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Religious anti-Zionism

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Neturei Karta, an anti-Zionist Jewish group

While anti-Zionism usually utilizes ethnic and political arguments against the existence or policies of the state of Israel, anti-Zionism has also been expressed within religious contexts which have, at times, colluded and collided with the ethnopolitical arguments over Israel's legitimacy. Outside of the liberal and socialist fields of anti-Zionist currents, the religious (and often ethnoreligious) arguments tend to predominate as the driving ideological power within the incumbent movements and organizations, and usually target the Israeli state's relationship with Judaism.

Within Judaism

Main article: Haredim and Zionism

From the beginning of the Zionist movement, there were many traditional religious Jews who opposed it due to their opposition to nationalism (Jewish or otherwise) which they regarded as a secular ideology, and because of an inherent suspicion of change. Much of the thought generated by traditional religious anti-Zionism is focused on the Three Oaths, a portion of the Talmud which forbids waging war to establish a Jewish state. Key traditionalist opponents of Zionism included Israel Meir Kagan (Lithuania), Chaim Soloveitchik (Brisk), Sholom Dovber Schneersohn (Chabad), Isaac Breuer, Hillel Zeitlin, Aaron Shmuel Tamares, Elazar Shapiro (Muncatz), and Joel Teitelbaum, all waged ideological religious, as well as political, battles with Zionism each in their own way.[1]

Today, the main Jewish theological opposition to Zionism stems from the Satmar Hasidim, which has more than 150,000 adherents worldwide. Even more strongly opposed to Zionism is the small Haredi Jewish organization known as Neturei Karta,[2][3] which has less than 5,000 members, almost all of whom live in Israel. According to The Guardian, "[e]ven among Charedi, or ultra-Orthodox circles, the Neturei Karta are regarded as a wild fringe".[4]

In Christianity

Throughout Christianity, various denominations have held that there is a Christian theological basis for Zionism, although some groups do adhere to a position of Christian Zionism. In the United States, the General Assembly of the National Council of Churches, an ecumenical body of various Christian denominations, in November 2007 approved a resolution for further study which stated that the "theological stance of Christian Zionism adversely affects:

  • justice and peace in the Middle East, delaying the day when Israelis and Palestinians can live within secure borders
  • relationships with Middle Eastern Christians (see the Jerusalem Declaration on Christian Zionism)
  • relationships with Jews, since Jews are seen as mere pawns in an eschatological scheme
  • relationships with Muslims, since it treats the rights of Muslims as subordinate to the rights of Jews
  • interfaith dialogue, since it views the world in starkly dichotomous terms"[5]

Catholic Church

The Catholic Church rejects a theological basis for Zionism[6][7][8] and has historically opposed it.[9][10] The Vatican has nonetheless had diplomatic relations with Israel since 1993 (as a result of the Oslo Accords).[11][12] It has also had diplomatic relations with the State of Palestine since 2015.[13] Many Catholics are themselves divided over political support of Israel.[14][15][16][17] In the 20th and 21st centuries, certain Catholic theologians such as André Villeneuve, Gary Anderson and Gavin D'Costa, have written in support of Christian Zionism;[18][19] other theologians, such as Matthew A. Tsakanikas, have written against it.[20]

History of the relationship between the Vatican and Zionism

Theodor Herzl, the secular Jewish founder of modern political Zionism, met with Pope Pius X in the Vatican in 1904, arranged by the Austrian Count Berthold Dominik Lippay, to ascertain the Catholic Church's position on Herzl's prospective project for a Jewish state in Palestine. "We cannot prevent Jews from going to Jerusalem—but we can never sanction it," said Pope Pius X. He continued, “If Jerusalem's land was not always hallowed, it has been sanctified by Jesus Christ's life. I cannot tell you otherwise as the leader of the Church. Because the Jews have not recognized our Lord, we cannot recognize the Jewish people."[21] Pope Pius X went on to tell Herzl that the Catholic Church also opposed the acquisition of the "secular lands" of Palestine by the Zionist movement.[21] This laid down some of the key religious components of the Catholic Church’s anti-Zionism which would take on more of a political character as the planning of Jewish state in the Holy Land took place beginning in 1917. The Holy See was a strong opponent of the League of Nation’s plans for a Jewish state based in the Holy Land.[22][23] The Vatican opposed the concept of Judaism having preponderance in a land which they saw as extremely sacred not only to the Catholic faith but also to the other sects and religions of the world, also stating how it would hurt the native inhabitants if this preponderance was achieved.

