of [[Sikkim]] to northern Pakistan. The name derives from [[Sanskrit]] meaning "Belonging to [[Shiva]]", which was originally used to denote the {{cvt|320|km}} stretch from [[Haridwar]] to the [[Beas River]]. The range is about {{cvt|16|km}} wide on average and the elevation ranges from {{cvt|900-1200|m}}. It rises along the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] and is often separated from the higher northern sub-ranges by valleys. The eastern portion of the range is called [[Churia Range]] in Nepal.{{sfn|Nag|Sengupta|1992|p=40}}<ref>{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Siwalik|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Siwalik-Range|access-date=10 November 2024|archive-date=23 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623175239/https://www.britannica.com/place/Siwalik-Range|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Lower Himalayan Range|Lower or Lesser Himalaya]] (also known as ''Himachal'') is the lower middle sub-section of the Himalayas. It extends almost along the entire length of the Himalayas and is about {{cvt|75|km}} wide. It is mostly composed of rocky surfaces and has an average elevation of {{cvt|3700-4500|m}}.{{sfn|Nag|Sengupta|1992|p=40}}<ref>{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Lesser Himalayas|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Lesser-Himalayas|access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref> The [[Greater Himalayas]] (also known as ''Himadri'') form the highest section of the Himalayas and extend for about {{cvt|2300|km}} from northern Pakistan to northern [[Arunachal Pradesh]] in India. The sub-range has an average elevation of more than {{cvt|6100|m}} and contains many of the world’s tallest peaks, including Everest. It is mainly composed of [[granite]] rocks.{{sfn|Nag|Sengupta|1992|p=40}}<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Great-Himalayas|title=Great Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref> The [[Tibetan Himalayas]] (also known as ''Tethys'') form the northern most sub-range of the Himalayas in [[Tibet]].<ref name="Physio"/><ref>{{cite book|author=Dubey, A.K.|year=2014|chapter=The Tethys Himalaya|title=Understanding an Orogenic Belt|publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer Geology]]|isbn=978-3-319-05588-6|pages=345–352}}</ref>

=== Divisions ===
[[File:The Himalayas (48625198948).jpg|thumb|A view of the [[Western Himalayas]].]]

Longitudinally, the range is broadly divided into three regions&ndash;[[Western Himalayas|western]], [[Kumaon division|central]], and [[Eastern Himalayas|eastern]].{{sfn|Nag|Sengupta|1992|p=42}} The [[Western Himalayas]] form the westernmost section of the range and extend for about {{cvt|560|km}} from the bend of the [[Indus River]] along the Pakistan-Afghanistan border region in the north-west to the [[Satlej]] river basin in India in the south-east. Most of the region lies in the Kashmir territory disputed between India and Pakistan with certain portions of the Indian state of [[Himachal Pradesh]]. The Indus forms the division between the Western Himalayas and the Karakoram range to the north. The Western Himalayas include the [[Zanskar Range|Zanskar]], [[Pir Panjal Range]]s, and parts of the Sivalik and Great Himalayas. The western anchor [[Nanga Parbat]] is the highest point in the region at {{cvt|8126|m}}.<ref name="Western">{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Western Himalayas|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas|access-date=10 November 2024|archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228233852/https://www.britannica.com/place/western-Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref> It is also referred Punjab, Kashmir or Himachal Himalyas from west to east locally.{{sfn|Nag|Sengupta|1992|p=42}}<ref name="NCERT">{{cite web|url=https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/iess102.pdf|title=Geographical Divisions of India|work=[[NCERT]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=11 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241111102501/https://ncert.nic.in/textbook/pdf/iess102.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

The central Himalayas or [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]] extend for about {{cvt|320|km}} along the state of [[Uttarakhand]] in [[northern India]] from the Sutlej River in the east to the [[Kali River (Uttar Pradesh)|Kali River]] in the west. The region comprises parts of Sivalik and Great Himalayas. At lower elevations below {{cvt|2400|m}}, the region has a [[temperate climate]] and consists of permanent settlements. At elevations higher than {{cvt|4300|m}}, permanent snow caps cover the Great Himalayas with the highest peaks being [[Nanda Devi]] at {{cvt|7817|m}} and [[Kamet]] at {{cvt|7756|m}}. The region is also the source of major streams of the [[Ganges]] river system.<ref name="Central">{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Western Himalayas|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kumaun-Himalayas|access-date=10 November 2024|archive-date=17 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617120123/http://www.britannica.com/place/Kumaun-Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Himalaya_annotated.jpg|thumb|Part of the [[Eastern Himalayas]] showing the [[eight-thousanders]].]]

The [[Eastern Himalayas]] form the eastern most stretch of the range and consist of the states of parts of Tibet in China, [[Sikkim]], [[Assam]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], parts of other [[North East India]]n states and north [[West Bengal]] in India, entirety of Bhutan, mountain regions of central and eastern Nepal, and most of the western lowlands in Nepal.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://wwfeu.awsassets.panda.org/downloads/final_ehimalayas_ep.pdf|title=Eastern Himalayas|work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]]|access-date=1 June 2024|page=2|date=February 2005}}</ref> The eastern Himalayas broadly consists of two regions&ndash;the western Nepal Himalayas and the eastern Assam Himalayas.<ref name="Brit"/><ref name="NCERT"/> The Nepal Himalayas forms the centre of the Himalayan curve and extend for {{cvt|800|km}} between the Kali and [[Teesta River]]s. The Great Himalayas in the region form the highest part of the entire Himalayas and consist of many of the [[eight-thousanders]] including Everest, [[Kanchenjunga]] at {{cvt|8,586|m}}, and [[Makalu]] at {{cvt|8,463|m}}. These mountains host large glaciers that form the source of various rivers of the [[Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra]] river system. The high altitude regions are uninhabitable with few mountain passes inbetween that serve as crossovers with the human settlements in the lower valleys.<ref>{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Nepal Himalayas|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal-Himalayas|access-date=10 November 2024|archive-date=12 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012153102/https://www.britannica.com/place/Nepal-Himalayas|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[Assam Himalaya]] forms the eastern most sub-section that extends eastward for {{cvt|720|km}} from the Indian state of Sikkim through Bhutan and north-east India past the [[Dihang River]] to the India-Tibet border. The highest peak is the eastern anchor [[Namcha Barwa]] at {{cvt|7,756|m}}. The region is the source of many of the tributaries of the Brahmaputra River and consists of major mountain passes such as [[Nathu La]], and [[Jelep La]].<ref name="Assam">{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Assam Himalayas|encyclopaedia=[[Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Assam-Himalayas|access-date=10 November 2024}}</ref> Beyond the Dihang valley, the mountains extend as Purvanchal mountain range across the eastern boundary of India.<ref name="NCERT"/>

== Geology ==
{{Main|Geology of the Himalayas}}
[[File:Himalaya-formation.gif|thumb|The 6,000 km-plus journey of the [[Indian plate|India landmass]] before its collision with the [[Eurasian Plate]] more than 10 [[Million years ago|mya]].]]

The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists of uplifted [[sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rock]]. According to the modern theory of [[plate tectonics]], it was formed as a result of a [[continental collision]] and [[orogeny]] along the [[Main Himalayan Thrust|convergent boundary]] between the [[Indian Plate|India]] and [[Eurasian Plate]]s. During the [[Jurassic period]] (201 to 145 [[Million years ago|mya]]), the [[Tethys Ocean]] formed the southern border of then existent Eurasian landmass. When the super-continent [[Gondwana]] broke up nearly 180 mya, the [[Indo-Australian plate]] slowly drifted northwards towards Eurasia for 130-140 million years.<ref name="Geo">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Physical-features|title=Physical features|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=30 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330171452/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Physical-features|url-status=live}}</ref> The Indian Plate broke up with the [[Australian Plate]] about 100 mya.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/pr/95/18688.html|title=Geologists Find: An Earth Plate Is Breaking in Two|date=7 July 1995|publisher=[[Columbia University]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=18 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518041545/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/pr/95/18688.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Tethys ocean constricted as the Indian plate moved gradually upward. As both the plates were made of [[continental crust]]s, which were less denser than [[oceanic crust]]s, the increased compressive forces resulted in [[Fold (geology)|folding]] of the underlying rock bed.{{sfn|Davies|2022|page=81}} The [[thrust fault]]s created between the folds resulted in [[granite]] and [[basalt]] rocks from the [[Earth's mantle]] protruding through the [[Earth's crust|crust]]. During the [[paleogene]] period (about 50 mya), the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate after it completely closed the Tethys ocean gap.<ref name="Geo"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html|title=The Himalayas: Two continents collide|work=[[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]|date=5 May 1999|access-date=3 January 2015|archive-date=10 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510204755/https://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html|url-status=live}}</ref> 

The Indian plate continued to [[subduct]] under the Eurasian plate over the next 30 million years that resulted in the formation of the [[Tibetan plateau]]. During [[miocene]] (20 mya), the increasing collision between the plates resulted in the top layer of metamorphic rocks getting peeled, which moved southwards to form [[nappes]] with trenches in between. As the mountains received rainfall, the waters flowing down the mountains eroded and steepened the southern slopes. The silt deposited by these rivers and streams in the trough between the Himalayas and the [[Deccan plateau]] formed the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. About 0.6 mya in the [[pleistocene]] period, the Himalayas rose higher and became the highest mountains on Earth. In the northern [[Great Himalayas]], new [[gneiss]] and granite formations emerged on crystalline rocks that gave rise to the higher peaks.<ref name="Geo"/>{{sfn|Frisch|Meschede|Blakey|2011|p=209}}

The summit of [[Mount Everest]] is made of unmetamorphosed marine [[ordovician]] [[limestone]] with fossil [[trilobites]], [[crinoids]], and [[ostracods]] from the Tethys ocean.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00499.x|title=Geology of the summit limestone of Mount Qomolangma (Everest) and cooling history of the Yellow Band under the Qomolangma detachment|date=December 2005|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00499.x|access-date=9 March 2023|last1=Sakai|first1=Harutaka|last2=Sawada|first2=Minoru|last3=Takigami|first3=Yutaka|last4=Orihashi|first4=Yuji|last5=Danhara|first5=Tohru|last6=Iwano|first6=Hideki|last7=Kuwahara|first7=Yoshihiro|last8=Dong|first8=Qi|last9=Cai|first9=Huawei|last10=Li|first10=Jianguo|journal=The Island Arc|volume=14|issue=4|pages=297–310|bibcode=2005IsArc..14..297S|s2cid=140603614|issn=1038-4871|archive-date=9 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309001214/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00499.x|url-status=live}}</ref> The upliftment of the Himalayas occurred gradually and as the Great Himalayas became higher, they became a climatic barrier and blocked the winds, which resulted in lesser precipitation on the upper slopes. The lower slopes continued to be eroded by the rivers, which flowed in the gaps between the mountains and the folded lower [[Shivalik Hills]] and the [[Lesser Himalayas]] were formed due to the downwarping of the intermediate lands. Minor streams ran between the faults within the mountains until they joined the major river systems in the plains. Intermediate valleys such as [[Kashmir valley|Kashmir]] and [[Kathmandu valley|Kathmandu]] were formed from temporary lakes that were formed during [[pleistocene]], which dried up later.<ref name="Geo"/>{{sfn|Frisch|Meschede|Blakey|2011|p=211}}

[[File:EQs 1900-2016 himalaya tsum.png|thumb|the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the region [[seismic]]ally active. [[Earthquakes]] in the Himalayan region (1900-2016).]]

