Jump to content

Harari people

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Harari
ሀረሪ
A group of Hararis at a wedding dressed in cultural attire in Harar
Total population
estimated 200,000[1]
Regions with significant populations
 Ethiopia50,000-70,000 (Using 2021 Election Data and 2017 Census Projections)[2]
Languages
Harari
Religion
Sunni Islam
Related ethnic groups
Argobba • Amhara • Gurage • Tigrayans • Tigrinya • Siltʼe • Zay • other Habesha peoples[3]

The Harari people (Harari: ጌይ ኡሱኣች Gēy Usuach, "People of the City") are a Semitic-speaking ethnic group which inhabits the Horn of Africa. Members of this ethnic group traditionally reside in the walled city of Harar, simply called Gēy "the City" in Harari, situated in the Harari Region of eastern Ethiopia. They speak the Harari language, a member of the South Ethiopic grouping within the Semitic subfamily of the Afroasiatic languages.

History

[edit]
Richard Burton's illustration of the Harari people's costumes.

The Harla people, an extinct Afroasiatic-speaking people native to Hararghe, are considered by most scholars to be the precursors to the Harari people.[4][5][6] The ancestors of the Hararis moved across the Bab-el-Mandeb, settling in the shores of Somalia and later expanding into the interior producing a Semitic-speaking population among Cushitic and non-Afroasiatic-speaking peoples in what would become Harar.[7][8][9] These early Semitic settlers in the region were believed to be of Hadhrami stock.[10]

Sheikh Abadir, the legendary patriarch of the Harari, is said to have arrived in the Harar plateau in the early thirteenth century, where he was met by the Harla, Gaturi and Argobba people.[11] In the Middle Ages Hararis led by Abadir supposedly came into conflict with the Shirazi people who had occupied Somalia's coast.[12][13] By the thirteenth century, the Hararis were among the administrators of the Ifat Sultanate.[14] In the fourteenth century raids on the Harari town of Get (Gey) by Abyssinian Emperor Amda Seyon I, Hararis are referred to as Harlas.[15] Ifat state under Haqq ad-Din II relocated their base to the Harari plateau (Adal) in the fourteenth century.[16][17][18] An alliance kingdom ensued between Argobba and Harari people designated the Adal Sultanate which later included Afar and Somali people.[19][20][21] In the sixteenth century under Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, the Harari state stretched to large parts of the Horn of Africa.[22][23][24][25] During the Ethiopian–Adal war, some Harari militia (malassay) settled in Gurage territory, forming the Siltʼe people.[26] Hararis once represented the largest concentration of agriculturalists in East Africa.[27]

In the sixteenth century, walls built around the city of Harar during the reign of Emir Nur ibn Mujahid helped preserve Harari identity from being assimilated by the Oromo.[28] Harari colonies in the middle of the seaboard and Harar were also assimilated by Somalis putting the Sultanate of Adal under duress.[29] Hararis confined in the walled city became the last remnants of a once large ethnic group that inhabited the region.[30][31] According to Ulrich Braukämper, the Harla-Harari were most likely active in the region prior to the Adal Sultanate's Islamic invasion of Ethiopia.

The sixteenth century saw Oromos invading regions of the Horn of Africa from the northern areas of Hargeisa to its southern portions such as Lower Juba, incorporating the Harari people.[32] Hararis were furious when Muhammad Gasa decided to move the Adal Sultanate's capital from Harar to Aussa in 1577 in response to Oromo threats. In less than a year after its relocation Adal would collapse.[33] Harari imams continued to have a presence in the southern Afar Region in the Imamate of Aussa until they were overthrown in the eighteenth century by the Mudaito dynasty, who later established the Sultanate of Aussa.[34]

Among the assimilated peoples were Arab Muslims that arrived during the start of the Islamic period, as well as Argobba and other migrants that were drawn to Harar's well-developed culture.[35] Statistics prove that a Semitic-speaking people akin to the Harari may have inhabited a stretch of land between the Karkaar Mountains, the middle Awash and Jijiga. Oromo migrations have effectively split this putative ethnolinguistic block to the Lake Zway islands, Gurage territory, and Harar.[36][37] Following the decline of the Adal Sultanate's ascendancy in the area, a large number of the Harari were in turn reportedly absorbed into the Oromo community.[35] In the Emirate of Harar period, Hararis sent missionaries to convert Oromo to Islam.[38] The loss of the crucial Battle of Chelenqo marked the end of Harar's independence in 1887.[39] Hararis supported the designated but uncrowned Emperor of Ethiopia Lij Iyasu, and his presumed efforts to make Harar the capital of an African Islamic empire.[40] Iyasu was however overthrown in 1916, and many of his Harari followers were jailed.[41]

