Jump to content

Latium

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the modern Italian administrative region, see Lazio.
This article is about the historical region of central Italy. For the Nissan car model, see Nissan Latio.

Latium and Campania

Latium (/ˈleɪʃiəm/ LAY-shee-əm, US also /-ʃəm/ -⁠shəm;[1][2][3][4] Latin: [ˈɫati.ũː]) is the historical region of central western Italy in which the city of Rome was founded and grew to be the capital city of the Roman Empire. The region existed in several historical forms: Latium vetus ('Old Latium') was the original homeland of the Latin tribes centered around the Alban Hills; Latium adiectum ('New Latium') encompassed the additional territories conquered by Rome to the south. The modern Italian administrative region of Lazio (also called Latium in Latin) covers roughly the same area with some additions.

Definition

[edit]
Casinum

Latium has historically referred to different territories at different times. Latium vetus ('Old Latium') was originally a small triangle of fertile, volcanic soil on which resided the tribe of the Latins or Latians.[5] It was located on the left bank (east and south) of the River Tiber, extending northward to the River Anio (a left-bank tributary of the Tiber) and southeastward to the Pomptina Palus (Pontine Marshes, now the Pontine Fields) as far south as the Circeian promontory.[6]

Recent archaeological studies have revealed that Latium vetus was a region of remarkable cultural dynamism during the Early Iron Age (9th-8th centuries BC). According to Fulminante, the material culture of this period shows increasing social stratification and the emergence of elites who maintained trade networks with Etruscans, Greeks, and Phoenicians.[7] The right bank of the Tiber was occupied by the Etruscan city of Veii, and the other borders were occupied by Italic tribes.

Subsequently, Rome defeated Veii and then its Italic neighbors, expanding its dominions over Southern Etruria and to the south. This expansion created Latium adiectum ('Added Latium'), which extended into a partly marshy and partly mountainous region. As Bradley notes, this territorial expansion fundamentally altered the economic landscape of the region, connecting previously isolated communities to Rome's growing commercial networks.[8] Numerous Roman and Latin colonies were established throughout this area: small Roman colonies along the coast, while the inland areas were colonized by Latins and Romans without citizenship. The territory of Latium adiectum extended south to the ancient Oscan city of Casinum, defined by Strabo as "the last city of the Latins".[9]

Archaeological evidence suggests that the distinction between Latium vetus and Latium adiectum remained culturally significant well into the Imperial period, with different patterns of urban development and cultural practices visible in the material record.[10] These regional distinctions helped shape the unique cultural identity of different Latin communities despite their incorporation into the Roman state.

The modern descendant, the Italian regione of Lazio, also called Latium in Latin, and occasionally in modern English, is somewhat larger still, encompassing areas that historically included parts of ancient Southern Etruria and Sabina.

Geography

[edit]

Latium encompasses several geographical zones centered around the volcanic region of the Mons Albanus ('the Alban Mount', today's Colli Albani), 20 kilometres (12 mi) to the southeast of Rome, 64 kilometres (40 mi) in circumference.[11] In its center is a crater lake, Lacus Albanus (Lago Albano), oval in shape, a few km long and wide.

The boundaries of Latium vetus were defined by several geographical features. The Tiber River (Tiberis) formed the northwestern boundary, separating Latium from Etruscan territory. The Anio River (modern Aniene) flowed as a tributary to the Tiber along the northern edge. To the southeast, the region extended to the Pontine Marshes (Pomptina Palus) and the Circeian promontory (modern Cape Circeo). The eastern boundary abutted Sabine territories along the foothills of the Apennine Mountains.[12]

Recent GIS-based landscape studies have shown that settlement patterns in Latium vetus were significantly influenced by access to water resources, arable land, and natural transportation corridors.[13] The expanded territory of Latium adiectum incorporated additional plains and valleys extending south toward Campania, with paleoenvironmental evidence suggesting the region experienced climate fluctuations that affected agricultural productivity.[14]

History

[edit]

For more detailed coverage, see Latium vetus and Latium adiectum.