The Himalayan region is made up of five geological zones&ndash; the Sub-Himalayan Zone bound by the [[Main Frontal Thrust]] and 
the [[Main Boundary Thrust]] (MBT); the Lesser Himalayan Zone between the MBT and the [[Main Central Thrust]] (MCT); the Higher Himalayan Zone beyond the MCT; the Tethyan Zone, separated by the South Tibetan Detachment System; and the Indus-Tsangpo Suture Zone, where the Indian plate is subducted below the Asian plate.{{sfn|Chakrabarti|2016|pages=5-9}} The [[Arakan Yoma]] highlands in [[Myanmar]] and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] were also formed as a result of the same tectonic processes that formed the Himalayas.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Garzanti |first1=Eduardo |last2=Limonta |first2=Mara |last3=Resentini |first3=Alberto |last4=Bandopadhyay |first4=Pinaki C. |last5=Najman |first5=Yani |last6=Andò |first6=Sergio |last7=Vezzoli |first7=Giovanni |date=2013-08-01 |title=Sediment recycling at convergent plate margins (Indo-Burman Ranges and Andaman–Nicobar Ridge) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825213000822 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=123 |pages=113–132 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.04.008 |bibcode=2013ESRv..123..113G |issn=0012-8252}}</ref> The Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau at about {{cvt|67|mm}} per year, forcing it to continue to move upwards. About {{cvt|20|mm}} per year is absorbed by [[Thrust fault|thrusting]] along the [[Main Frontal Thrust|Himalaya southern front]], which leads to the Himalayas rising by about {{cvt|5|mm}} per year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap3-Plate-Margins/Convergent/Continental-Collision|title=Plate Tectonics -The Himalayas|work=The Geological Society|access-date=13 September 2016|archive-date=14 September 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914171014/http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap3-Plate-Margins/Convergent/Continental-Collision|url-status=live}}</ref> This makes the Himalayan region geologically active and the movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate makes the region [[seismic]]ally active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.{{sfn|Frisch|Meschede|Blakey|2011|p=11}}<ref>{{cite web|date=17 January 2019|title=Devastating earthquakes are priming the Himalaya for a mega-disaster|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/earthquakes-priming-himalaya-disaster|access-date=28 March 2024|work=[[National Geographic]]|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328211149/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/earthquakes-priming-himalaya-disaster|url-status=live}}</ref>

The northern slopes of the Himalayas have a thicker soil cover than the southern slopes due to presence of lesser number of rivers and streams. These soils are [[loamy]] and are dark brown in colour, and are covered with forests in the lowlands and grassland meadows in the mid altitudes. The composition and texture of the soils in the Himalayas also vary across regions. In the [[Eastern Himalayas]], the wet soils has a high [[humus]] content conducive for growing [[tea]]. [[Podzolic]] soils occur in the eastern range of the [[Indus basin]] between the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Shyok River]]s. The [[Ladakh]] region is generally dry with [[saline soil]] while fertile [[alluvial soils]] occur in select river valleys such as the [[Kashmir valley]]. The higher elevations consist of rock fragements and [[lithosols]] with very low humus content.<ref name="Geo"/>

== Hydrology ==
=== Glaciers ===
[[File:KhumbuIcefall.jpg|thumb|[[Icefall]] on [[Khumbu Glacier]]]]

The Himalayas and the Central Asian mountain ranges consist of the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after the [[Antarctic]] and [[Arctic]] regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/the-himalayas-himalayas-facts/6341/|title=The Himalayas – Himalayas Facts|work=[[PBS]]|access-date=21 January 2014|date=11 February 2011|archive-date=30 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141130184733/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/the-himalayas-himalayas-facts/6341/|url-status=live}}</ref> It is often referred to as the "Third Pole" as it encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about {{cvt|12000|km3}} of fresh water.<ref name="Kulkarni">{{cite journal|last1=Kulkarni|first1=Anil V.|last2=Karyakarte|first2=Yogesh|date=2014|title=Observed changes in Himalayan Glaciers|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24099804|journal=Current Science|volume=106|issue=2|pages=237–244|jstor=24099804|access-date=20 March 2023|archive-date=20 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320180046/https://www.jstor.org/stable/24099804|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-6-2.html|title=The Himalayan Glaciers, Fourth assessment report on climate change|date=2007|work=IPCC|access-date=22 January 2014|archive-date=20 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100120081043/http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-6-2.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[South Col]] and [[Khumbu Glacier]] in the [[Mount Everest]] region are amongst the world's highest glaciers.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-022-00230-0 |title=Mt. Everest's highest glacier is a sentinel for accelerating ice loss |journal=Nature |date=2022 |doi=10.1038/s41612-022-00230-0 |access-date=1 June 2024 |last1=Potocki |first1=Mariusz |last2=Mayewski |first2=Paul Andrew |last3=Matthews |first3=Tom |last4=Perry |first4=L. Baker |last5=Schwikowski |first5=Margit |last6=Tait |first6=Alexander M. |last7=Korotkikh |first7=Elena |last8=Clifford |first8=Heather |last9=Kang |first9=Shichang |last10=Sherpa |first10=Tenzing Chogyal |last11=Singh |first11=Praveen Kumar |last12=Koch |first12=Inka |last13=Birkel |first13=Sean |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |doi-access=free |archive-date=4 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204133931/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-022-00230-0 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Gangotri]] which is {{cvt|32|km}} long and is one of the largest glaciers, is one of the sources of the [[Ganges]]. The Himalayan glaciers show considerable variation in the rate of descent. The Khumbu moves about {{cvt|1|ft}} daily compared to certain other glaciers which move about {{cvt|6|ft}} per day.<ref name="Hydro">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Drainage|title=Himalayas, Drainage|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=29 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529221319/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Drainage|url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[Quaternary glaciation|last ice age]], there was a connected ice stream of [[glacier]]s between [[Kangchenjunga]] in the east and [[Nanga Parbat]] in the west.<ref>{{cite web|title=Glacier maps|url=http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/|work=[[Elsevier]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=6 June 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606133044/http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/|url-status=live}}</ref> The glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the [[Karakoram]] in the west, the Tibetan inland ice in the north, and came to an end below an elevation of {{cvt|1000-2000|m}} in the south. While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most {{cvt|20-32|km}} in length, several of the main valley glaciers were {{cvt|60-112|km}} long during the ice age.<ref>{{cite book|title=Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look|author=Kuhle, M.|year=2011|chapter=The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates|editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=J.|editor2-last=Gibbard|editor2-first=P.L.|editor3-last=Hughes|editor3-first=P.D.|location=[[Amsterdam]]|publisher=[[Elsevier]] BV|pages=943–965}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Subtropical mountain- and highland-glaciation as ice age triggers and the waning of the glacial periods in the Pleistocene|author=Kuhle, M.|year=1987|journal=[[GeoJournal]]|volume=14|issue=4|pages=393–421|doi=10.1007/BF02602717|bibcode=1987GeoJo..14..393M|s2cid=129366521 }}</ref> The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and [[Ablation#Glaciology|ablation]] of a glacier are balanced) was about {{cvt|1400-1660|m}} lower than it is today. Thus, the climate would have been at least {{cvt|7.0-8.3|C-change}} colder than it is today.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Kuhle|first=M.|year=2005|title=The maximum Ice Age (Würmian, Last Ice Age, LGM) glaciation of the Himalaya – a glaciogeomorphological investigation of glacier trim-lines, ice thicknesses and lowest former ice margin positions in the Mt. Everest-Makalu-Cho Oyu massifs (Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal) including information on late-glacial-, neoglacial-, and historical glacier stages, their snow-line depressions and ages|journal=GeoJournal|volume=62|pages=193–650|issue=3–4|doi=10.1007/s10708-005-2338-6}}</ref>

Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate of [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|glacier retreat]] across the region as a result of climate change.<ref name="Lee">{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Ethan|last2=Carrivick|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Quincey|first3=Duncan J.|last4=Cook|first4=Simon J.|last5=James|first5=William H. M.|last6=Brown|first6=Lee E.|date=20 December 2021|title=Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=11|issue=1|pages=24284|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-03805-8|issn=2045-2322|pmc=8688493|pmid=34931039|bibcode=2021NatSR..1124284L }}</ref><ref name="Glacier">{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/environment-nepal-climate-glaciers-dc/vanishing-himalayan-glaciers-threaten-a-billion-idUSDEL18761020070604|title=Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion|date=4 June 2007|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=13 March 2018|archive-date=13 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180313092459/https://www.reuters.com/article/environment-nepal-climate-glaciers-dc/vanishing-himalayan-glaciers-threaten-a-billion-idUSDEL18761020070604|url-status=live}}</ref> The rate of retreat varies across regions depending on the local conditions. Since 1975, a marked increase in the loss of glacial mass from 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr has been observed with an estimated 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas.<ref name="Kulkarni"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kaushik|first1=Saurabh|last2=Rafiq|first2=Mohammd|last3=Joshi|first3=P.K.|last4=Singh|first4=Tejpal|date=April 2020|title=Examining the glacial lake dynamics in a warming climate and GLOF modelling in parts of Chandra basin, Himachal Pradesh, India|journal=Science of the Total Environment|volume=714|pages=136455|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136455|pmid=31986382|bibcode=2020ScTEn.71436455K|s2cid=210933887}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rafiq|first1=Mohammd|last2=Romshoo|first2=Shakil Ahmad|last3=Mishra|first3=Anoop Kumar|last4=Jalal|first4=Faizan|date=January 2019|title=Modelling Chorabari Lake outburst flood, Kedarnath, India|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11629-018-4972-8|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|volume=16|issue=1|pages=64–76|doi=10.1007/s11629-018-4972-8|bibcode=2019JMouS..16...64R|s2cid=134015944|issn=1672-6316}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/90001/90781/90879/6222327.html|title=Glaciers melting at alarming speed|date=24 July 2007|work=People's Daily Online|access-date=17 April 2009|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011182931/http://en.people.cn/90001/90781/90879/6222327.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> The resulting climate variations and changes in hydrology could affect the livelihoods of the people in the Himalayas and the plains below.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/13449|title=Himalayan Glaciers: Climate Change, Water Resources, and Water Security|date=2012|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-26098-5|location=Washington, D.C.|doi=10.17226/13449}}</ref>

=== Rivers ===
[[File:Confluence of Indus and Zanskar rivers.jpg|thumb|Confluence of the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Zanskar River]]s in the Himalayas.]]