Harari woman in traditional attire

Chafing under imperial Ethiopian rule, Hararis made several attempts to cut ties with Ethiopia and unify Hararghe with Somalia, among them launching the nationalist Kulub movement which was linked to the Somali Youth League. These events led to the Haile Selassie government's ethnic cleansing efforts on Hararis.[42] A Harar Oromo proverb alludes to this occasion: "On that day Hararis were eliminated from earth."[43] Former Mayor of Harar Bereket Selassie reported that both the Amhara and Oromo viewed Hararis with contempt.[44] Haile Selassie's overthrow by the Derg communist regime made minor differences for the Harari; they describe it as "little more than a transition from the frying pan into the fire".[45] The 1975 rural act disenfranchised Hararis from their farm land, forcing many to emigrate.[46] The surviving Harari relatives of Kulub movement members would join the Somali Armed Forces; and some, having been promoted as high-ranking military officers, fought in the Ogaden War to free Harari and Somali territory from Ethiopian rule.[47][48] Hararis were also involved in the WSLF.[49][50] After Ethiopians won the war in Ogaden, Derg soldiers began massacring civilians in Harari areas of Addis Ababa for collaborating with Somalis.[51] The aftermath of the Ogaden war resulted in 200,000 Hararis being held at southern Somalia's refuge camps in 1979.[52] Today Hararis are outnumbered in their own state by the Amhara and Oromo peoples. Under the Meles Zenawi administration, Hararis had been favored tremendously. They acquired control of their Harari Region again, and have been given special rights not offered to other groups in the region.[53] According to academic Sarah Vaughan, the Harari People's National Regional State was created to overturn the historically bad relationship between Harar and the Ethiopian government.[54]

Some Hararis as well as the Somali Sheekhal and Hadiya Halaba clans assert descent from Abadir Umar ar-Rida, also known as Fiqi Umar, who traced his lineage to the first caliph, Abu Bakr. According to the explorer Richard Francis Burton, "Fiqi Umar" crossed over from the Arabian Peninsula to the Horn of Africa ten generations prior to 1854, with his six sons: Umar the Greater, Umar the Lesser, the two Abdillahs, Ahmad and Siddiq.[55] According to Hararis, they also consist of seven Harla subclans: Abogn, Adish, Awari, Gidaya, Gatur, Hargaya, and Wargar.[56] The Harari were previously known as "Adere", although this term is now considered derogatory.[57]

Arsi Oromo state an intermarriage took place between their ancestors and the previous inhabitants Adere (Harari) whom they call the Hadiya.[58][59] Hadiya clans claim their forefathers were Harari however they later became influenced by Sidama.[60][61] Moreover, the Habar Habusheed, a major branch of the Somali Isaaq clan family consisting of the Habr Je'lo, Sanbur, Ibran and Tol Je'lo clans in Somaliland and Ethiopia, hold the tradition that they originate from an intermarriage between a Harari woman and their forefather Sheikh Ishaaq.[62]

Language

[edit]
Harari pendant, held at the Museum of Natural History and Ethnography in Colmar.

The Harari people speak the Harari language, an Ethiosemitic language referred to as Gey Sinan or Gēy Ritma ("Language of the City"). It is closely related to the eastern Gurage languages and similar to Zay and Silt'e, all of whom are linked to the Harla language.[63][64] Old Harari already had many Arabic loanwords, proven by the ancient texts.[65] Northern Somali dialects use Harari loanwords.[66] The Zeila songs of thirteenth century origin, popular in Somaliland are considered to be using Old Harari.[67] Historians states the language spoken by the Imams and Sultans of Adal would closely resemble contemporary Harari language.[68][69]

Modern Harari is influenced more by Oromo than Somali and the presence of Arabic is still there.[70] After the eighteenth century Egyptian conquest of Harar, numerous loanwords were additionally borrowed from Egyptian Arabic.