During the Second World War the Catholic Church made sure that any effort it took part in to aid the Jewish people threatened by German aggression would not be construed as support for a Jewish homeland in the Holy Land.[24] After the war, under the pontificate of Pope Pius XII, the Catholic Church resisted American pressure to recognize the State of Israel and, according to American historian Frank J. Coppa in his biographical study The Life and Pontificate of Pope Pius XII: Between History and Controversy, stood "in opposition to American policy in the Middle East from the founding of Israel to his death in 1958."[25] Gertrud Luckner irritated many of her fellow Catholics when she stated that neither "theological considerations nor biblical teachings would justify a negative position among Christians toward the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine," with the Vatican itself rejecting this notion.[26]

After the election of Pope John XXIII the Catholic Church moderated its political position in regards to Zionism. At the coronation of Pope John XXIII the Israeli Ambassador Eliahu Sasson was in attendance, and was appointed as 'Special Delegate of the Government of Israel.'[27] In 1993 the Vatican state recognized the State of Israel as a result of the signing of the Oslo Accords.[28][29]

In 2010, in a synod chaired by Pope Benedict XVI a statement denouncing Israel's control in the West Bank and Golan Heights as an occupation calling for "the necessary legal steps to put an end to the occupation of the different Arab territories", furthermore the synod's statement condemned religious Zionism, "Recourse to theological and biblical positions which use the word of God to wrongly justify injustices is not acceptable".[30] Later in 2018, when he was no longer the pontiff, Benedict XVI stated that "a theologically-understood acquisition of land (in the sense of new political messianism) was unacceptable...a strictly theologically-understood [Jewish] state—a Jewish faith-state that would view itself as the theological and political fulfillment of the promises—is unthinkable within history according to Christian faith and contrary to the Christian understanding of the promises."[31]

In 2015, under the administration of Pope Francis, the Vatican recognized the State of Palestine.[32] Francis has advocated for a two-state solution.[33][34]

In March 2024, Vatican Cardinal Fernando Filoni stated that he had his doubts over whether a two-state solution was still viable, and that an "integrated" one-state solution with full rights for all inhabitants may be a better option.[35]

Notable individuals

Protestantism

Many Protestant churches have rejected a religious basis for Zionism and condemned the ideology, despite a large number evangelicals constituting those who support it.[46]

Lutheranism

The Lutheran Churches have historically taught the doctrine of supersessionism, which holds that the Church is the New Israel.[47] This continues to be taught in Confessional Lutheran denominations, such as the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod,[48] which have rejected a Christian theological basis for Zionism.[49]

Reformed

The Reformed (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, Congregationalist and Reformed Anglican) tradition adheres to covenant theology and historically has taught that "Christ fulfills the expectations of Jewish covenant life and renews the people of God rooted in the Old Testament and Judaism" and that "Jesus is the new temple, the new Israel."[50]

The Reformed Church in America at its 2004 General Synod found "the ideology of Christian Zionism and the extreme form of dispensationalism that undergirds it to be a distortion of the biblical message noting the impediment it represents to achieving a just peace in Israel/Palestine."[51] As of September 2007, Reformed churches in the US that have criticized Christian Zionism include the Presbyterian Church (USA),[52] and the United Church of Christ.[53]

In April 2013 the Church of Scotland published "The Inheritance of Abraham: A Report on the Promised Land", which rejects the idea of a special right of Jewish people to the Holy Land through analysis of scripture and Jewish theological claims. The report draws on the writings of anti-Zionist Jews and Christians.[54] According to Ira Glunts, it was revised after Scottish Jews harshly criticized it, replacing input from Mark Braverman with material from Marc H. Ellis, both Jewish.[55] The revision says that criticism of Israel's policies toward the Palestinians "should not be misunderstood as questioning the right of the State of Israel to exist".[56]

In 2014, a controversy arose when the United States Presbyterian Church (PCUSA) published a study guide, Zionism Unsettled, quickly withdrawn from sale on its website, that asserted that the Israeli-Palestinian conflict was fueled by a "pathology inherent in Zionism".[57] Cary Nelson argued that the work and the Church's position were flawed, anti-Zionist, and antisemitic.[58] In 2022, the same denomination's general assembly determined that Israel is an apartheid state.[59]