Despite its greater size, the Himalayas does not form a [[continental divide|water divide]] across its span because of the multiple river systems that cut across the range. While the mountains were formed gradually, the rivers concurrently cut across deeper gorges ranging from {{cvt|1500-5000|m}} in depth and {{cvt|10-50|km}} in width. The actual water divide lies to the north of the Himalayas with rivers flowing down both the sides of the mountains. Some of the major river systems and their drainage system outdate the formation of the mountains itself. The water divide is formed by the [[Karakoram]] and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges on the west and the [[Ladakh Range]] on the east, separating the Indus system from Central Asia. On the east, [[Kailas Range|Kailas]] and [[Nyenchen Tanglha Mountains]] separate the Brahmaputra river system from the Tibetan rivers to the north. There are 19 major rivers in the Himalayas which form part of the two major river systems of [[Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra]], which follow an easterly course and [[Indus River|Indus]], which follows a north-westerly course.<ref name="Hydro"/>

* The [[Indus Basin]] extends from the western section of the range and has a catchment area of nearly {{cvt|450,000|km2}}. The river rises near [[Lake Manasarovar]] in Tibet and flows westward joining the [[Zanskar River|Zanskar]] and [[Shyok River]]s. The five major tributaries of Indus&ndash;[[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]] join the Indus in the Punjab region spread across India and Pakistan. These five rivers constitute a watershed area of about {{cvt|132,000|km2}}. The river system drains across the Himalayan region in [[Kashmir]], before spreading through the [[Punjab Plains]] and later forms the [[Indus Delta]] near the India-Pakistan border before joining the [[Arabian sea]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last1=Shrestha|editor-first1=AB|editor-last2=Agrawal|editor-first2=NK|editor-last3=Alfthan|editor-first3=B|editor-last4=Bajracharya|editor-first4=SR|editor-last5=Maréchal|editor-first5=J|editor-last6=van Oort|editor-first6=B|year=2015|title=The Himalayan Climate and Water Atlas: Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources in Five of Asia's Major River Basins|publisher=ICIMOD, GRID-Arendal and CICERO|isbn=978-9-291-15357-2|url=https://lib.icimod.org/record/31180|page=58|access-date=15 November 2024|archive-date=17 August 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240817085543/https://lib.icimod.org/record/31180|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/Indus-River|title=Indus River|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Bhagirathi_River_at_Gangotri.JPG|thumb|[[Bhagirathi]], one of the head streams of [[Ganges]] at [[Gangotri]].]]

* The [[Ganges Basin|Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin]] extends from the north-eastern part of the Himalayas till its eastern edge. The system has an average discharge of {{cvt|30,770|m2}}, which is the third greatest of the world’s river systems and forms the largest alluvial deposits in the world with nearly 1.84 billion tonnes of silt deposited every year. The Ganges is formed by five head streams of which the major ones are the [[Alaknanda]] and [[Bhagirathi]] arising at [[Gangotri]] in [[Uttarakhand]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/Ganges-River|title=Ganges River|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> Other Himalayan rivers that form the major tributaries of the Ganges include [[Yamuna]], [[Ramganga]], [[Ghaghara River|Ghaghara]], [[West Rapti River|Rapti]], [[Gandaki River|Gandaki]], [[Bagmati River|Bagmati]], and [[Kosi River|Kosi]], which together drain about {{cvt|218,000|km2}} of area. The Brahmaputra arises in the Tibetan region flowing eastwards before making a turn towards south into India. The [[Teesta River|Teesta]], [[Raidak River|Raidak]], [[Manas River|Manas]] form the major tributaries of the Brahmaputra and together drain {{cvt|184,000|km2}} of catchment area.<ref name="Hydro"/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/Brahmaputra-River|title=Brahmaputra River|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The Ganges and Brahmaputra join together before forming the [[Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]] spread across India and Bangladesh for nearly {{cvt|60000|km2}} is the largest in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm|title=Sunderbans the world's largest delta|work=Gits4u|access-date=3 January 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103191637/http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm|archive-date=3 January 2015 }}</ref>

The northern slopes of [[Gyala Peri]] and the peaks beyond the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]] drain into the [[Irrawaddy River]], which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through [[Myanmar]] to drain into the [[Andaman Sea]]. The [[Salween]], [[Mekong]], [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]], and [[Yellow River]]s all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau, north of the great water divide. These are considered distinct from the Himalayan watershed and are known as circum-Himalayan rivers.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Geochemistry of the Suspended Sediments of Circum-Himalayan Rivers and Weathering Budgets over the Last 50 Myrs|journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts|year=2003|volume=5| page=13,617|id=Abstract 13617|last1=Gaillardet|first1=J.|last2=Métivier|first2=F.|last3=Lemarchand|first3=D.|last4=Dupré|first4=B.|last5=Allègre|first5=C.J.|last6=Li|first6=W.|last7=Zhao|first7=J.|url=http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf|archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf|archive-date=2022-10-09|url-status=live|access-date=4 November 2006|bibcode=2003EAEJA....13617G}}</ref>

=== Lakes ===
{{See also|List of Alpine lakes in India}}
[[File:Gurudongmar Lake Sikkim, India.jpg|thumb|[[Gurudongmar Lake]] in Sikkim]]

The Himalayan region has multiple lakes across various elevations including [[endorheic basin|endorheic]] [[freshwater lake|freshwater]] and [[saline lake]]s. The geology of the lakes vary across geographies depending on various factors such as altitude, climate, water source, and [[lithology]]. [[Tarns]] are high altitude mountain lakes situated above {{cvt|5500|m}} and are formed primarily by the snow-melt of the glaciers. The lower altitude lakes are replenished by a combination of rains, underground springs, and streams. Large lakes in the Himalayan basin were formed in the [[holocene]] period, when water pooled in the faults and the water supply was subsequently cut off.<ref name="Lake">{{cite report|url=http://www.sikkimforest.gov.in/docs/Wetlands/High%20Altitude%20Himalayan%20Wetlands-SAC-Jan%202011.pdf|title=High Altitude Himalayan Lakes|publisher=[[Indian Space Research Organisation]]|date=January 2011|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html|title=Highest Lake in the World|first=Carl|last=Drews|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-date=18 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818141925/http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

There are more than 4500 high altitude lakes of which about 12 large lakes contribute to more than 75% of the total lake area in the Indian Himalayas.<ref name="Lake"/> [[Pangong Lake]] spread across India and China is the highest saline lake in the world at an altitude of {{cvt|4350|m}} and amongst the largest in the region with a surface area of {{cvt|700|km2}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://leh.nic.in/tourist-place/pangong/|title=Pangong|work=[[Government of Ladakh]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=24 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240524045342/https://leh.nic.in/tourist-place/pangong/|url-status=live}}</ref> Spread across {{cvt|189|km2}}, [[Wular Lake]] is amongst the largest fresh water lakes in Asia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.globalnature.org/en/living-lakes/asia/wular-lake|title=Wular Lake|work=Global nature|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> Other large lakes include [[Tso Moriri]], and [[Tso Kar]] in [[Ladakh]], [[Nilnag Lake|Nilnag]], and [[Tarsar Lake]], in [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]], [[Gurudongmar Lake|Gurudongmar]], [[Tso Lhamo Lake|Chholhamu]], and [[Tsomgo Lake]]s in [[Sikkim]], [[Tilicho Lake|Tilicho]], [[Rara Lake|Rara]], [[Phoksundo Lake|Phoksundo]], and [[Gokyo Lakes]] in Nepal.<ref name="Lake"/><ref>{{cite report|url=https://ssdi.jk.gov.in/profiles/dkan/themes/nuboot_radix/templates/page/homepage/Directory%20of%20Lakes%20%26%20Waterbodies%20of%20J%26K%20State.pdf|title=Waterbodies of Jammu and Kashmir|publisher=[[Government of Jammu and Kashmir]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=29 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629184332/https://ssdi.jk.gov.in/profiles/dkan/themes/nuboot_radix/templates/page/homepage/Directory%20of%20Lakes%20%26%20Waterbodies%20of%20J%26K%20State.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ONeill_2019">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R.| date=2019 |title=Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=20 |issue=e00715 |pages=19 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Some of the Himalayan lakes present the danger of a [[glacial lake outburst flood]] as they have grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rolwaling.tripod.com/glof/|title=Tsho Rolpa|work=Rolwaling|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=20 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620072027/http://rolwaling.tripod.com/glof/|url-status=live}}</ref> While these lakes support a range of ecosystems and local communities, many of them remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity.<ref name="Lake"/><ref name="ONeill">{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=Alexander |display-authors=etal |date=25 February 2020 |title= Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland |journal= Wetlands Ecology & Management |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=375–388 | doi=10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7 |bibcode=2020WetEM..28..375O |s2cid=211081106 }}</ref>

== Climate ==
{{main|Ecology of the Himalayas}}

Due to its location and size, the Himalayas acts as a climatic barrier which affects the weather conditions of the [[Climate of India|Indian subcontinent]] and the regions north of the range.<ref name="Climate">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Climate|title=Climate of Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=25 February 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225145204/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Climate|url-status=live}}</ref> The mountains are spread across more than eight degrees of [[latitude]] and hence includes a wide range of climatic zones including [[humid subtropical climate|sub-tropical]], [[temperate climate|temperate]], and [[semi-arid climate|semi-arid]]. The climate in a region is determined by factors such as altitude, latitude, and the impact on monsoon.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} There are generally five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn or post-monsoon, winter, and spring.<ref>{{cite web|title=Weather & Season Info of Nepal|url=https://classichimalaya.com/weather-season-info-of-nepal/|access-date=28 March 2024|work=Classic Himalaya}}</ref> The summer in April-May is followed by monsoon rains from June to September. The post monsoon season is largely devoid of rain and snow before beginning of cold winters in December-January with intermediate spring before the summer.<ref name="Climate"/> There are localised wind pressure systems at high altitudes resulting in heavy winds.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=52}}

=== Temperature ===
[[File:India and South Asia Köppen climate map with legend.jpg|thumb|Map showing various climatic zones in the Indian subcontinent.]]

Due to its high altitude, the range blocks the flow of [[List of local winds#Central Asia|cold winds]] from the north into the Indian subcontinent.<ref name="Climate"/>{{sfn|Barry|2008|page=70}} This causes the tropical zone to extend farther north in [[South Asia]] than anywhere else in the world. The temperatures are more pronounced in the [[Brahmaputra valley]] in the eastern section as it lies at a lower latitude and due to the [[latent heat]] of the forced air from the [[Bay of Bengal]] which [[condenses]] before moving past the [[Namcha Barwa]], the eastern anchor of the Himalayas.{{sfn|Barry|2008|page=36}}{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} Due to this, the permanent [[snow line]] is among the highest in the world, at typically around {{cvt|5500|m}} while several [[equator|equatorial]] mountains such as in [[New Guinea]], the [[Rwenzoris]], and [[Colombia]], have a snow line at {{cvt|900|m}} lower.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shi|first1=Yafeng|last2=Xie|first2=Zizhu|last3=Zheng|first3=Benxing|last4=Li|first4=Qichun|url=http://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424125203/http://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf|archive-date=24 April 2013|title=Distribution, Feature and Variations of Glaciers in China|journal=World Glacier Inventory|year=1978|url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Henderson-Sellers|first1=Ann|last2=McGuffie|first2=Kendal|title=The Future of the World's Climate: A Modelling Perspective|pages=199–201|isbn=978-0-12-386917-3|year=2012|publisher=[[Elsevier]]}}</ref>

As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances. The temperature at a location is dependent on the season, orientation and bearing with respect to the [[Sun]], and the [[mass versus weight|mass]] of the mountain. As the Sun is the major contributor to the temperature, it is often directly proportional to the received radiation from the Sun with faces receiving more sunlight having a higher heat buildup. In narrow valleys between steep mountain faces, the weather conditions may differ significantly on both the margins. The mountains act as [[heat island]]s and heavier mountains absorb and retain more heat than the surroundings, and therefore influences the [[heat budget|amount of heat]] needed to raise the temperature from the winter minimum to the summer maximum.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=51}} However, soil temperatures mostly remain the same on both the sides of a mountain at altitudes higher than {{cvt|4500|m}}.{{sfn|Barry|2008|page=59}}

Temperatures in the Himalayas reduce by {{cvt|2|C}} for every {{cvt|300|m}} increase of altitude.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}}<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Romshoo|first1=Shakil Ahmad|last2=Rafiq|first2=Mohammd|last3=Rashid|first3=Irfan|date=March 2018|title=Spatio-temporal variation of land surface temperature and temperature lapse rate over mountainous Kashmir Himalaya|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=563–576|doi=10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x|bibcode=2018JMouS..15..563R|s2cid=134568990|issn=1672-6316}}</ref> Higher altitudes invariably experience low temperatures. In the Eastern Himalayas, [[Darjeeling]] at an altitude of {{cvt|1945|m}} has an average minimum temperature of {{cvt|11|C}} during the month of May, while the same has been recorded as {{cvt|-22|C}} at an altitude of {{cvt|5000|m}} on the [[Mount Everest|Everest]]. At lower altitudes, the temperature is pleasantly warm during the summers. During winters, the low-pressure weather systems from the west cause heavy [[snowfall]].<ref name="Climate"/>

=== Precipitation ===
[[File:India_southwest_summer_monsoon_onset_map_en.svg|thumb|Map of India showing the onset of summer and winter monsoon.]]

