Old page wikitext, before the edit (old_wikitext) | '{{short description|Existence of multiple cultural traditions within a single country}}
{{Distinguish|Polyculturalism}}
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[[File:Reach Toronto.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5| The ''Monument to Multiculturalism'' in Toronto, [[Canada]]. Four identical sculptures are located in [[Buffalo City Local Municipality|East London]], [[South Africa]]; in [[Changchun]], [[China]]; in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia]] and in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].|alt=]]
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The term '''multiculturalism''' has a range of meanings within the contexts of [[sociology]], [[political philosophy]], and colloquial use. In [[sociology]] and in everyday usage, it is a synonym for "[[Pluralism (political theory)|ethnic pluralism]]", with the two terms often used interchangeably, and for [[cultural pluralism]]<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470373699.speced1627 |chapter=Pluralism, Cultural |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-37369-9 |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |editor2-first=Elaine }}</ref> in which various ethnic groups collaborate and enter into a dialogue with one another without having to sacrifice their particular identities. It can describe a mixed ethnic community area where multiple cultural traditions exist (such as [[New York City]] or [[London]]) or a single country within which they do (such as Switzerland, Belgium or Russia). Groups associated with an [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]], aboriginal or [[wikt:autochthonous|autochthonous]] ethnic group and settler-descended ethnic groups are often the focus.
In reference to sociology, multiculturalism is the end-state of either a natural or artificial process (for example: legally-controlled [[immigration]]) and occurs on either a large national scale or on a smaller scale within a nation's communities. On a smaller scale this can occur artificially when a jurisdiction is established or expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures (e.g. [[French Canadians|French Canada]] and [[English Canadians|English Canada]]). On a large scale, it can occur as a result of either legal or illegal [[Human migration|migration]] to and from different jurisdictions around the world.
In reference to political science, multiculturalism can be defined as a state's capacity to effectively and efficiently deal with cultural plurality within its sovereign borders. Multiculturalism as a political philosophy involves [[Diversity ideologies|ideologies]] and policies which vary widely.<ref name="Harper2011">{{cite book|author= Thomas L. Harper|title= Dialogues in urban and regional planning|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7mZOF_gFhfYC&pg=PA50|date= 13 January 2011|publisher= Taylor & Francis|isbn= 978-0-415-59334-2|page= 50}}</ref> It has been described as a "[[Salad bowl (cultural idea)|salad bowl]]" and as a "[[cultural mosaic]]",<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cAg_jwEACAAJ |page= 31|title= Guide to Western Canada|edition= 7th|first1= Ann Carroll|last1= Burgess|first2= Tom |last2= Burgess|publisher= Globe Pequot Press|year= 2005|isbn= 978-0-7627-2987-6|access-date = 2011-01-16}}</ref> in contrast to a "[[melting pot]]".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lazWAQAAQBAJ&q=melting+pot+around+the+world&pg=PA111|title=Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing around the World [2 volumes]|first=Jill|last=Condra|date=9 April 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=111|isbn=9780313376375}}</ref>
==Prevalence==
===History===
States that embody multicultural ideals have arguably existed since ancient times. The [[Achaemenid Empire]] founded by [[Cyrus the Great]] followed a policy of incorporating and tolerating various cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Menek |first1=İbrahim Halil |title=A HISTORICAL EXAMPLE OF MULTICULTURALISM: ACHAEMENID EMPIRE MULTICULTURALISM |journal=Gaziantep Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi |date=26 May 2020 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=118–138 |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gauniibf/issue/54503/626711 |language=en |issn=2651-267X}}</ref>
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|Ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary]]
A historical example of multiculturalism was the [[Habsburg monarchy]], which had broken up in 1918 and under whose roof many different ethnic, linguistic and religious groups lived together. One of the foundations of this centuries-old state structure was the Habsburg principle of "live and let live". The effects of this multicultural political system can still be statistically measured today, since a particularly positive relationship of trust between citizens and authorities (the so-called Habsburg effect) can still be seen in the former dominion.<ref>Sascha O. Becker, Katrin Boeckh, Christa Hainz, Ludger Woessmann: The Empire Is Dead, Long Live the Empire! Long-Run Persistence of Trust and Corruption in the Bureaucracy. In: The Economic Journal. Volume 126, Nr. 590, Februar 2016, p 40–74.</ref> Today's topical issues such as social and cultural differentiation, multilingualism, competing identity offers or multiple cultural identities have already shaped the scientific theories of many thinkers of this multi-ethnic empire.<ref>Doris Griesser "Denkanstöße aus der Multikulti-Monarchie" in: Standard, 3 July 2012; Pieter M. Judson "The Habsburg Empire. A New History" (Harvard 2016); Christopher Clark "The Sleepwalkers" (New York 2012).</ref> After the First World War, ethnic minorities were disadvantaged, forced to emigrate or even murdered in most regions in the area of the former Habsburg monarchy due to the prevailing nationalism at the time. In many areas, these ethnic mosaics no longer exist today. The ethnic mix of that time can only be experienced in a few areas, such as in the former Habsburg port city of [[Trieste]].<ref>Patricia Engelhorn "Wie Wien mit Meersicht: Ein Tag in der Hafenstadt Triest" In: NZZ 15.2.2020.</ref>
In the [[political philosophy]] of multiculturalism, ideas are focused on the ways in which societies are either believed to or should, respond to cultural and Christian differences. It is often associated with "identity politics", "the politics of difference", and "the politics of recognition". It is also a matter of economic interests and [[Power (social and political)|political power]].<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/multiculturalism/ Multiculturalism] – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> In more recent times political multiculturalist ideologies have been expanding in their use to include and define disadvantaged groups such as [[African American]]s, [[LGBT]], with arguments often focusing on ethnic and religious minorities, minority nations, [[indigenous peoples]] and even people with disabilities. It is within this context in which the term is most commonly understood and the broadness and scope of the definition, as well as its practical use, has been the subject of serious debate.