Latium, Enric Serra Auqué, 1888. Biblioteca Museu Víctor Balaguer
Archaeological sites of Latium

Origins and early settlement (Paleolithic to 8th century BC)

[edit]

Archaeological investigations confirm human presence in Latium dating back to the Paleolithic period. Evidence from sites such as Torre in Pietra indicates occupation by Neanderthals and early humans during the Middle Paleolithic, corresponding to marine isotope stages (MIS) 10 and 7.[15] Fossil remains and stone tool assemblages, including those made using the Levallois technique, demonstrate technological innovations among Neanderthal populations.[16]

During the Neolithic period (c. 6000–3000 BC), agricultural settlements emerged in Latium, taking advantage of its fertile volcanic soils.[17] These communities cultivated crops such as emmer wheat, einkorn wheat, barley, and legumes while engaging in animal husbandry.[18][19] The presence of obsidian tools sourced from islands like Lipari and Palmarola suggests that Latium's early inhabitants were integrated into wider Mediterranean exchange networks.[20][21]

One notable site is La Marmotta, a lakeshore settlement occupied from around 5600 BC. Excavations have revealed evidence of advanced agricultural practices, including the cultivation of cereals like emmer wheat and barley as well as opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), which is among the earliest records of this plant in Europe.[22] The site also yielded five dugout canoes—some up to 11 meters long—demonstrating advanced boat-building techniques and highlighting La Marmotta's role as a hub for navigation and trade within the western Mediterranean.[23][24]

By the Bronze Age (c. 2300–1000 BC), material remains indicate increasingly established agricultural populations. The region was known to the Ancient Greeks and earlier to the Mycenaean Greeks, with evidence of trade and cultural connections.[25] The name "Latium" likely derives from the Latin word latus, meaning 'wide' or 'flat', referring to the plains that characterize parts of the region.[26]

By the 10th–9th centuries BC, landscape studies reveal increasing settlement complexity throughout Latium, with numerous village communities established on defensible plateaus.[25] According to archaeologists Di Gennaro and Stoddart (2020), specialized agricultural practices developed during this period, including the cultivation of grains (spelt and barley), viticulture (Vitis vinifera), olives, and fruit trees.[27] Social organization centered around influential clans (gentes), reflecting the tribal origins that would later influence Roman political structures through institutions like the thirty curiae.[28]

The Etruscans, from their homeland in Etruria, exerted significant cultural and economic influence on Latium from the 8th century BC onward. However, Latin communities maintained autonomy as small city-states functioning similarly to those in Ancient Greece.[29]

The Latin League and Alba Longa (8th–6th centuries BC)

[edit]

The geographically isolated Alban hills emerged as a natural center for Latin cultural and religious identity. Along the plateau between the Alban lake and Alban mount, the settlement of Alba Longa developed into a significant religious center. Excavations documented by anthropologist Bietti Sestieri (2013) reveal increasingly complex social stratification and specialized craft production during this period.[30]

The Latin communities were bound together through the Latin League, a religious and political alliance centered on shared worship practices. The most important ritual was the 'Latin festival' (feriae Latinae), held on the Alban Mount, where an ox was sacrificed to Jupiter Latarius by representatives of the participating communities.[31] Another important sacred site was the grove of Aricia, the Nemus Dianae, on the Lake of Aricia, which became a significant pilgrimage destination.[32]

While Alba Longa maintained religious primacy, it never developed into a political capital for the Latins.[33] The league's composition appears to have fluctuated over time, though membership was strictly limited to Latin communities.[34] Rome gradually gained influence within this alliance, ultimately challenging Alba Longa's position. According to Roman historical tradition preserved in Livy, Alba Longa was destroyed by Rome under King Tullus Hostilius in the mid-7th century BC, with its aristocratic families relocated to Rome.[35] Cornell (1995) argues that this account is potentially simplified, with archaeological evidence suggesting a more gradual process of Alba's decline and Rome's ascendance.[36]