There are two periods of precipitation with most of the rainfall occurring during the post summer season and moderate amount during the winter storms.<ref name="Climate"/> The Himalayan range obstructs the path of the [[south west monsoon]] winds, causing heavy precipitation on the slopes and the plains below.{{sfn|Barry|2008|page=70}} The effect of Himalayas on the hydroclimate impacts millions in the plains as the variability in monsoon rainfall is the main factor behind wet and dry years.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kad|first1=Pratik|last2=Ha|first2=Kyung-Ja|title=Recent Tangible Natural Variability of Monsoonal Orographic Rainfall in the Eastern Himalayas|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|publisher=AGU|doi=10.1029/2023JD038759|date=27 November 2023|volume=128|issue=22|bibcode=2023JGRD..12838759K|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kad|first1=Pratik|last2=Ha|first2=Kyung-Ja|title=Recent Tangible Natural Variability of Monsoonal Orographic Rainfall in the Eastern Himalayas|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres|publisher=AGU|doi=10.1029/2023JD038759|date=27 November 2023|volume=128|issue=22|bibcode=2023JGRD..12838759K|doi-access=free}}</ref> As the Himalayas force the monsoon winds to give up most of the moisture before ascending up, the winds became dry once its reaches the north of the mountains. This results in the dry and windy [[Desert climate#Cold desert climates|cold desert climate]] in the Tibetan Himalayas and the plateau beyond.<ref name="Climate"/> It also played a role in the formation of Central Asian deserts such as the [[Taklamakan]] and [[Gobi]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Devitt|first=Terry|title=Climate shift linked to rise of Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau|newspaper=University of Wisconsin–Madison News|date=3 May 2001|url=https://news.wisc.edu/climate-shift-linked-to-rise-of-himalayas-tibetan-plateau/|access-date=1 November 2011|archive-date=10 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160210141009/http://news.wisc.edu/climate-shift-linked-to-rise-of-himalayas-tibetan-plateau/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The monsoon is triggered by the different rates of heating and cooling between the [[Indian Ocean]] and Central Asia, which create large differences in the [[atmospheric pressure]] prevailing above each. As the Central Asian landmass heats up during the summer compared to the ocean below, the difference in pressure creates a [[thermal low]]. The moist air from the ocean is pushed inwards towards the low pressure system causing the monsoon winds. It results in precipitation along the slopes due to the [[orographic effect]] as the air rises along the mountains and condenses.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=52}}{{sfn|Clift|Plumb|2008|p=14-21}} The monsoon begins at the end of May in the eastern fringes of the range and moves upwards towards the west in June and July. There is heavy precipitation in the east which reduces progressively towards the west as the air becomes drier. [[Cherrapunji]] in Eastern Himalayas is one of the wettest places on Earth with an annual precipitation of {{cvt|428|in}}.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=54}}

The average annual rainfall varies from {{cvt|120|in}} in the Eastern Himalayas to about {{cvt|120|in}} in the [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]] region. The northern extremes of the Great Himalayas in [[Kashmir]] and [[Ladakh]] receive only {{cvt|3-6|in}} of rainfall per year.<ref name="Climate"/> During the winter season, a high pressure system develops over Central Asia, which results in winds flowing towards the Himalayas. However, due to the presence of less water bodies in the Central Asian region, the moisture content is low.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=52}} As the condensation occurs at higher altitudes in the north, there is more precipitation in the Great Himalayas in the west during the winter rains and the precipitation reduces towards the east. In January, the Kumaon region receives about {{cvt|3|in}} of rainfall compared to about {{cvt|1|in}} in the Eastern Himalayas.<ref name="Climate"/>

=== Climate change ===
[[File:HKH-Glacier-Mass-Change.png|thumb|Loss of glacier mass in the Himalayas since the 20th century.]]

The Himalayan region has a highly sensitive ecosystem and is amongst the most affected regions due to [[climate change]]. Since the late 20th century, scientists have reported a notable increase in the rate of [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|glacier retreat]] and changes occurring at a far rapid rate.<ref name="Lee"/><ref name="Glacier"/><ref name="WWF">{{cite web|url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/eastern_himalaya/threats/climate/|title=Climate Change|work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> As per a 2019 assessment, the Himalayan region, which had experienced a temperature rise of {{cvt|0.1|C}} per decade was warming at an increased rate of {{cvt|0.1|C}} per decade over the past half a century. The average warm days and nights had also increased by 1.2 days and 1.7 nights per decade while the average cold days and nights had declined by 0.5 and 1 respectively. This has also prolonged the length of the [[growing season]] by 4.25 days per decade.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Wester|editor1-first=Philippus|editor2-last=Mishra|editor2-first=Arabinda|editor3-last=Mukherji|editor3-first=Aditi|editor4-last=Shrestha|editor4-first=Arun Bhakta|title=The Hindu Kush Himalya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-319-92287-4|lccn=2018954855|year=2019}}</ref>

The climate change might results in erratic rainfall, varying temperatures, and natural disasters like [[landslides]], and [[floods]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gentle|first1=Popular|last2=Thwaites|first2=Rik|last3=Race|first3=Digby|last4=Alexander|first4=Kim|title=Differential impacts of climate change on communities in the middle hills region of Nepal|journal=Natural Hazards|date=November 2014|volume=74|issue=2|pages=815–836|doi=10.1007/s11069-014-1218-0|bibcode=2014NatHa..74..815G|hdl=1885/66271|s2cid=129787080|hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Climate Change Policy, 2011|url=https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/Nepal%20First%20NDC.pdf|publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=13 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240413214024/https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/NDC/2022-06/Nepal%20First%20NDC.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The increasing glacier melt had been followed by an increase in the number of [[glacial lake]]s, some of which may be prone to dangerous floods. The region is expected to encounter continued increase in average annual temperature and 81% of the region's [[permafrost]] is projected to be lost by the end of the century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Krishnan|first1=Raghavan|last2=Shrestha|first2=Arun Bhakta|last3=Ren|first3=Guoyu|last4=Rajbhandari|first4=Rupak|last5=Saeed|first5=Sajjad|last6=Sanjay|first6=Jayanarayanan|last7=Syed|first7=Md. Abu.|last8=Vellore|first8=Ramesh|last9=Xu|first9=Ying|last10=You|first10=Qinglong|last11=Ren|first11=Yuyu|title=The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment|date=2019|chapter=Unravelling Climate Change in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: Rapid Warming in the Mountains and Increasing Extremes|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_3|pages=57–97|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_3|isbn=978-3-319-92287-4|s2cid=134572569|access-date=13 November 2024|archive-date=28 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240928041838/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_3|url-status=live}}</ref> The increased warming and melting of snow is projected to accelerate the regional river flows until 2060 after which it would decline due to reduction in ice caps and glacier mass. As the precipitation is projected to increase concurrently, the annual river flows would be largely unaffected for the Eastern Himalayan rivers fed by monsoons, but would reduce the flows in the Western Himalayan rivers.<ref>{{cite web|date=4 February 2019|author=Damian Carrington|title=A third of Himalayan ice cap doomed, finds report|work=[[The Guardian]]|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/feb/04/a-third-of-himalayan-ice-cap-doomed-finds-shocking-report|access-date=20 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Bolch|first1=Tobias|last2=Shea|first2=Joseph M.|last3=Liu|first3=Shiyin|last4=Azam|first4=Farooq M.|last5=Gao|first5=Yang|last6=Gruber|first6=Stephan|last7=Immerzeel|first7=Walter W.|last8=Kulkarni|first8=Anil|last9=Li|first9=Huilin|last10=Tahir|first10=Adnan A.|last11=Zhang|first11=Guoqing|last12=Zhang|first12=Yinsheng|title=The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|date=5 January 2019|chapter=Status and Change of the Cryosphere in the Extended Hindu Kush Himalaya Region|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_3|pages=209–255|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_7|isbn=978-3-319-92287-4|s2cid=134814572|access-date=13 November 2024|archive-date=28 September 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240928041838/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_3|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Scott|first1=Christopher A.|last2=Zhang|first2=Fan|last3=Mukherji|first3=Aditi|last4=Immerzeel|first4=Walter|last5=Mustafa|first5=Daanish|last6=Bharati|first6=Luna|title=The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|date=5 January 2019|chapter=Water in the Hindu Kush Himalaya|chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_8|pages=257–299|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1_8|isbn=978-3-319-92287-4|s2cid=133800578 }}</ref>

[[File:Glacial lakes, Bhutan.jpg|thumb|[[Glacial lake]]s in [[Bhutan]] formed by increasing glacier melt, some of which may be prone to dangerous floods.]]