Anglicanism

On 9 July 2012, the Anglican General Synod passed a motion affirming support for the Ecumenical Accompaniment Programme in Palestine and Israel (EAPPI).[60] This was criticised by the Board of Deputies claiming the Synod 'has chosen to promote an inflammatory and partisan programme'.[61] The EAPPI was simultaneously criticized for its publication of a call for sit-ins at Israeli embassies, the hacking of government websites to promote its message, and support for the Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions campaign against Israel.[61][62]

Anabaptism

The Mennonite Central Committee has criticized Christian Zionism, noting in a 2005 publication that in some churches under Christian Zionist influence the "congregations 'adopt' illegal Israeli settlements, sending funds to bolster the defense of these armed colonies."[63]

In Islam

Muslims have made several arguments to oppose the state of Israel. Importantly, the vast majority of Palestinians (around 93%)[64] follow Islam.

Quran 22:39–40 gives permission for Muslims to fight those who "drove them from their homes", thus some Muslims believed jihad against Israel was justified due to the 1948 Palestinian expulsions.[65] Likewise Iranian Islamists also cited the expulsion of Palestinians in their opposition to Israel.[66] The founder of Hamas, Ahmad Yassin, said "we are not fighting Jews because they are Jews! We are fighting them because they assaulted us, they killed us, they took our land, our homes."[67] Yusuf al-Qaradawi cited the expulsion of Palestinians.[68] A fatwa from the European Council for Fatwa and Research condemned "Zionists who usurped Palestinian lands and forcibly expelled the Palestinians from their own homes."[69]

After the Oslo Accords, there were debates on the agreement's legitimacy from an Islamic perspective. Abd al-Aziz Ibn Baz, the grand mufti of Saudi Arabia, supported the accords, while Yusuf al-Qaradawi opposed them.[70] Ibn-Baz argued Islam allowed for both definite and indefinite peace agreements; Muhammad had concluded permanent treaties with several Arab tribes.[70] However, indefinite treaties may only be made if there are in the community's interest, and may be broken when they harm the community's interest;[70] Ibn Baz urged Palestinians to cooperate with Accords to avoid bloodshed.[70] Both Ibn-Baz and Qaradawi agreed that according to Quran 8:61 (Translated by Yusuf Ali) Muslims should accept peace if the enemy offers it to them. But Qaradawi opined that Israeli actions did not show intention towards peace as Israel continued its occupation and expanded settlements.[71]

Palestinian Muslims and other Muslim groups, as well as the government of Iran (since the 1979 Islamic Revolution), insist that the State of Israel is illegitimate and refuse to refer to it as "Israel", instead using the locution "the Zionist entity" (see Iran–Israel relations). In an interview with Time Magazine in December 2006, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said "Everyone knows that the Zionist regime is a tool in the hands of the United States and British governments".[72]

Some Muslims view the existence of Israel as an intrusion into what sharia law defines as Dar al-Islam, a domain they believe should be ruled by Muslims, reflecting the historical conquest of the Palestine region in the name of Islam.[73][74]