Gafat language, now extinct, was once spoken in the Blue Nile was related to a Harari dialect.[71] Harari language has some form of correlation with Swahili and Maghrebi Arabic.[72] Prior to Oromo encircling the Harar region, its postulated Harari speakers were in direct contact with Sidama, Afar and Somali.[73][74]

The first known Harari language dictionary in English was published by British traveler Henry Salt in 1814.[75]

The Harari language was historically written using the Arabic script and in characters known as "Harari secret script" of unknown origin.[76] More recently in the 1990s, it has been transcribed with the Ge'ez script. Harari is also commonly written in Latin outside of Ethiopia.[77]

The 1994 Ethiopian census indicates that there were 21,757 Harari speakers. About 20,000 of these individuals were concentrated outside Harar, in Ethiopia's capital Addis Ababa.[78]

Most Harari people are bilingual in Amharic and Oromo, both of which are also Afro-Asiatic languages. According to the 1994 Ethiopian census, about 2,351 are monolingual, speaking only Harari.[78]

Religion

[edit]

Virtually all Harari are Sunni Muslim. The earliest kabir or Islamic teacher in the community was Aw Sofi Yahya, a Harari scholar who was contemporary of the patron saint of Harar called Shaykh Abadir and it was from him that the first Qur'anic school was built around 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to the south of the city center.[79] The predominant strand or self-identification adopted by Harari people is Sunni or non-denominational Islam.[80]

Diaspora

[edit]

Hararis comprise under 10% within their own city, due to ethnic cleansing by the Haile Selassie regime. Thousands of Hararis were forced to leave Harar in the 1940s.[54][81][82][42][83][84] Harari people moved throughout Ethiopia, mainly to Addis Ababa and Dire Dawa, establishing families and businesses. There is a considerable Harari population in Djibouti, Saudi Arabia, Somalia and Yemen.[85] The Harari people have also spread throughout North America, mainly to Washington D.C., Atlanta, Toronto, Dallas, Los Angeles, and Memphis. Furthermore, a minority of the Harari people live in Europe in countries such as Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Sweden and the United Kingdom, and also outside of Europe in Australia.

Basketry Art

[edit]
Some of the luxurious Harari baskets, called "Mot" (Harari = ጌይ ሞት), today registered and certified as a Harari trademark.
An old Harari woman making a pair of Hamat Mot, one of the most expansive Harari basket.

The Hararis are known to be the masters of basketry in Ethiopia, decorated with complex geometric patterns, and renowned for their quality and beauty. Those baskets are often used for special occasions such as weddings, mournings, but mostly for house decoration. In addition, the Mesob (traditional basketwork table) was invented by the Harari people. Harari baskets are considered valuable handicrafts, mainly used by wealthier Harari families, and are highly appreciated and prized not only locally, but also in the Ethiopian craft market and among crafts collectors from all over the world. They are a remarkable example of traditional Ethiopian craftsmanship and demonstrate the cultural richness of the Harar region.

Harari traditional houses

[edit]
Harari house doors, carved in stone and wood.
Main room of a Harari house (ጌይ ጋር).
Harari traditional "Aflala" pots in a wealthy Harari house.

Harari houses are known to be richly decorated with beautiful handcrafted wall baskets with very intricate designs (made by Harari women), as well as enameled plates with floral patterns (plates imported to Ethiopia after the Second World War by Japanese traders). The ground floor is dedicated to the kitchen and living room. The main room has large steps covered with carpets and pillows, called "Nedeba", where family members and guests take their seats according to their rank. The floors are devoted to bedrooms. In the wealthiest families, 4 black clay pots, called "Aflala", are placed on a stone shelf, carved into the wall, where all valuable goods were stored, such as gold, coins, medicine and coffee beans.