Almost a billion people live on either side of the mountain and are prone to impact of the climate change. This includes the people who live in the mountains, who are more vulnerable due to temperature variations and other biota.<ref name="WWF"/>  Countries in the Himalayan region including Bhutan, Nepal, Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan are amongst the most vulnerable countries in the [[Global South]] due to climate change.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wfpusa.org/articles/countries-most-affected-by-climate-change/|title=Countries most affected by climate change|work=[[World Food Program]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=26 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526050426/https://www.wfpusa.org/articles/countries-most-affected-by-climate-change/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Climate-induced migration in the Global South: an in depth analysis |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s44168-024-00133-1 |date=14 June 2024 |journal=[[Nature Partner Journals]] |doi=10.1038/s44168-024-00133-1 |access-date=1 June 2024 |last1=Almulhim |first1=Abdulaziz I. |last2=Alverio |first2=Gabriela Nagle |last3=Sharifi |first3=Ayyoob |last4=Shaw |first4=Rajib |last5=Huq |first5=Saleemul |last6=Mahmud |first6=Md Juel |last7=Ahmad |first7=Shakil |last8=Abubakar |first8=Ismaila Rimi |volume=3 |page=47 |bibcode=2024npjCA...3...47A |doi-access=free |archive-date=14 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240614160438/https://www.nature.com/articles/s44168-024-00133-1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Agrawal|first1=A|last2=Perrin|first2=N|title=Climate adaptation, local institutions and rural livelihoods|date=2008|publisher=[[University of Michigan]]|pages=350–367}}</ref> The temperature rise increases the incidence of [[tropical diseases]] such as [[malaria]], and [[dengue]] further north. The extreme weather events might cause physical harm directly and indirectly due to lack of access and contamination of [[drinking water]], [[pollution]], exposure to chemicals, and destruction of crops, and [[drought]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Devkota|first1=Fidel|title=Climate Change and its socio-cultural impact in the Himalayan region of Nepal – A Visual Documentation|journal=Anthrovision. Vaneasa Online Journal|date=1 August 2013|volume=1|issue=2|doi=10.4000/anthrovision.589|url=https://journals.openedition.org/anthrovision/589|access-date=16 December 2023|archive-date=16 December 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231216000028/https://journals.openedition.org/anthrovision/589|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Rublee|first1=Caitlin|last2=Bhatta|first2=Bishnu|last3=Tiwari|first3=Suresh|last4=Pant|first4=Suman|title=Three Climate and Health Lessons from Nepal Ahead of COP28|journal=NAM Perspectives|date=29 November 2023|volume=11|issue=29|doi=10.31478/202311f|pmid=38784635|s2cid=265597908|pmc=11114597}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Berstrand|first1=s|title=Fact Sheet {{!}} Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels (2021) {{!}} White Papers {{!}} EESI|url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|work=EESI|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=31 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531224919/https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021|url-status=live}}</ref> The climate change also impact the flora and fauna of the region. Changes might decrease the territory available for local wildlife and reduction in [[prey]] for the [[predators]]. This puts the animals in [[Human–wildlife conflict|conflict with humans]] as humans might encroach animal territories and the animals might venture into human habitats for search of food, which might exacerbate the economic loss of the local population.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Oli|first1=Madan K.|last2=Taylor|first2=Iain R.|last3=Rogers|first3=M. Elizabeth|title=Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock: An assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal|journal=Biological Conservation|date=1 January 1994|volume=68|issue=1|pages=63–68|doi=10.1016/0006-3207(94)90547-9|bibcode=1994BCons..68...63O }}</ref>

The Himalayan nations are signatories of the [[Paris agreement]], aimed at [[climate change mitigation]] and [[Climate change adaptation|adaptation]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-37265541|title=Paris climate deal: US and China formally join pact|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180102133942/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-37265541|archive-date=2 January 2018|work=[[BBC News]]|date=3 September 2016|access-date=4 September 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-ratifies-landmark-paris-climate-deal-62nd-nation-to-join-club-1469274|title=India Ratifies Landmark Paris Climate Deal, Says, 'Kept Our Promise'|work=[[NDTV]]|access-date=2 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161003053948/http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/india-ratifies-landmark-paris-climate-deal-62nd-nation-to-join-club-1469274|archive-date=3 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The actions are aimed at reducing [[green house gases|emissions]], increase the usage of [[renewable energy]], and sustainable environmental practices.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepal|url=https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/nepal/|work=Climate Action Tracker|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=20 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520230049/https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/nepal/|url-status=live}}</ref> As the local population increasingly experience the impact of the changes in climate such as variations in temperature and precipitation, and change in vegetation, they are forced to adapt for the same. This has led to increased awareness on the impact of climate change, and adaptations such as change in [[crop cycle]]s, introduction of [[drought resistant]] crops, and plantation of new trees.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Das|first1=Suraj|last2=Mishra|first2=Anindya Jayanta|title=Climate change and the Western Himalayan community: Exploring the local perspective through food choices|journal=Ambio|date=1 March 2023|volume=52|issue=3|pages=534–545|doi=10.1007/s13280-022-01810-3|pmid=36480087|pmc=9735043|bibcode=2023Ambio..52..534D }}</ref> This has also led to the construction of more [[dams]], [[canals]], and other water structures, to prevent flooding and aid in agriculture. New plantations on barren lands to prevent landslides, and construction of fire lines made of litter and mud to prevent [[forest fires]] have been undertaken.<ref name="Dhungana">{{cite journal|last1=Dhungana|first1=Nabin|last2=Silwal|first2=Nisha|last3=Upadhaya|first3=Suraj|last4=Khadka|first4=Chiranjeewee|last5=Regmi|first5=Sunil Kumar|last6=Joshi|first6=Dipesh|last7=Adhikari|first7=Samjhana|title=Rural coping and adaptation strategies for climate change by Himalayan communities in Nepal|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|date=1 June 2020|volume=17|issue=6|pages=1462–1474|doi=10.1007/s11629-019-5616-3|bibcode=2020JMouS..17.1462D|s2cid=219281555 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=BMP|title=Fire Lines and Lanes.|url=http://www2.ca.uky.edu/agcomm/pubs/for/for67/bmp12.pdf|publisher=BMP No. 12, Fire Lines and Lanes}}</ref> However, lack of funding, awareness, access to technology, and government policy are barriers for the same.<ref name="Dhungana"/>

== Flora and fauna ==
The Himalayan region belongs to the [[Indomalayan realm]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/indomalayan-realm|title=Indomalayan realm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006032320/https://www.biologyonline.com/dictionary/indomalayan-realm|archive-date=6 October 2022|work=Biology Online|date=7 October 2019 |access-date=29 August 2021}}</ref> The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary broadly across regions depending on the climate and geology.<ref name="ONeill_2019"/> The Himalayas are home to multiple [[biodiversity]] hotspots, and is home to an estimated 35,000+ species of plants and 200+ species of animals. An average of 35 new species have been found every year since 1998.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wester |first1=Philippus |last2=Mishra |first2=Arabinda |last3=Mukherji |first3=Aditi |last4=Shrestha |first4=Arun Bhakta |year=2019 |title=The Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1 |isbn=978-3-319-92288-1 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1 |s2cid=199491088 |access-date=11 November 2024 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309125337/http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-92288-1 |url-status=live }}</ref> 

=== Flora ===
[[File:Densely_forested_mountains_of_Jigme_Dorji_NP_AJTJ_IMG_1394.jpg|thumb|[[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]] in [[Bhutan]].]]
[[File:Barun_Valley_-_Nghe.jpg|thumb|[[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows|Himalayan shrub and meadows]] in [[Nepal]].]]

There are [[List of ecoregions in India|four types]] of vegetation found in the region&nbsp;[[Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical and subtropical]], [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests|temperate]], [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|coniferous]], and [[Montane grasslands and shrublands|grasslands]]. [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests|Tropical and subtropical broadleaf forests]] are mostly constricted to the high temperature and humid regions in [[Eastern Himalayas|Eastern and Central Himalayas]], and pockets of [[Kashmir]] in the west. There are about 4,000 species of [[Angiosperms]] with major vegetation include [[Dipterocarpus]], and [[Ceylon ironwood]] on porous soils at elevations below {{cvt|2400|m}} and [[Oak tree|oak]], and [[Indian horse chestnut]] on [[lithosol]] between {{cvt|1100-1700|m}}. [[Himalayan subtropical pine forests]] with [[Pandanus furcatus|Himalayan screw pine]] trees occur above {{cvt|4000|m}} and [[Alder tree|Alder]], and [[bamboo]] are found on terrains with higher gradient. Temperate forest occur at altitudes between {{cvt|1400-3400|m}} while moving from south-east to north-west towards higher latitude. [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests|Eastern]] and [[Western Himalayan broadleaf forests]] consisting of [[sal tree]]s dominate the ecosystem.<ref name="Plant">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Plant-life|title=Plant life of Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=26 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526061545/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Plant-life|url-status=live}}</ref> 

At higher altitudes, [[Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests|Eastern]] and [[Western Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]] consisting of various [[conifers]] occur. [[Chir pine]] is the dominant species which occurs at elevations from {{cvt|800-900|m}}. Other species include [[Deodar cedar]], which grows at altitudes of {{cvt|1900-2700|m}}, [[blue pine]] and [[morinda spruce]] between {{cvt|2200-3000|m}}. At higher altitudes, alpine shrubs and meadows occur above the trees. The [[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]] extend between {{cvt|3200-4200|m}} and the [[Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]] occur at altitudes of {{cvt|3600-4500|m}}. Major vegetation include [[Juniperus]], [[Rhododendron]] on rocky terrain facing the Sun, various flowering plants at high elevations, and [[mosses]], and [[lichens]] in humid, shaded areas.<ref name="Plant"/><ref>{{cite journal|url=http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|title=Highest Treeline in the Northern Hemisphere Found in Southern Tibet|first1=Georg|last1=Miehe|first2=Sabine|last2=Miehe|first3=Jonas|last3=Vogel|first4=Sonam|last4=Co|first5=La|last5=Duo|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=27|issue=2|date=May 2007|pages=169–173|doi=10.1659/mrd.0792|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606103046/http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2013|hdl=1956/2482|s2cid=6061587|hdl-access=free}}</ref> 

Interspersed [[Grasslands]] occur at certain regions, with thorns and semi-desert vegetation at low precipitation areas in the Western Himalayas.<ref name="Plant"/> The high altitude mountainous areas are mostly barren or, at the most, sparsely sprinkled with stunted bushes.<ref name="ONeill"/> The Himalayas are home to various medicinal plants such as ''[[Abies pindrow]]'' used to treat [[bronchitis]], ''[[Andrachne|Andrachne cordifolia]]'' used for [[snake bites]], and ''[[Callicarpa|Callicarpa arborea]]'' used for [[skin diseases]]. Nearly a fifth of the plant species in the Himalayas are used for medicinal purposes.<ref name="Medical">{{cite journal|title=Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=9|page=1|author1=Jahangeer A. Bhat|author2=Munesh Kumar|author3=Rainer W. Bussmann|date=2 January 2013|issue=1|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-9-1|pmid=23281594|pmc=3560114|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Healing">{{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Pankaj|last2=Sharma|first2=Vijay Kumar|title=Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas|year=2014|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-81-322-1925-5}}</ref> [[Climate change]], illegal [[deforestation]], and introduction of non native species have had an effect on the flora of the range. The increase in temperature has resulted in shifting of various species to higher elevations, and early flowering and fruiting.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Himalayan Forests Disappearing|journal=Earth Island Journal|volume=21|issue=4|year=2006|pages=7–8}}</ref>

=== Fauna ===
[[File:Snow Leopards - Ghost of the Mountains for Ministry of Tourism (MOT) India 9 (cropped).png|thumb|[[Snow leopard]]]]
[[File:Hemitragus jemlahicus Jharal.jpg|thumb|[[Himalayan tahr]]]]

