Mount Merapi
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Mount Merapi, Gunung Merapi in Indonesian language, is a conical volcano in Central Java, Indonesia. It is the most active volcano in Indonesia and has erupted 68 times since 1548. Its name means Mountain of Fire. It is very close to the city of Yogyakarta, and thousands of people live on the flanks of the volcano, with villages as high as 1700 m above sea level.
Several of its eruptions have caused fatalities. It was erupting from 1992 to 2002, and a particularly large explosion killed 43 people in 1994. It began erupting again in 2006, and scientists believe a large eruption is imminent. In light of the hazards it poses to populated areas, it has been designated a Decade Volcano.
Geological history
Merapi is the youngest in a group of volcanoes in southern Java. It is situated at a subduction zone, where the Indo-Australian Plate is sliding beneath the Eurasian Plate. It is one of at least 129 active volcanoes in Indonesia, part of the Pacific Ring of Fire - a section of fault lines stretching from the Western Hemisphere through Japan and South East Asia.[1] Stratigraphic analysis reveals that eruptions in the Merapi area began about 400,000 years ago, and from then until about 10,000 years ago, eruptions were typically effusive, and the outflowing lava emitted was basaltic. Since then, eruptions have become more explosive, with viscous andesitic lavas often generating lava domes. Dome collapse has often generated pyroclastic flows, and larger explosions, which have resulted in eruption columns, have also generated pyroclastic flows through column collapse.
Typically, small eruptions occur every two to three years, and larger ones every 10-15 years or so. Notable eruptions, often causing many deaths, have occurred in 1006, 1786, 1822, 1872 (the most violent eruption in recent history) and 1930—when thirteen villages were destroyed and 1400 people killed by pyroclastic flows.
A very large eruption in 1006 covered all of central Java with ash. The volcanic devastation is believed to have led to the collapse of the Hindu Kingdom of Mataram, and the ensuing power vacuum allowed Muslims to become the rulers of Java.
Merapi continues to hold particular significance for the Javanese: it is one of four places where officials from the royal palaces of Java's Yogyakarta and Solo make annual offerings to placate the ancient Javanese spirits. [2]
1992 eruption
Image courtesy of the Image Science & Analysis Laboratory, NASA Johnson Space Center
1992 saw an eruption begin at Mount Merapi which continued for the next ten years. During this time, a lava dome was extruded, growing by up to half a metre per day. In 1994, the dome reached the edge of the crater, and from then on, rockfall from the dome produced frequent pyroclastic flows. In late 1994 almost the entire dome collapsed, generating very large pyroclastic flows, which travelled several kilometres from the summit and killed 43 people.
Following the large eruption of November 1994, a new dome formed in the crater, and small explosive eruptions continued for several years, generating scores of lava avalanches and pyroclastic flows every day. Eruptions ended in late 2002.
2006 eruption
In April 2006, increased seismicity at more regular intervals and a detected bulge in the volcano's cone indicated that fresh eruptions were imminent. Authorities put the volcano's neighboring villages on high alert and local residents prepared for a likely evacuation. On April 19 smoke from the crater reached a height of 400 metres, compared to 75 metres the previous day. On April 23, after nine surface tremors and some 156 multifaced quakes signalled movements of magma, some 600 elderly and infant residents of the slopes were evacuated.[3]
By early May, active lava flows had begun. On May 11, with lava flow beginning to be constant, some 17,000 people were ordered to be evacuated from the area[4] and on May 13, Indonesian authorities raised the alert status to the highest level, ordering the immediate evacuation of all residents on the mountain.[5] Eruptions at the volcano are increasing in intensity, and some reports indicate that large explosions have begun.[6][7] Should pyroclastic flows occur, nearby villages will be at very high risk, but many villagers have defied the dangers posed by the volcano and returned to their villages, saying that they needed to tend their live-stock and crops.[8] On May 16 activity has calmed down but scientists are warning it still poses a threat.[9]
On May 27, a 6.2 magnitude earthquake struck roughly 30 miles southwest of Merapi, killing at least 5,000 and leaving at least 200,000 people homeless in the Yogyakarta region, heightening fears that Merapi will "blow".[10] The quake did not appear to be a long-period oscillation, a seismic disturbance class that is increasingly associated with major volcanic eruptions. A further 11,000 villagers were evacuated on June 6th as lava and superheated clouds of gas poured repeatedly down its upper slopes.[11]
Monitoring
Mount Merapi is the site of a very active volcano monitoring program. Seismic monitoring began in 1924, with some of the volcano monitoring stations lasting until the present. The Babadan (north west location), Selo (in the saddle between Merbabu and Merapi), and Plawangan monitoring stations have been updated with equipment over the decades since stablishment. During the 1950's and early 1960's some of the stations were starved of equipment and funds, but after the 1970's considerable improvement occurred with the supply of new equipment. Some of the pre-1930 observation posts were destoyed by the 1930 eruption, and newer posts were re-located. Similarly after the 1994 eruption, the Plawangan post and equipment were moved into Kaliurang as a response to the threat of danger to the Volcanological personnel at higher point.
The eruption of 1930 was found to have been preceded by a large earthquake swarm. The network of 8 seismographs currently around the volcanoo allow volcanologists to accurately pinpoint the hypocentres of tremors and quakes.
A zone in which no quakes originate is found about 1.5 km below the summit, and is thought to be the location of the magma reservoir which feeds the eruptions.
Other measurements taken on the volcano include magnetic measurements and tilt measurements. Small changes in the local magnetic field have been found to coincide with eruptions, and tilt measurements reveal the inflation of the volcano caused when the magma chamber beneath it is filling up.
Lahars (a type of mudflow of pyroclastic material and water) are an important hazard on the mountain, and are caused by rain remobilizing pyroclastic flow deposits. Lahars can be detected seismically, as they cause a high-frequency seismic signal. Observations have found that about 50 mm of rain per hour is the threshold above which lahars are often generated.
References
- ^ Merapi villagers defy orders to leave homes: The Straits Times
- ^ Radio New Zealand news report, 23 April 2006
- ^ Mail & Guardian online, 23 April 2006
- ^ Lava flows from Indonesia volcano. BBC News, May 4 2006 URL Accessed 2006-05-13
- ^ Red alert for Indonesia volcano. BBC News, May 13 2006 URL Accessed 2006-05-13
- ^ Mount Merapi Erupts, ANTARA News, 15 May 2006
- ^ Indonesia's Merapi volcano spews steam, hot ash, Reuters, 15 May 2006
- ^ Merapi villages defy orders to leave homes: The Straits Times
- ^ Java volcano activity quietens - BBC News, 16 May 2006
- ^ Earthquake Leaves Thousands Dead in Indonesia, NY Times, 27 May 2006 URL Accessed 2006-05-27
- ^ [1], BreakingNews.ie, 6 June 2006 URL Accessed 2006-06-06
- Decker, R. and Decker, B. (1997) Volcanoes, 3rd edition, WH Freeman, New York.