Notable Hararis

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Lovise, Alean (22 June 2011). The Politics of Ethnicity in Ethiopia. BRILL. p. 154. ISBN 978-9004207295. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  2. ^ "Harari RC Election Results Final - sep 30th.PDF".
  3. ^ Joireman, Sandra F. (1997). Institutional Change in the Horn of Africa: The Allocation of Property Rights and Implications for Development. Universal-Publishers. p. 1. ISBN 1581120001. The Horn of Africa encompasses the countries of Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti and Somalia. These countries share similar peoples, languages, and geographical endowments.
  4. ^ Hassen, Mohammed (2015). The Oromo and the Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia: 1300-1700. Boydell & Brewer. p. 145 (footnote 32). ISBN 9781847011176.
  5. ^ Joussaume, Roger (1976). "Fouille d'un tumulus à Ganda Hassan Abdi dans les monts du Harar". Annales d'Ethiopie. 10: 25–39. doi:10.3406/ethio.1976.1157.
  6. ^ Gebissa, Ezekiel (2004). Leaf of Allah. Ohio State University Press. p. 36. ISBN 9780852554807. Retrieved 11 April 2016.
  7. ^ Mordechai, Abir. ETHIOPIA AND THE RED SEA (PDF). Hebrew University of Jerusalem. p. 9.
  8. ^ Abraham, Kinfe (2004). Ethiopia and the Arab world. EIIPD Press. p. 53. ISBN 9782003120749.
  9. ^ Mordechai, Abir (2013-10-28). Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim European Rivalry in the Region. Routledge. p. xvii-xviii. ISBN 9781136280900.
  10. ^ Walker, Bethany (6 October 2020). The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Archaeology. Oxford University Press. p. 425. ISBN 978-0-19-750787-2.
  11. ^ Braukhamper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture. LIT Verlag Munster. p. 107. ISBN 9783825856717. Retrieved 12 April 2016.
  12. ^ Encyclopaedia Aethiopica (PDF). Harrasowitz Verlag. p. 1015.
  13. ^ Wagner, Ewald (April 1979). "Legende und Geschichte: der Fath Madinat Hara von Yahya Nasrallah". The Journal of African History. 20 (2). Cambridge University Press: 315. doi:10.1017/S0021853700017266.
  14. ^ Levtzion, Nehemia (31 March 2000). The History of Islam in Africa. Ohio University Press. p. 228. ISBN 9780821444610. Retrieved 8 March 2017.
  15. ^ Budge, E.A (1 August 2014). A History of Ethiopia: Volume I (Routledge Revivals): Nubia and Abyssinia. Routledge. ISBN 9781317649151. Retrieved 3 March 2017.
  16. ^ Wagner, Ewald (1991). "The Genealogy of the later Walashma' Sultans of Adal and Harar". Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft. 141 (2). Harrassowitz Verlag: 376–386. JSTOR 43378336.
  17. ^ Marcus, Harold. A History of Ethiopia (PDF). UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS. p. 16.
  18. ^ Chekroun, Amelie. Le" Futuh al-Habasa" : ´ecriture de l'histoire, guerre et soci´et´e dans le Bar Sa'ad ad-din (PDF). Universit´e Panth´eon-Sorbonne. p. 145.
  19. ^ Zewde, Bahru (1998). A Short History of Ethiopia and the Horn. Addis Ababa University. p. 64.
  20. ^ Begashaw, Kassaye. The Archaeology of Islam in North East Shoa (PDF). Proceedings of the 16th International Conference of Ethiopian Studies. p. 14. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-03.
  21. ^ Tamrat, Taddesse. Review: Place Names in Ethiopian History. Institute of Ethiopian Studies. p. 120. JSTOR 41965996.
  22. ^ Harbeson, John (1978). "Territorial and Development Politics in the Horn of Africa: The Afar of the Awash Valley". African Affairs. 77 (309). Oxford University Press: 486. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.afraf.a097023. JSTOR 721961.
  23. ^ Lindahl, Bernhard. Local history of Ethiopia (PDF). Nordic Africa Institute. p. 37.
  24. ^ Okazaki, Rumi (2012). "A STUDY ON THE LIVING ENVIRONMENT OF HARAR JUGOL, ETHIOPIA". Japan Science and Technology Agency. 77: 951.
  25. ^ Wondimu, Alemayehu. A CULTURAL HISTORY OF THE HARARI PEOPLE (PDF). Jimma University. p. 20. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2021.
  26. ^ Environment, livelihood and local praxis in Asia and Africa. Center for African Area Studies, Kyoto University. 2005. p. 160. Retrieved 9 March 2017.
  27. ^ Hassen, Mohammed (1983). The Oromo of Ethiopia (PDF). University of London. p. 176.
  28. ^ Stauth, Georg (2008). Dimensions of Locality. transcript Verlag. p. 156. ISBN 9783899429688. Retrieved 24 April 2016.