Many of the animal species are from the tropics, which have adapted to the various conditions across the Himalayan range. Some of the species of the [[Eastern Himalayas]] are similar to those found in [[East Asia|East]] and [[South East Asia]], while the animals of the [[Western Himalayas]] has characteristics of species from [[Central Asia]] and [[Mediterranean]] region. Fossils of species such as [[giraffe]], and [[hippopotamus]] have been found in the foothills, suggesting the presence of [[Africa]]n species some time ago. Large [[mammals]] such as [[Indian elephant]], and [[Indian rhinoceros]] are confined to the densely forested moist ecosystems in the Eastern and Central Himalayas. Many of the animal species found in the region are unique and endemic or nearly endemic to the region.<ref name="Animal">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Plant-life|title=Animal life of Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=26 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240526061545/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Plant-life|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other large animal species found in the Himalayas include [[Asiatic black bear]], [[clouded leopard]], and [[herbivores]] such as [[bharal]], [[Himalayan tahr]], [[takin]], [[Himalayan serow]], [[Himalayan musk deer]], and [[Himalayan goral]]. Animals found at higher altitudes include [[brown bear]], and the elusive [[snow leopard]], which mainly feed on bharal. The [[red panda]] is found in the mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the Eastern Himalayas and the [[Himalayan water shrew]] are found on the river banks. The forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered [[Gee's golden langur]] and the [[Kashmir gray langur]], within highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas, respectively. The [[yaks]] are large domesticated cattle found in the region.<ref name="ONeill"/><ref name="Animal"/>

More than 800 species of birds have been recorded with a large number of species restricted to the Eastern Himalayas. Amongst the bird species found include [[magpies]] such as [[black-rumped magpie]] and [[blue magpie]], [[titmice]], [[choughs]], [[whistling thrush]]es, and [[redstart]]s. [[Raptor (bird)|Raptors]] include [[bearded vulture]], [[black-eared kite]], and [[Himalayan griffon]]. [[Snow partridge]] and [[Cornish chough]] are found at altitudes above {{cvt|5700|m}}.<ref name="Animal"/> The Himalayan lakes also serve as breeding grounds for species such as [[black-necked crane]] and [[bar-headed goose]].<ref name="Lake"/> There are multiple species of [[reptiles]] including [[Japalura]] lizards, [[Typhlops|blind snakes]], and [[insects]] such as [[butterflies]]. Several [[fresh water fish]] such as [[Glyptothorax]] are found in the Himalayan waters. The extremes of high altitude favor the presence of [[extremophile]] organisms, which include various species of insects such as [[spiders]], and [[mites]].<ref name="Animal"/><ref>{{cite web|first=C. Michael|last=Hogan|year=2010|url=https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Extremophiles|title=Extremophile|editor1-first=E.|editor1-last=Monosson|website=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]]|publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment|location=Washington, DC|access-date=13 March 2018|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329184923/https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Extremophiles|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Conservation ===
{{see|Protected areas in India|Protected areas in Nepal|Protected areas in Pakistan|Protected areas in Bhutan}}

The Himalayan fauna include endemic plants and animals and [[critically endangered]] or endangered species such as Indian elephant, Indian rhinoceros, musk deer and [[hangul]].<ref name="Animal"/> There are more than 7,000 endemic plants and 1.9% of global endemic vertebrates in the region. {{As of|2022}}, there are 575 protected areas established by the nations in the Himalayan-Hindu Kush region, which account for 40% of the land area and 8.5% of the global protected area. There are also four [[biodiversity hotspot]]s, 12 [[ecoregions]], 348 key biodiversity areas, and six [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in the region.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.12793|title=Protected areas in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: A regional assessment of the status, distribution, and gaps|author1=Sunita Chaudhary|author2=Kabir Uddin|author3=Nakul Chettri|author4=Rajesh Thapa|author5=Eklabya Sharma|date=17 August 2022|doi=10.1111/csp2.12793|journal=Society for Conservation Biology|volume=4|issue=10|bibcode=2022ConSP...4E2793C|doi-access=free|access-date=13 November 2024|archive-date=23 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823004412/https://conbio.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/csp2.12793|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.grida.no/resources/12791|title=Protected areas and biodiversity hotspot areas in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region|author=Nieves López Isquierdo|work=Grida|access-date=1 August 2022|archive-date=30 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930104124/https://www.grida.no/resources/12791|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
The Himalayan region with the associated [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]] and [[Tibetan plateau]] is home to more than a billion people.<ref name="WWF"/> 
In 2011, the population in the Himalayan region was estimated to be about 52.8 million with the combined [[drainage basin]] of the Himalayan rivers home to nearly 600 million.<ref name="Pop">{{cite book|last=Apollo|first=M.|year=2017|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313849476|chapter=Chapter 9: The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future|editor1-first=R.|editor1-last=Efe|editor2-first=M.|editor2-last=Öztürk|title=Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism|pages=143–159|publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author1=A.P. Dimri|author2=B. Bookhagen|author3=M. Stoffel|author4=T. Yasunari|title=Himalayan Weather and Climate and their Impact on the Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Ea9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA380|date=8 November 2019|publisher=[[Springer Science]]|isbn=978-3-030-29684-1|page=380}}</ref> Of this, 7.96 million (15.1% of the total Himalayan population) live in Eastern Himalayas, 19.22 million in Central Himalayas (36.4%), and 25.59 million reside in Western Himalayas (48.5%). The population of the Himalayas has grown considerably over the last five decades from 19.9 million in 1961 with the annual growth rate (3.31%) more than three times higher than the world average (1.1%) during the same period.<ref name="Pop"/> 

[[File:Silk_Road_in_the_I_century_AD_-_en.svg|thumb|The [[Silk Road]] and connecting routes in the 1st century CE.]]

The earliest tribes in the Himalayas might have originated from [[Dravidian people]] from the south of the Indian subcontinent as evidenced by the presence of [[Dravidian languages]]. The major human migration towards the Himalayan region occurred in 2000 BCE when [[Aryans]] came from Central Asia and progressively settled along the plains to the south. Information on the Aryan culture in the region is found in [[Hindu literature]] such as the [[Vedas]], and [[Puranas]]. Since the second century BCE, the [[Silk Road]] in China was connected to the Indian subcontinent by various routes running along the Himalayan region. The northern side of the Himalayas was under the influence of various Tibetan kingdoms across history. In the [[middle ages]], the southern side came under the influence of various [[Rajput]] kings and later under the [[Mughal rule]]. Nepal was ruled by various kingdoms from both the Indian and Tibetan regions, until it was conquered by the [[Gurkha kingdom]] in the early 18th century. Most of the southern region came under the [[British Raj|British influence]] in the 18th century till the independence of the constituent states in the mid 20th century.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=70-71}}

=== Ethnicity and languages ===
[[File:South_Asian_Language_Families.png|thumb|[[Language families]] of [[South Asia]].]]

The long history along with various outside influences have resulted in the mixture of various traditions and existence of wide range of ethnicity in the region. People speak various languages belonging to four principal language families&ndash;[[Indo-European]], [[Tibeto-Burman]], [[Austroasiatic]], and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], with the majority of the languages belonging to the first two categories. The [[Tibetan Himalayas]] are inhabited by [[Tibetan people]], who speak Tibeto-Burman languages. The [[Great Himalayas]] are mostly inhabited by nomadic groups and tribes, with most of the population in [[Lesser Himalayas]], and [[Shivalik Hills]]. People towards the Great Himalayas in the north parts mostly speak Tibeto-Burman, while populations in the lower ranges on the southern slopes speak Indo-European languages.<ref name="People">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/People|title=People of Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=1 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101183404/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/People|url-status=live}}</ref>

The inhabitants of the Western Himalayas include the [[Kashmiri people]], who speak [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] in the [[Vale of Kashmir]] and the [[Gujjar]] and [[Gaddi people]], who speak [[Gujari]] and [[Gaddi language|Gaddi]] respectively in the lower altitudes of [[Jammu region|Jammu]] and [[Himachal Pradesh]] in India. The last two are [[pastoral]] and [[nomadic]] people, who own flocks of cattle and migrate across the slopes based on seasons. Various ethnic people such as [[Ladakhi people|Ladakhi]], [[Balti people|Balti]], and [[Dard people|Dard]] live on the north of the Great Himalayas along the [[Indus basin]] in the Kashmir and [[Ladakh]] regions spread across India, Pakistan, and China. The Dard speak [[Dard people|Dard]], which is part of Indo-European languages, while the Balti and Lakadkhi people speak [[Balti language|Balti]], and [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], which are part of Tibeto-Burman. In the [[Kumaon region]] in Himachal Pradesh and [[Uttarakhand]] in India, Indo-European speakers such as the [[Kanet]] and Khasi reside in the lower altitudes along with descendants of migrants from Tibet, who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, in the [[Kalpa district|Kalpa]] and [[Lahaul and Spiti district|Lahul-Spiti]] regions.<ref name="People"/>{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=76-78}}

In the Central Himalayas in Nepal, the [[Pahari people (Nepal)|Pahari people]], who speak an Indo-European language [[Pahari language|Pahari]], form the majority. People of various ethnicity such as [[Newar]], [[Tamang people|Tamang]], [[Gurung]], [[Magar people|Magar]], [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]], [[Bhutia]], [[Lepcha people|Lepcha]], and [[Kirat]], who speak Tibeto-Burman languages, are spread across the mountainous regions of Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of [[North East India]]. The Newar and Kirat peoples are largely from the [[Kathmandu valley]], and the Magars and Tamangs are spread across the region. The Gurung and Sherpa peoples live along the slopes of [[Annapurna]] and [[Mount Everest|Everest]] respectively. The Lepcha people reside in Sikkim and western Bhutan while the Bhutia are found in eastern Bhutan. The Indian state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] along the eastern edge is home to various Tibeto-Burman speaking ethnic groups such as [[Galo tribe|Abor]], [[Aka people|Aka]], [[Apatani people|Apatani]], [[Nyishi|Dafla]], [[Khamti people|Khamti people]], [[Khowa people|Khowa]], [[Mishmi people|Mishmi]], Momba, [[Hill Miri people|Miri]], and [[Singpho people|Singpho]], who mostly practice [[shifting cultivation]].<ref name="People"/>{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=76-78}}

=== Culture and religion ===
[[File:Harmukh Mountain.jpg|thumb|The [[Harmukh]] mountain, north of [[Kashmir valley]], is sacred in [[Hinduism]].]]