See also

References

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  5. ^ "Response to Christian Zionism". National Council of Churches USA. 2013-11-04. Archived from the original on 2013-11-04. Retrieved 2024-10-28.
  6. ^ "Vatican-Israel Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2024-03-07. Overall, the Vatican's relationship with Israel is based on international law, not theology...
  7. ^ SJ, David Neuhaus (2020-10-27). "People of Israel, Land of Israel, State of Israel". LA CIVILTÀ CATTOLICA. Retrieved 2024-03-07. ... despite the diplomatic recognition of Israel, Jewish spokespeople have continued to lament the Church's continued reluctance to affirm the theological significance of the Jewish claim to the land and the existence of the State of Israel.
  8. ^ "Notes on the Correct Way to Present the Jews and Judaism in Preaching and Catechesis in the Roman Catholic Church | EWTN". EWTN Global Catholic Television Network. Retrieved 2024-03-07. Christians are invited to understand this religious attachment [of the Jews to the Land of Israel] which finds its roots in Biblical tradition, without however making their own any particular religious interpretation of this relationship... the existence of the State of Israel and its political options should be envisaged not in a perspective which is in itself religious, but in their reference to the common principles of international law.
  9. ^ "THEODOR HERZL: Audience with Pope Pius X (1904)". Council of Centers on Jewish-Christian Relations. 26 January 1904. Retrieved on 20 March 2018.
  10. ^ "The Vatican, American Catholics and the Struggle for Palestine, 1917-1958: A Study of Cold War Roman Catholic Transnationalism". Western University. Retrieved on 20 March 2018.
  11. ^ "Vatican-Israel Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved 2024-02-13.
  12. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (2021-12-01). "What the Vatican's recognition of the state of Palestine means". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2024-02-13. The Vatican formally recognized only Israel in 1993, after the signing of the Oslo Accords.
  13. ^ "Israeli response to Vatican recognition of PA as a state 26 Jun 2015". mfa.gov.il. Retrieved 2022-05-14.
  14. ^ Ciani, Adriano (2011-12-12). "The Vatican, American Catholics and the Struggle for Palestine, 1917-1958: A Study of Cold War Roman Catholic Transnationalism". Electronic Thesis and Dissertation Repository. The near-monolithic American Church of the pre-Conciliar period had, by the late 1960s, given way to a plurality of views on a number of questions relevant to the Vatican and the international Roman Catholic Church, including, as Drinan‟s work reveals, on Israel and Zionism.
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  18. ^ Villeneuve, André (26 July 2024). "Why Israel Matters: The Biblical Roots of Catholic Zionism". Homiletic & Pastoral Review. Retrieved 16 November 2024. Biblical support for Israel does not contradict or undermine the Catholic faith in any way, but is wholly in continuity with God's revelation. Respected Catholic theologians have recently made compelling cases for Catholic Zionism. Gary Anderson believes that the Jewish return to Zion, though also a call to responsibility and justice, is "part of God's providential design and eternal promise to His people Israel," even despite the uncertainty that surrounds the future of the current State of Israel. Gavin D'Costa, likewise, in his article "Catholic Zionism," argues that "the existence of the Jewish State is a sign of God's fidelity to his people," even if this does not require endorsing a particular form of government for the Jewish state.
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  20. ^ Tsakanikas, Matthew A. (6 August 2024). "Against Catholic Zionism". Crisis Magazine. Retrieved 21 November 2024.
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  24. ^ "Pope Pius XII Opposed Jewish Homeland in Palestine". The Washington Post. Washington D. C. 3 July 1999. Retrieved 19 October 2023.
  25. ^ Coppa, Frank (2013). The Life and Pontificate of Pope Pius XII. Washington D. C.: The Catholic University of America Press. pp. 197–198. ISBN 978-0-8132-2016-1.
  26. ^ Coppa, Frank (2013). The Life and Pontificate of Pope Pius XII. Washington D. C.: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-8132-2016-1.
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  29. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (2021-12-01). "What the Vatican's recognition of the state of Palestine means". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2024-02-13. The Vatican formally recognized only Israel in 1993, after the signing of the Oslo Accords.
  30. ^ "Hariri hails Catholic bishops' call to end Israeli occupation". The Daily Star Newspaper - Lebanon.
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  47. ^ Almen, Lowell G.; Madden, Denis J. (5 December 2023). Faithful Teaching: Lutherans and Catholics in Dialogue XII. Fortress Press. ISBN 978-1-5064-9560-6. In light of the history of supersessionism found in Catholic and Lutheran writers
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  55. ^ Glunts 2013.
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  57. ^ JTA 2014.
  58. ^ Nelson 2019, pp. 1–22, 3–7.
  59. ^ Prince-Gibson 2022.
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  65. ^ Jonathan C. Brown. Misquoting Muhammad. Oneworld publications. p. 124.
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  68. ^ Sagi Polka (2019). Shaykh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi: Spiritual Mentor of Wasati Salafism. p. 173.
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  70. ^ a b c d Modongal 2023, p. 131.
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  73. ^ Neusner, Jacob; Sonn, Tamara (1999). Comparing religions through law: Judaism and Islam. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-19486-0.
  74. ^ Merkley, Paul Charles (2001). Christian attitudes towards the state of Israel. Montreal; Ithaca: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-7735-2188-9. OCLC 48487645.

Further reading

  • Alavi, Seyed Ali (2019). Iran and Palestine: Past, Present, Future. Routledge.
  • Modongal, Shameer (2023). Islamic Perspectives on International Conflict Resolution:Theological Debates and the Israel-Palestinian Peace Process. Routledge.
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