Most debates over multiculturalism center around whether or not multiculturalism is the appropriate way to deal with diversity and immigrant integration. The arguments regarding the perceived rights to a multicultural education include the proposition that it acts as a way to demand recognition of aspects of a group's culture subordination and its entire experience in contrast to a [[melting pot]] or non-multicultural societies.
The term multiculturalism is most often used in reference to Western [[nation-state]]s, which had seemingly achieved a de facto single national identity during the 18th and/or 19th centuries.<ref name="ZarateLevy2011">{{cite book|author1=Geneviève Zarate|author2=Danielle Levy|author3=Claire Kramsch|title=Handbook of Multilingualism and Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYL4_6SvxewC&pg=PA377|date=19 April 2011|publisher=Archives contemporaines|isbn=978-2-8130-0039-2|page=377}}</ref>
Multiculturalism has been official policy in several [[Western world|Western nations]] since the 1970s, for reasons that varied from country to country,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/most/pp4.htm |title=Policy Paper no. 4 – Multiculturalism: New Policy Responses to Diversity |publisher=Unesco.org |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ai-ia/rir-iro/gbll/divers/index-eng.cfm |title=Multiculturalism in Canada |publisher=Pch.gc.ca |date=9 April 2009 |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.gu.edu.au/ext/civics/cv02/mod03/cv02m03t02.htm |title=Immigration and Multiculturalism |publisher=.gu.edu.au |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219034150/http://www4.gu.edu.au/ext/civics/cv02/mod03/cv02m03t02.htm |archive-date=19 February 2011 }}</ref> including the fact that many of the great cities of the Western world are increasingly made of a mosaic of cultures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unu.edu/dialogue/papers/claval-s2.pdf |title=Multiculturalism and the Dynamics of Modern Civilizations |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref>
The [[Canadian government]] has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|social importance of immigration]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1163/15718119720907408|title=Immigration, Multiculturalism and National Identity in Canada|journal= International Journal of Group Rights|first=Shara|last=Wayland|year=1997|volume=5|issue=1|pages= 33–58}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/ujjal-dosanjh-by-silencing-white-men-canada-cant-have-an-honest-debate-about-equality-race-and-culture|title=Ujjal Dosanjh: By silencing white men, Canada can't have an honest debate about equality, race and culture|date=4 January 2016|newspaper=National Post|access-date=2017-01-16}}</ref> The Canadian [[Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism]] is often referred to as the origins of modern political awareness of multiculturalism.<ref name="II2010.">{{cite book|author=Ronald L. Jackson, II|title=Encyclopedia of Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2WmSCOBR2IC&pg=PA480|date=29 June 2010|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-5153-1|page=480}}</ref> Canada has provided provisions to the French speaking majority of Quebec, whereby they function as an autonomous community with special rights to govern the members of their community, as well as establish French as one of the official languages. In the Western English-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an official national policy started in Canada in 1971, followed by Australia in 1973 where it is maintained today.<ref name="Reference">{{cite web|url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country |title=About Australia: Our Country |publisher= australia.gov.au |access-date=2013-10-25}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.html |title=About Australia: People, culture and lifestyle |publisher=Dfat.gov.au |access-date=2013-10-25 |archive-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512195954/http://dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Team to Build a Stronger Australia|url=http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|publisher=liberal.org.au|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106010039/http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|archive-date=6 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="policy">{{cite web|title=The People of Australia – Australia's Multicultural Policy|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/pdf_doc/people-of-australia-multicultural-policy-booklet.pdf|publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship|access-date=14 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140212145223/https://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/pdf_doc/people-of-australia-multicultural-policy-booklet.pdf|archive-date=12 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was quickly adopted as official policy by most member-states of the [[European Union]]. Recently, right-of-center governments in several European states – notably the [[Netherlands]] and [[Denmark]] – have reversed the national policy and returned to an official monoculturalism.<ref name = Bissoondath>Bissoondath, Neil. 2002. ''Selling Illusions: The Myth of Multiculturalism''. Toronto: Penguin. {{ISBN|978-0-14-100676-5}}.</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=Opinionated source|date=September 2016}} A similar reversal is the subject of debate in the United Kingdom, among others, due to evidence of incipient segregation and anxieties over "home-grown" [[terrorism]].<ref>[http://www.workpermit.com/news/2005_04_26/uk/uk_immigration_debate.htm Fact or fiction in the great UK immigration debate]. workpermit.com. News. 26 April 2005. Retrieved: 21 October 2007.