Roman dominance (6th–4th centuries BC)

[edit]
Main article: Roman Republic

Following Alba Longa's eclipse, Rome secured presidency over the Latin festival, giving it religious authority among the Latin peoples.[37] Archaeological remains from the 6th century BC reveal a significant urban transformation in Rome, with simple huts replaced by more substantial houses and the development of public spaces, particularly the forum, which emerged during the early 7th century BC (c. 620 BC).[38]

The period of Etruscan kings in Rome (traditionally 616–509 BC) coincided with increased Etruscan cultural influence throughout Latium. After the establishment of the Roman Republic, tensions between Rome and other Latin cities intensified. According to classical scholar Oakley (1997), these conflicts culminated in the Latin War (340–338BC), after which Rome dissolved the Latin League and reorganized the region's communities with varying degrees of rights and autonomy.[39]

Rome's expansion created distinctive settlement patterns across Latium. Small Roman colonies were established along the coast, while the inland areas were colonized by both Romans and Latins. Archaeologist Terrenato (2019) documents how this period saw the development of the distinctive municipium system, which allowed communities to maintain local governance while participating in Roman citizenship structures.[40]

Imperial Latium (1st century BC – 5th century AD)

[edit]

Under Emperor Augustus, Latium was administratively reorganized as part of Italia, becoming part of Region I (Latium et Campania).[41] The Imperial period brought significant prosperity to the region, with extensive infrastructure development including roads, aqueducts, and public buildings. As documented by landscape archaeologist Witcher (2013), rural landscapes underwent substantial transformation with investment in villas and agricultural estates, particularly in the areas surrounding Rome and along the coast.[42]

Many Latin communities maintained their distinct identities while becoming increasingly integrated into Roman administrative and cultural systems. Cities like Tibur (modern Tivoli), Praeneste (Palestrina), and Tusculum developed as important cultural centers and elite retreats. According to urban historian Goodman (2006), archaeological evidence from these centers reveals complex networks of trade and economic interdependence between urban centers and their rural territories.[43]

Post-Roman transformations (5th–19th centuries)

[edit]

From the collapse of Roman authority through to Italian unification, Latium underwent multiple political reconfigurations shaped by Byzantine, papal, and eventually national forces. Following the Gothic War (535–554) and Eastern Roman (Byzantine) conquest, the region experienced major administrative restructuring. The "Roman Duchy" initially remained under Eastern Imperial control, but prolonged conflicts with the Longobards weakened Byzantine authority. Gradually, the Roman Bishop (Pope) consolidated control over the region, incorporating territories where the Church already held properties.[44]

The medieval period saw persistent power struggles between local nobles and the papacy for control of Latium. Medieval historian Partner (2018) details how Pope Innocent III made significant efforts to strengthen papal territorial authority in the region, challenging aristocratic families like the Colonnas.[45] During the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), feudal lords reasserted their independence, though the papacy eventually regained control between 1353 and 1367.[44]

By the 16th century, the papacy had politically unified Latium within the Papal States, organizing it into provincial administrations governed from Viterbo, Marittima, Campagna, and Frosinone.[44] After a brief period under French control during the Napoleonic era (1798–1799), Latium returned to papal governance until 1870, when the capture of Rome completed Italian unification. According to political historian Riall (1994), this incorporation into the Kingdom of Italy set the stage for the modern administrative region of Lazio.[46]

Modern region of Latium

[edit]
Main article: Region of Latium

Latium, often referred to by the Italian name Lazio, is a government region, one of the first-level administrative divisions of the state, and one of twenty regions in Italy. Originally meant as administrative districts of the central state, the regions acquired a significant level of autonomy following a constitutional reform in 2001.[47] The modern region of Latium contains the national capital Rome and encompasses 17,242 km² (6,657 sq mi).

The modern boundaries of Lazio include territories that historically belonged to different ancient regions: southern Etruria to the north, Sabina to the northeast, and portions of Samnium and Campania to the east and south.[48] This expanded territory is divided into five provinces: Rome, Frosinone, Latina, Rieti, and Viterbo.