  29. ^ Yasin, Yasin (2010). Regional Dynamics of Inter-ethnic Conflicts in the Horn of Africa: An Analysis of the Afar-Somali Conflict in Ethiopia and Djibouti. UNIVERSITY OF HAMBURG. p. 72.
  30. ^ The True Life of Capt. Sir Richard F. Burton. H. S. Nichols. 1896. p. 131. mighty race burton.
  31. ^ Waldron, Sidney (1984). "The Political Economy of Harari-Oromo Relationships, 1559-1874". Northeast African Studies. 6 (1/2): 24. JSTOR 43663302.
  32. ^ Adam, Hussein Mohamed; Geshekter, Charles Lee (1992). The Proceedings of the First International Congress of Somali Studies. Scholars Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-89130-658-0.
  33. ^ Abir, Mordechai (2013). Ethiopia and the Red Sea: The Rise and Decline of the Solomonic Dynasty and Muslim European Rivalry in the Region. Routledge. p. 139. ISBN 978-1-136-28090-0.
  34. ^ Page, Willie. Encyclopedia of africaN HISTORY andCULTURE (PDF). Facts on File inc. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-02-17. Retrieved 2019-02-17.
  35. ^ a b Braukämper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 37. ISBN 978-3825856717.
  36. ^ Haberland, Eike. Untersuchungen zum äthiopischen Königtum. Steiner. p. 14.
  37. ^ Braukämper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 18. ISBN 978-3825856717.
  38. ^ Zewde, Bahru (17 March 2002). A History of Modern Ethiopia, 1855–1991. Ohio University Press. ISBN 9780821445723. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
  39. ^ Bosworth, C. E (11 March 2014). New Islamic Dynasties. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 9780748696482. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
  40. ^ "How Ethiopian prince scuppered Germany's WW1 plans". BBC News. 25 September 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  41. ^ Feener, Michael (2004). Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. p. 224. ISBN 9781576075166. Retrieved 12 March 2017.
  42. ^ a b Feener, Michael (2004). Islam in World Cultures: Comparative Perspectives. ABC-CLIO. p. 227. ISBN 9781576075166. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  43. ^ Carmichael, Tim (1998). Political Culture in Ethiopia's Provincial Administration: Haile Sellassie, Blata Ayele Gebre and the (Hareri) Kulub Movement of 1948. Boston University African Studies Center Press. p. 207.
  44. ^ Selassie, Bereket (20 September 2007). The crown and the pen: the memoirs of a lawyer turned rebel. Red Sea Press. pp. 226–227. ISBN 9781569022764. Retrieved 14 June 2017.
  45. ^ Yigezu, Moges (2010). Language Ideologies and Challenges of Multilingual Education in Ethiopia: The Case of Harari Region. African Books Collective. p. 44. ISBN 9789994455478. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  46. ^ Hetzron, Robert (8 October 2013). The Semitic Languages. Routledge. p. 486. ISBN 9781136115806.
  47. ^ Teshale, Semir. Insurgency in Ethnically Divided Authoritarian-led Societies: A Comparative Study of Rebel Movements in Ethiopia, 1974-2014 (PDF). University of Toronto. p. 155.
  48. ^ Wehib, Ahmed (October 2015). History of Harar and the Hararis (PDF). Harari People Regional State Culture, Heritage And Tourism Bureau. p. 172. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  49. ^ Waldron, Sidney. Afocha A Link Between Community and Administration in Hārar, Ethiopia. Syracuse University. p. 88.
  50. ^ Matshanda, Namhla (2014). Centres in the Periphery: Negotiating Territoriality and Identification in Harar and Jijiga from 1942 (PDF). The University of Edinburgh. p. 200. S2CID 157882043. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2020-01-31.
  51. ^ "Horn of Africa". Horn of Africa Journal. 1 (2): 9. 1978. Retrieved 23 February 2017.
  52. ^ Jaynes, Gregory (19 November 1979). "Ogaden Refugees Overwhelming Somali Resources". NY times. Retrieved 2 July 2021.
  53. ^ Yigezu, Moges (2010). Language Ideologies and Challenges of Multilingual Education in Ethiopia: The Case of Harari Region. African Books Collective. pp. 44–45. ISBN 9789994455478. Retrieved 14 March 2017.
  54. ^ a b Vaughan, Sarah. Ethnicity and Power in Ethiopia. The University of Edinburgh. p. 235.
  55. ^ Richard Burton, First Footsteps in East Africa, 1856; edited with an introduction and additional chapters by Gordon Waterfield (New York: Praeger, 1966), p. 165
  56. ^ Wehib, Ahmed (October 2015). History of Harar and the Hararis (PDF). Harari People Regional State Culture, Heritage And Tourism Bureau. p. 29. Retrieved 7 July 2017.