Himalayas have had a profound impact on the culture of the people in the region. The Himalayan region is occupied by people of various religions and several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in, [[Bon]], [[Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Islam]], [[Jainism]], and [[Sikhism]]. [[Hindus]] form the majority of the low highlands and plains in [[Northern India]] and Nepal. People in high altitude region of [[Ladakh]], Bhutan, and [[North East India]] follow Buddhism while Islam is dominant in the western region of the Himalayas and the [[Kashmir valley]]. Tibetan religions are followed in the northern Himalayas and various ethnicities in North East India follow indigenous religions.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=76-78}}

For the Hindus, Himalaya is a personification [[Himavat]], the king of all mountains and the father of goddess [[Parvati]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Pankaj|last2=Sharma|first2=Vijay Kumar|title=Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas|year=2014|publisher=[[Springer Science]]|isbn=978-8-132-21925-5}}</ref> It is also considered to be the birthplace of goddess [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]], the personification of river [[Ganges]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend|isbn=978-0-500-51088-9|first=Anna|last=Dallapiccola|year=2002|publisher=[[National Geographic]]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind0000dall}}</ref> It is considered as one of the 68 places hosting a [[Svayambhu]] form of [[Lingam]], a form of [[Shiva]]. Himalaya is mentioned as the source of medicinal plants in [[Ayurveda]], and is the name of the one of the 84 [[asanas]] in [[Siddha yoga]].<ref name="Wisdom">{{cite web|title=Himalaya|url=https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/himalaya|work=Wisdom library|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=25 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240525082502/https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/himalaya|url-status=live}}</ref> Major Hindu pilgrimage centers include the [[Chota Char Dham]]&ndash;[[Gangotri]], [[Yamunotri]], [[Badrinath]], and [[Kedarnath]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gov.ua.nic.in/transport/chardham.htm|title=Char Dham Yatra|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090512200341/http://gov.ua.nic.in/transport/chardham.htm|archive-date=12 May 2009|publisher=[[Government of Uttarakhand]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India|journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine|volume=9|page=1|author1=Jahangeer A. Bhat|author2=Munesh Kumar|author3=Rainer W. Bussmann|date=2 January 2013|issue=1|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-9-1|pmid=23281594|pmc=3560114|doi-access=free}}</ref> Thousands trek to the [[Amarnath Temple]] in [[Sind Valley]], where an ice [[stalagmite]] formation in the [[Amarnath Peak]] is revered as a form of Shiva.<ref>{{cite news|date=30 May 2005|title=New shrine on Amarnath route|work=[[The Hindu]]|agency=PTI|location=Chennai, India|url=http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/30/stories/2005053009340300.htm|access-date=15 November 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070618193352/http://www.hindu.com/2005/05/30/stories/2005053009340300.htm|archive-date=18 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The pilgrimage to Amarnath|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2176165.stm|access-date=5 May 2012|newspaper=BBC News|date=6 August 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106180604/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/2176165.stm|archive-date=6 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Shankar|first=Ravi|date=26 September 2021|title=Motherlodes of Power: The story of India's 'Shakti Peethas'|url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/magazine/2021/sep/26/motherlodesof-power-2362905.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-12-28|website=The New Indian Express|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210926061553/https://www.newindianexpress.com/magazine/2021/sep/26/motherlodesof-power-2362905.html |archive-date=26 September 2021 }}</ref> [[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupatinath]] is a sacred site in [[Shaivism]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Dubey|first=Yashika|date=21 December 2023|title=Pashupatinath Temple: The Celestial Abode of Lord Shiva in Nepal|url=https://www.amargranth.com/post/pashupatinath-temple-kathmandu-nepal|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Amar Granth}}</ref> [[Muktinath]] is considered sacred to both Hindus and Buddhists and is considered one of the [[Shakta pithas]] and part of [[Char Dham, Nepal|Char Dham of Nepal]]. It houses [[saligrama]] stones, considered to be an incarnation of [[Vishnu]] by Hindus and Gawo Jagpa by Buddhists.<ref>{{cite web|date=30 March 2019|title=Nepal's Top Pilgrimage and Holy Sites – The Abode of Spirituality|url=https://www.nepalisansar.com/tourism/nepals-top-pilgrimage-sites-the-abode-of-spirituality/|access-date=1 June 2020|work=Nepali Sansar|archive-date=17 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117031726/https://www.nepalisansar.com/tourism/nepals-top-pilgrimage-sites-the-abode-of-spirituality/|url-status=live}}]</ref> 

[[File:Taktshang.jpg|thumb|[[Paro Taktsang|Taktsang]] monastery in [[Bhutan]]]]

For the Buddhists, [[Paro Taktsang]] is a religious site where [[Padmasambhava]] is said to have established Buddhism in Bhutan.<ref>{{cite book|author=Pommaret, Francoise|title=Bhutan Himalayan Mountains Kingdom|edition=5th|publisher=Odyssey Books|year=2006|pages=136–137|isbn=978-962-217-810-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/kimberly-cantor/paro-bhutan-the-tigers-ne_b_10982104.html|title=Paro, Bhutan: The Tiger's Nest|last=Cantor|first=Kimberly|date=14 July 2016|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|language=en-US|access-date=9 June 2018|archive-date=15 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715155110/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/kimberly-cantor/paro-bhutan-the-tigers-ne_b_10982104.html|url-status=live}}</ref> A number of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana Buddhist]] sites and [[List of Tibetan monasteries|monasteries]] are situated in the Himalayas.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm|title=Tibetan monks: A controlled life|work=BBC News|date=20 March 2008|access-date=26 February 2009|archive-date=18 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090218083955/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mehra|first=P. L.|date=1960|title=Lacunae in the Study of the History of Bhutan and Sikkim|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44137539|journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress|volume=23|pages=190–201|jstor=44137539|issn=2249-1937|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328212039/https://www.jstor.org/stable/44137539|url-status=live}}</ref> In Jainism, Mount Ashtapada of the Himalayan mountain range is a sacred place where [[Rishabhanatha]], the first Jain [[tirthankara]], attained [[moksha|liberation]]. It is believed that after Rishabhanatha attained [[nirvana]], his son [[Bharata (Jainism)|Bharata]] constructed three stupas and 24  shrines of the [[Tirthankaras]] with their idols in the Himalayas.<ref>{{cite book| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4aVRLGhf-8C&q=mount+Kailash+jainism&pg=RA1-PA273| title=Faith & Philosophy of Jainism| isbn=978-8-17835-723-2| last1=Jain| first1=Arun Kumar| year=2009| publisher=Gyan Publishing House}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-21/spiritual-destinations/29739255_1_manasarovar-water-moon|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707034645/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-21/spiritual-destinations/29739255_1_manasarovar-water-moon|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 July 2012|title=To heaven and back|date=11 January 2012|work=[[The Times of India]]|access-date=2 March 2012}}</ref> 

The Himalayan people's diversity shows through their architecture, their languages, and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, and clothing. The shapes and materials of the people's homes reflect their practical needs and beliefs. The handwoven textiles of the region display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Some Himalayan ethnicities give great importance to jewelry such as the [[Rai people|Rai]] and [[Limbu people|Limbu]], where women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewelry.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=79}}

== Economy ==
[[File:USAID Measuring Impact Conservation Enterprise Retrospective (Nepal; Asian Network for Sustainable Agriculture and Bioresrouces) (39396634355).jpg|thumb|[[Terrace farming]] in the foothills.]]

The Himalayas contributes to the economy of the hilly region and the plains below. As the range stretches across various ecological zones, the economy of various regions of the Himalayas depends on the availability of resources. The Himalayan mountain range and its associated forests have extensive natural resources.<ref name="Economy">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Economy|title=Economy of Himalayas|encyclopedia=[[Britannica]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=16 July 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716003725/https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Economy|url-status=live}}</ref> The fertile [[alluvium]] deposited by the Himalayan rivers have contributed to some the most fertile and arable lands.
<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ugcmoocs.inflibnet.ac.in/assets/uploads/1/146/5059/et/6%20INDO-GANGETIC%20PLAIN200304050503030404.pdf|title=Indo Gangetic Plain|work=[[University Grants Commission (India)|University Grants Commission]]|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> [[Fruits]] such as [[apple]], [[pear]], [[peach]], [[cherry]], and [[grape]] are grown in fertile river valleys and lake beds. The climate also supports extensive cultivation of nuts such as [[walnut]], and [[almond]]. [[Tea]] and [[spices]] are grown on the hills of Eastern Himalayas, which has the conducive climate and soil. The forests provide various natural resources, which form the livelihood of various ethnic tribes in the region.<ref name="Economy"/><ref name="Medical"/>

[[File:Nainital overview.JPG|thumb|[[Nainital]], a [[hill station]] in the Lower Himalayas.]]

Due to the higher rate of flow of the Himalayan rivers, they have been dammed at multiple places for development of [[irrigation]] facilities and generation of [[hydroelectricity]]. Many of the nomadic and pastoral tribes rear [[livestock]] along the ranges of the Himalayas. They migrate to higher altitudes for [[grazing]] during the post spring season, when new pastures form and return to lower altitudes during the winters. The region is also rich in minerals, thought access has been an issue. In the Western Himalays, [[coal]] is found in [[Jammu region]], [[bauxite]], [[copper]], and [[iron ore]] in [[Kashmir valley]], [[borax]] and [[sulfur]] in [[Ladakh]], and [[semi precious stones]] such as [[sapphire]] in [[Zanskar range]]. The Eastern Himalayas consist of deposits of [[gypsum]], [[mica]], [[graphite]], [[coal]], and various metal ores.<ref name="Economy"/>

There are a number of [[hill stations]] and religious centers on the lower ranges of the Himalayas and hence [[tourism]] is an important economic activity in the region.<ref>{{cite book|last=Howard|first=Christopher A|title=Mobile Lifeworlds: An Ethnography of Tourism and Pilgrimage in the Himalayas|year=2016|location=New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]|doi=10.4324/9781315622026|isbn=978-0-367-87798-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Lim|first=Francis Khek Ghee|title=Hotels as sites of power: tourism, status, and politics in Nepal Himalaya|journal=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |series=New Series|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute|volume=13|pages=721–738|year=2007|issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00452.x }}</ref> Due to the presence of major peaks, [[mountaineering]] has become a major source of income and employment in the Central Himalayan region. However, the increased inflow of tourists and the associated infrastructure projects have resulted in pressure on the fragile ecosystem and depletion of the natural resources.<ref>{{cite book|last=Humbert-Droz|first=Blaise|editor1-last=Prins|editor1-first=Herbert H. T.|editor2-last=Namgail|editor2-first=Tsewang |others=Foreword by H.H. The Dali Lama|chapter=Impacts of Tourism and Military Presence on Wetlands and Their Avifauna in the Himalayas|title=Bird Migration across the Himalayas Wetland Functioning amidst Mountains and Glaciers|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-1-107-11471-5|pages=343–358|year=2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Nyaupane |first1=Gyan P.|last2=Chhetri|first2=Netra|year=2009|title=Vulnerability to Climate Change of Nature-Based Tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas|journal=Tourism Geographies|volume=11|issue=1|pages=95–119|doi=10.1080/14616680802643359|s2cid=55042146 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Nyaupane|editor1-first=Gyan P.|editor2-last=Timothy|editor2-first=Dallen J.|title=Tourism and Development in the Himalya: Social, Environmental, and Economic Forces|year=2022|isbn=978-0-367-46627-5|location=London and New York|publisher=[[Routledge]]|series=Routledge Cultural Heritage and Tourism Series}}</ref> [[Sustainable tourism]] has been mooted as an alternative in the recent years.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Pati|first1=Vishwambhar Prasad|title=Sustainable Tourism Development in the Himalya: Constraints and Prospects|series=Environmental Science and Engineering |location=Cham, Switzerland|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|isbn=978-3-030-58853-3|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-58854-0|year=2020|s2cid=229256111}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Serenari|first1=Christopher|last2=Leung|first2=Yu-Fai|last3=Attarian|first3=Aram|last4=Franck|first4=Chris|title=Understanding environmentally significant behavior among whitewater rafting and trekking guides in the Garhwal Himalaya, India|issn=|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=20|issue=5|pages=757–772|year=2012|doi=10.1080/09669582.2011.638383|bibcode=2012JSusT..20..757S |s2cid=153859477}}</ref> The increasing growth of population has resulted in [[deforestation|reduction in forest cover]] for agriculture, and other requirements such as [[firewood]] and [[timber]].<ref name="Economy"/>

== Transportation ==
[[File:National_Highway_1D_India.JPG|thumb|[[National Highway 1 (India)|Srinagar-Leh highway]] (NH1) connects the [[Vale of Kashmir]] with [[Ladakh]] in India.]]
[[File:KSR_Steam_special_at_Taradevi_05-02-13_56.jpeg|thumb|[[Kalka-Shimla Railway]] is one of the two [[Mountain Railways of India]] operating in the Himalayan region.]]