While maintaining cultural connections to its ancient heritage, modern Lazio has developed diverse economic sectors including services, technology, tourism, and agriculture. Archaeological sites from the ancient Latium period remain important cultural and tourist attractions throughout the region.[49]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ "Lazio". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (5th ed.). HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  2. ^ "Latium". Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  3. ^ "Latium" (US) and "Latium". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on 22 March 2020.
  4. ^ "Lazio". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
  5. ^ Mogens Herman Hansen (2000). A Comparative Study of Thirty City-state Cultures: An Investigation. Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab. p. 209. ISBN 978-87-7876-177-4.
  6. ^ Cary, M.; Scullard, H. H. (1975). A History of Rome: Down to the Reign of Constantine (3rd ed.). New York: St. Martin's Press. p. 31. ISBN 0-312-38395-9.
  7. ^ Francesca Fulminante (2014). The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–65. ISBN 978-1-107-03035-0.
  8. ^ Guy Bradley (2015). Early Rome and Latium: Economy and Society c. 1000 to 500 BC. Oxford University Press. pp. 117–120. ISBN 978-0-19-802271-8.
  9. ^ Strabo, Geographica, V, 3,9.
  10. ^ G., Alessandro (2019). The Archaeology of Early Rome and Latium. Routledge. pp. 182–186. ISBN 978-0-367-23502-4.
  11. ^ Gary Forsythe (2005). A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War. University of California Press. pp. 38–40. ISBN 978-0-520-22631-9.
  12. ^ Fulminante, Francesca (2014). The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 43–47. ISBN 978-1-107-03035-0.
  13. ^ Tol, Gijs (2017). Landscape, resources and diet in agricultural Latium Vetus. Amsterdam University Press. pp. 78–83. ISBN 9789048535262.
  14. ^ Alessandri, L. (2019). "The Early and Middle Bronze Age in South and central Tyrrhenian Italy". Oxford Journal of Archaeology. 38 (4): 398–419.
  15. ^ Villa, P., Roebroeks, W. (2016). "The Acheulian and Early Middle Paleolithic in Latium (Italy): Stability and Innovation." PLOS ONE. Retrieved from PubMed.
  16. ^ Mallegni, F., et al. (1994). "Middle Pleistocene hominids from Torre in Pietra, Rome, Italy." Journal of Human Evolution.
  17. ^ Malone, C. (2003). "The Italian Neolithic: A Synthesis of Research." Academia.edu.
  18. ^ Zohary, D., Hopf, M., Weiss, E. (2012). "Domestication of plants in the Old World." Oxford University Press.
  19. ^ Ballmer, A., Mineo, M., Becker, V. (2025). "The Early Neolithic Lake-shore Settlement of La Marmotta at Lake Bracciano (Anguillara Sabazia, Rome, Italy): a Critical Overview of the Current State of Research." In: Ballmer et al. (eds) Prehistoric Wetland Sites of Southern Europe. Springer.
  20. ^ Tykot, R.H. (2017). "Obsidian Studies in the Prehistoric Central Mediterranean." Open Archaeology.
  21. ^ Vianello, A., Tykot, R.H. (2016). "Exchange networks from close-up: The case of Lipari obsidian." Journal of Lithic Studies.
  22. ^ Ballmer, A., Mineo, M., Becker, V. (2025).
  23. ^ Fugazzola Delpino, M.A., et al. (1993). "La Marmotta: A Mesolithic-Neolithic site." Bulletin di Paletnologia Italiana.
  24. ^ Ballmer, A., Mineo, M., Becker, V. (2025).
  25. ^ a b Emilio Peruzzi, Mycenaeans in early Latium, (Incunabula Graeca 75), Edizioni dell'Ateneo & Bizzarri, Roma, 1980