  57. ^ Yimam, Baye (2002). Ethiopian studies at the end of the second millennium. Institute of Ethiopian Studies, Addis Ababa University. p. 930. Retrieved 13 July 2016.
  58. ^ Braukaemper, Ulrich. A history of the Hadiya in Southern Ethiopia. Universite Hamburg. p. 9.
  59. ^ Braukamper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essay. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 47. ISBN 9783825856717.
  60. ^ The Ethno-History of Halaba People (PDF). Southern Nations state. p. 164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-07-05.
  61. ^ Fargher, Brian (1996). The Origins of the New Churches Movement in Southern Ethiopia: 1927 - 1944. BRILL. p. 34. ISBN 9004106618.
  62. ^ Lewis, I. M. (1999). A Pastoral Democracy: A Study of Pastoralism and Politics Among the Northern Somali of the Horn of Africa. ISBN 9783825830847.
  63. ^ Gebissa, Eziekel (2004). Leaf of Allah. Ohio State University. p. 36. ISBN 9780852554807.
  64. ^ Braukhamper, Ulrich (2002). Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia. LITverlag. p. 18. ISBN 9783825856717.
  65. ^ Ramat, Palo (2007). Europe and the Mediterranean as Linguistic Areas: Convergencies from a Historical and Typological Perspective. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 6. ISBN 978-9027230980.
  66. ^ Lafkioui, Mena (2013-04-30). African Arabic: Approaches to Dialectology. Walter de Gruyter. p. 5. ISBN 978-3110292343.
  67. ^ Abdi, Mohamed (2009). "Chansons de Zeyla". Annales d'Ethiopie. XXIV (24): 306.
  68. ^ Ferry, Robert (1961). "Quelques hypothèses sur les origines des conquêtes musulmanes en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle". Cahiers d'Études africaines. 2 (5): 28–29. doi:10.3406/cea.1961.2961.
  69. ^ The Cambridge History of Africa (PDF). Cambridge University Press. p. 150.
  70. ^ Hetzron, Robert (2013-10-08). The Semitic Languages. Taylor & Francis. p. 487. ISBN 9781136115806.
  71. ^ Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands. The Red Sea Press. p. 89. ISBN 9780932415196.
  72. ^ Owens, Jonathen (2017). "Dia-Planar Diffusion: Reconstructing Early Aramaic-Arabic Language Contact". Approaches to the History and Dialectology of Arabic in Honor of Pierre Larcher. BRILL. p. 78. doi:10.1163/9789004325883_006. ISBN 9789004325883.
  73. ^ ZHANG, HONGWEI. WHEN THEY CHANGE THE WAY THEY SPEAK: CONTACT-INDUCED WORD ORDER SHIFTS IN SEMITIC. University of Chicago. p. 54.
  74. ^ Banti, Giorgio. "Some Further Remarks on the Old Harari Kitab alfarayid" (PDF). East and West: 275.
  75. ^ Salt, Henry (1814). A Voyage to Abyssinia, and Travels Into the Interior of that Country. F. C. and J. Rivington.
  76. ^ Meyer, Ronny (2016). "The ethiopic script: linguistic features and socio-cultural connotations". Oslo Studies in Language. 8 (1): 160.
  77. ^ Cunningham, Andrew (2009). New Communities Emerging Content (PDF). State Library of Victoria. p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-03-06. Retrieved 2019-03-02.
  78. ^ a b Ethnologue - Harari language
  79. ^ Siegbert Uhlig, Encyclopaedia Aethiopica: He-N, Volume 3, (Otto Harrassowitz Verlag: 2007), pp.111 & 319
  80. ^ Brugnatelli, Vermondo. "Arab-Berber contacts in the Middle Ages and Ancient Arabic dialects: new evidence from an old Ibadite religious text." African Arabic: approaches to dialectology. Berlin: de Gruyter (2013): 271-291.
  81. ^ Muehlenbeck, Philip (2012). Religion and the Cold War: A Global Perspective. Vanderbilt University Press. p. 147. ISBN 9780826518521.
  82. ^ Ibrahim, Abadir (2016-12-08). The Role of Civil Society in Africa's Quest for Democratization. Springer. p. 134. ISBN 9783319183831.
  83. ^ Carmichael, Tim (January 1998). "Political Culture in Ethiopia's Provincial Administration: Haile Sellassie, Blata Ayele Gebre and the (Hareri) Kulub Movement of 1948". Personality and Political Culture in Modern Africa: Studies Presented to Professor Harold G Marcus, ed. By M. Page, S. Beswick, T. Carmichael and J. Spaulding. Boston University African Studies Center Press.
  84. ^ Wehib, Ahmed (October 2015). History of Harar and Harari (PDF). Harari people regional state, culture, heritage and tourism bureau. p. 141. Retrieved 26 November 2017.
  85. ^ Weekes, Richard (1984-12-21). Muslim Peoples: A World Ethnographic Survey. Greenwood Publishers. p. 318. ISBN 9780313233920.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harari_people&oldid=1251993602"