Mountain trails with crossovers at mountain passes were the earlier means of travel and communication within the Himalayas. Since the late 20th century, road construction began in the region, which enabled transportation with the mountain valleys from both the sides of the Himalayas.<ref name="Economy"/> The [[Karakoram Highway]] connects the [[Pakistan administered Kashmir]] with [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region|Xinjiang region]] in China in the northwestern part of the Himalayas.<ref>{{cite book|title=Roads and Rivals: The Political Uses of Access in the Borderlands of Asia|url=https://archive.org/details/roadsrivalspolit00ispa|url-access=limited|date=June 1989|publisher=[[Cornell University Press]]|isbn=978-0801422201|page=[https://archive.org/details/roadsrivalspolit00ispa/page/191 191]|author=Mahnaz Z. Ispahani|edition=First}}</ref> The [[Hindustan-Tibet Road]] (NH 5) stretches from the [[Indo-Pakistan border]] in the west to the [[India-China border]] in the east, before crossing over to Tibet at [[Shipka Pass]]. Other major roads in the western Himalayas include the [[Manali-Leh Highway]] connecting [[Himachal Pradesh]] with [[Ladakh]], [[National Highway 1 (India)|Srinagar-Leh highway]] (NH1) connecting the [[Vale of Kashmir]] with Ladakh through [[Khardung La|Khardung pass]], and the [[Jammu–Srinagar National Highway|Jammu–Srinagar Highway]] (NH 44) connecting [[Kashmir]] with rest of India through the [[Pir Panjal Range]].<ref name="Economy"/>{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=85-88}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Rationalization of Numbering Systems of National Highways|publisher=[[Government of India]]|url=http://www.morth.nic.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|date=28 April 2010|access-date=21 Aug 2011|archive-date=1 October 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001214827/http://www.morth.nic.in/writereaddata/sublinkimages/finaldoc6143316640.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> 

In the eastern part in Nepal, the [[East-West Highway]] runs along the entire country in the east-west direction along the lower Himalayas. The [[Kathmandu–Terai Expressway]] connects the [[Kathmandu valley]] with [[Pokhara]], the [[Arniko Highway]] connects [[Kathmandu]] with China through the [[Kodari|Kodari pass]] and the [[Tribhuvan Highway]] links Kathmandu with the [[National Highway 28 (India)|NH 28]] on the Indian side.<ref name="Economy"/>{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=85-88}}<ref>{{cite report|url=https://tid.p3.gov.np/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Nepal-Road-Standard-2070.pdf|title=Nepal road standard|publisher=[[Government of Nepal]]|date=June 2019|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref> The Indian state of [[Sikkim]] is connected to Tiber via through mountain passes at [[Jelep La]] and [[Nathu La]].<ref>{{cite periodical|last1=Arora|first1=Vibha|title=Routing the Commodities of the Empire through Sikkim (1817-1906)|number=9|periodical=Commodities of Empire Working Paper|publisher=[[Open University]] |year=2008|issn=1756-0098|url=http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/ferguson-centre/commodities-of-empire/working-papers/WP09.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924060812/http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/ferguson-centre/commodities-of-empire/working-papers/WP09.pdf |archive-date=24 September 2015|page=8}}</ref> Several motorable highways connect the [[North East India]]n states with the rest of India.<ref name="Economy"/>{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=85-88}}

The majority of the railway lines in the region are on the Indian side, operated by [[Indian Railways]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://surveyofindia.gov.in/pages/railway-map-of-india|title=Railway map of India|work=[[Survey of India]]|access-date=1 June 2024|archive-date=29 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529172212/https://www.surveyofindia.gov.in/pages/railway-map-of-india|url-status=live}}</ref> There are two [[narrow gauge railway]] [[Mountain Railways of India|mountain railway lines]]&dash;[[Darjeeling Himalayan Railway]] in [[West Bengal]] opened in 1881, and [[Kalka-Shimla Railway]] in [[Himachal Pradesh]] operating since 1903.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mountain Railways of India|work=World Heritage List|publisher=[[World Heritage Committee]]|year=1999|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944/|access-date=5 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219024051/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/944/|archive-date=19 December 2008|url-status=live|df=dmy-all}}</ref> There is a narrow gauge railway line between [[Raxaul]] in Indian state of [[Bihar]] and [[Amlekhganj]] in Nepal.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nepalese Railway and Economic Development: What Has Gone Wrong?|date=11 June 2020|url=https://www.theindiareview.com/india-and-nepal/nepal-railways-and-economic-development-what-has-gone-wrong-110620-01/|work=India Review|access-date=19 November 2021|archive-date=19 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119174443/https://www.theindiareview.com/india-and-nepal/nepal-railways-and-economic-development-what-has-gone-wrong-110620-01/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Other railway lines include [[Jammu–Baramulla line]] in the Indian Kashmir region and [[Kangra Valley Railway]] in the [[Kumaon region]].<ref name="Economy"/>

Multiple airstrips have been constructed on both the sides of the Himalayas for both civilian and military purposes. The major international airports in the Himalayas are the [[Tribhuvan International Airport|Kathmandu airport]] in the Kathmandu valley and [[Srinagar airport]] in the Vale of Kashmir. There are several other airports and airstrips, which support regional and limited international flights.<ref name="Economy"/> These include some of the world's highest and dangerous airports such as [[Tenzing-Hillary Airport]] in Nepal, and [[Paro Airport]] in Bhutan.<ref>{{cite episode|title=Most Extreme Airports|series=History Specials|publisher=[[History (American TV network)|The History Channel]]|date=26 August 2010|season=1|number=104}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.airport-technology.com/features/the-top-10-highest-altitude-airports-in-the-world/|title=The top 10 highest altitude airports in the world|date=30 January 2024|access-date=1 June 2024|work=Airport-technology|archive-date=12 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240612225610/https://www.airport-technology.com/features/the-top-10-highest-altitude-airports-in-the-world/|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Daulat Beg Oldi]] in Ladakh is the oldest airstrip in the world.<ref>{{cite report|url=https://www.thepeninsula.org.in/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/daulet-beg-oldi-operating-from-the-worlds-highest-airfield-2.pdf|title=Daulat Beg Oldi: Operating from the World's Highest Airfield|author=Anant Bewoor|date=July 2020|access-date=1 June 2024}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col}}
* [[Eastern Himalaya|Eastern]] and [[Western Himalaya]]
* [[Indian Himalayan Region]]
* [[List of Himalayan peaks and passes]]
* [[List of Himalayan topics]]
* [[List of mountains in India]], [[List of mountains in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Mountains of Bhutan|Bhutan]], [[List of mountains in Nepal|Nepal]] and [[List of mountains in China|China]]
* [[List of Ultras of the Himalayas]]
* [[Trekking peak]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}
=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite book|last=Barry|first=Roger E|title=Mountain Weather and Climate|edition=3rd|location=[[Cambridge]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-86295-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Chakrabarti|first=B. K. |title=Geology of the Himalayan Belt: Deformation, Metamorphism, Stratigraphy|location=[[Amsterdam]] and [[Boston]]|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|isbn=978-0-128-02021-0|year=2016}}
* {{cite book|last1=Clift|first1=Peter D.|last2=Plumb|first2=R. Alan|title=The Asian Monsoon: Causes, History and Effects|location=[[Cambridge]] and [[New York City|New York]]|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-84799-5|year=2008}}
* {{cite book|last=Davies|first=Geoffrey F.|title=Stories from the Deep Earth: How Scientists Figured Out What Drives Tectonic Plates and Mountain Building|location=[[Cham, Switzerland|Cham]]|publisher=[[Springer Nature]]|year=2022|isbn= 978-3-030-91358-8|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-91359-5|s2cid=245636487}}
* {{cite book|last1=Nag|first1=Prithvish|last2=Sengupta|first2=Smita|title=Geography of India|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing|isbn=978-8-170-22384-9}}
* {{cite book|last1=Frisch|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Meschede|first2=Martin|last3=Blakey|first3=Ronald|title=Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building|location=[[Heidelberg]]|publisher=[[Springer Science]]|isbn=978-3-540-76503-5|doi= 10.1007/978-3-540-76504-2|year=2011}}
* {{cite book|last1=Zurick|first1=David|last2=Pacheco|first2=Julsun|others=Basanta Shrestha and Birendra Bajracharya| title=Illustrated Atlas of the Himalayas|location=[[Lexington, Kentucky|Lexington]]|publisher=[[University Press of Kentucky]]|isbn=978-0-813-12388-2|year=2006|oclc=1102237054}}

== Further reading ==
* [[William McKay Aitken|Aitken, Bill]], ''Footloose in the Himalaya'', Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003. {{ISBN|81-7824-052-1}}.
* Berreman, Gerald Duane, ''Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change'', 2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997.
* Edmundson, Henry, ''Tales from the Himalaya'', Vajra Books, Kathmandu, 2019. {{ISBN|978-9937-9330-3-2}}.
* Fisher, James F., ''Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal'', 1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-520-06941-2}}.
* [[Augusto Gansser-Biaggi|Gansser, Augusto]], [[Andreas Gruschke|Gruschke, Andreas]], Olschak, Blanche C., ''Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples'', New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987. {{ISBN|0-8160-1994-0}} and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987.
* [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt|Hunt, John]], ''Ascent of Everest'', London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956. {{ISBN|0-89886-361-9}}.
* [[Maurice Isserman|Isserman, Maurice]] and Weaver, Stewart, ''Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes''. Yale University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-300-11501-7}}.
* Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno, ''The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation''. London / New York, Routledge, 1989. {{ISBN|0-415-01157-4}}.
* Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D., ''The Himalaya, Aspects of Change''. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0-19-561254-X}}.
* Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K., ''[http://gbpihedenvis.nic.in/ENVIS%20Monograph/ENVIS%20Monograph%203.pdf Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya]'', Almora, GBPIHED, 2006.
* [[Swami Sundaranand]], ''Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu''. Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (2001). {{ISBN|81-901326-0-1}}.
* Swami [[Tapovan Maharaj]], ''Wanderings in the Himalayas'', English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai.
* [[Bill Tilman|Tilman, H. W.]], ''Mount Everest, 1938'', Cambridge University Press, 1948.
* Turner, Bethan, et al. ''Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity''. Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013.

== External links ==
{{sister project links|auto=1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130118002451/http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/ The Digital Himalaya research project at Cambridge and Yale] (archived)
* [http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html Geology of the Himalayan mountains] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616162641/http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html |date=16 June 2010 }}
* [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/earth/birth.html Birth of the Himalaya]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130319033748/http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/asia/south-asias-troubled-waters South Asia's Troubled Waters] Journalistic project at the Pulitzer Centre for Crisis Reporting (archived)
* [https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Biological_diversity_in_the_Himalayas Biological diversity in the Himalayas] Encyclopedia of Earth

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