  26. ^ Alessandri, L. (2013). Latium Vetus in the Bronze Age and Early Iron Age. BAR International Series. pp. 17–19. ISBN 978-1-4073-1186-9.
  27. ^ Di Gennaro, F.; Stoddart, S. (2020). Landscape Archaeology and Ancient Latium. Cambridge University Press. pp. 89–94. ISBN 978-1-108-47821-2.
  28. ^ Fox, p. 112.
  29. ^ Smith, Christopher (2014). The Etruscans: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. pp. 76–82. ISBN 978-0-19-954791-3.
  30. ^ Bietti Sestieri, A. M. (2013). "The Iron Age in central Italy". The Oxford Handbook of European Bronze Age. Oxford University Press. pp. 632–640. ISBN 978-0-19-957286-1.[citation not found]
  31. ^ Mommsen p. 39
  32. ^ Viscount James Bryce The World's History: The Mediterranean nations. London (1902). p. 343
  33. ^ M. Cary, H. H. Scullard p. 32
  34. ^ Mommsen p. 40
  35. ^ Livy, Ab urbe condita 1.29
  36. ^ Cornell, T. J. (1995). The Beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars. Routledge. pp. 119–122. ISBN 978-0-415-01596-7.
  37. ^ Mommsen p. 103
  38. ^ Fox, pp. 111–112
  39. ^ Oakley, S. P. (1997). A Commentary on Livy, Books VI-X. Oxford University Press. pp. 343–348. ISBN 978-0-19-815226-2.
  40. ^ Terrenato, N. (2019). The Early Roman Expansion into Italy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 167–172. ISBN 978-1-108-49373-4.
  41. ^ Fulminante, Francesca (2014). The Urbanisation of Rome and Latium Vetus. Cambridge University Press. pp. 35–60. ISBN 978-1-107-03035-0.
  42. ^ Witcher, R. (2013). "Agricultural production in Roman Italy". The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Rome. Cambridge University Press. pp. 333–351. ISBN 978-0-521-72078-6.
  43. ^ Goodman, P. (2006). The Roman City and its Periphery. Routledge. pp. 88–97. ISBN 978-0-415-33608-6.
  44. ^ a b c Touring club italiano, ed. (1981). Lazio, non-compresa Roma e dintorni (in Italian). Touring Editore. pp. 61–83. ISBN 9788836500154.
  45. ^ Partner, P. (2018). The Lands of St. Peter: The Papal State in the Middle Ages and the Early Renaissance. University of California Press. pp. 229–245. ISBN 978-0-520-33168-6.
  46. ^ Riall, L. (1994). The Italian Risorgimento: State, Society and National Unification. Routledge. pp. 76–82. ISBN 978-0-415-05775-2.
  47. ^ Desideri, Carlo (2014). "A Short History of Regionalism in Italy". Perspectives on Federalism. 6 (3): 79–94.
  48. ^ Celant, Attilio; Grassi, Stefano (2020). Sviluppo regionale e locale nel Lazio: Vincoli e opportunità. FrancoAngeli. pp. 27–32. ISBN 9788835103851.
  49. ^ Salvatori, Gaia (2019). Cultural Heritage and Value Creation: Towards New Pathways. Springer. pp. 135–142. ISBN 978-3-030-11192-2.

Sources

[edit]
  • Bevan, William Latham; Smith, William (1875). The student's manual of ancient geography. London: J. Murray.
  • Strabo – Geographica (Strabo) book V chapter 3 – Rome 20 BC
  • Athanasius Kircher – Latium – 1669 – Amsterdam 1671
  • G. R. Volpi – Vetus Latium Profanum et Sacrum – Rome 1742
  • T. J. Cornell – The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars – London 1995
  • C. J. Smith – Early Rome and Latium. Economy and Society, c. 1000 – 500 BC, "Oxford Classical Monographs" – Oxford 1996
  • Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome Volume I. 1894. Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  • Fox, Robin Lane, The Classical World: An Epic History From Homer to Hadrian. Basic Books, 2006.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latium&oldid=1283289726"