</ref> Several heads-of-state or heads-of-government have expressed doubts about the success of multicultural policies: The United Kingdom's ex-[[Prime Minister]] [[David Cameron]], [[Germany|German]] [[Chancellor]] [[Angela Merkel]], [[Australia]]'s ex-prime minister [[John Howard]], [[Spain|Spanish]] ex-prime minister [[José María Aznar]] and [[France|French]] ex-president [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] have voiced concerns about the effectiveness of their multicultural policies for integrating immigrants.<ref name="PeskinWehrle2011">{{cite book|author1=Lawrence A. Peskin|author2=Edmund F. Wehrle|title=America and the World: Culture, Commerce, Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTezRgjW5osC&pg=PA262|access-date=31 January 2012|date=17 November 2011|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-0296-3|pages=262–}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Heneghan |first=Tom |date=11 February 2011 |title=Sarkozy joins allies burying multiculturalism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-sarkozy-multiculturalism-idUSTRE71A4UP20110211 |work=Reuters|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>
Many nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are culturally diverse and are 'multicultural' in a [[descriptive]] sense. In some, [[Communalism (South Asia)|ethnic communalism]] is a major political issue. The policies adopted by these states often have parallels with multiculturalist policies in the Western world, but the historical background is different, and the goal may be a mono-cultural or [[Monoethnicity|mono-ethnic]] [[nation-building]] – for instance in the Malaysian government's attempt to create a 'Malaysian race' by 2020.<ref>[[The Economist]]: ''[http://www.economist.com/surveys/displayStory.cfm?story_id=1677228 The changing of the guard]'', 3 April 2003.</ref>
===Support===
[[File:India Square JC jeh.JPG|thumb|[[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|People of Indian origin]] have been able to achieve a high [[demographic profile]] in [[India Square]], [[Jersey City, New Jersey#Demographics|Jersey City]], [[New Jersey]], US, known as ''Little [[Bombay]]'',<ref>Kiniry, Laura. "Moon Handbooks New Jersey", Avalon Travel Publishing, 2006. pg. 34 {{ISBN|1-56691-949-5}}</ref> home to the highest concentration of [[Indian people|Asian Indians]] in the [[Western Hemisphere]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jerseycityindependent.com/2014/04/neighborhood-spotlight-journal-square/|title=Neighborhood Spotlight: Journal Square|author=Laryssa Wirstiuk|newspaper=Jersey City Independent|date=21 April 2014|access-date=26 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630085618/http://www.jerseycityindependent.com/2014/04/neighborhood-spotlight-journal-square/|archive-date=30 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and one of at least 24 [[ethnic enclave|enclaves]] characterized as a ''Little India'' which have emerged within the [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan region|New York City Metropolitan Area]], with the largest metropolitan Indian population outside [[Asia]], as large-scale immigration from [[India]] continues into [[New York City|New York]],<ref name=Immigrants2014est>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immsuptable2d_5.xls|title=Supplemental Table 2. Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status by Leading Core Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs) of Residence and Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Year 2014|publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref name=Immigrants2013est>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2013/LPR/immsuptable2d.xls |title=Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2013 Supplemental Table 2 |publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref> through the support of the surrounding community.]]
Multiculturalism is seen by its supporters as a fairer system that allows people to truly express who they are within a society, that is more tolerant and that adapts better to social issues.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/22/multiculturalism-blame-culture-segregation |title=Guardian.co.uk |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 March 2010 |access-date=2010-12-10 |location=London |first=Antony |last=Lerman}}</ref> They argue that culture is not one definable thing based on one race or religion, but rather the result of multiple factors that change as the world changes.
Historically, support for modern multiculturalism stems from the changes in Western societies after World War II, in what Susanne Wessendorf calls the "human rights revolution", in which the horrors of institutionalized racism and [[ethnic cleansing]] became almost impossible to ignore in the wake of the [[Holocaust]]; with the collapse of the [[Colonial empire|European colonial system]], as colonized nations in Africa and [[Western imperialism in Asia|Asia]] successfully [[African independence movements|fought for their independence]] and pointed out the discriminatory underpinnings of the colonial system; and, in the United States in particular, with the rise of the [[Civil Rights Movement]], which criticized ideals of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] that often led to prejudices against those who did not act according to Anglo-American standards and which led to the development of academic [[ethnic studies]] programs as a way to counteract the neglect of contributions by racial minorities in classrooms.<ref>Susanne Wessendorf, ''The multiculturalism backlash: European discourses, policies and practices'', p. 35; accessed through Google Books, 12 February 2011.</ref><ref>Paul C. Gorski, [http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/edchange_history.html "A Brief History of Multicultural Education"], EdChange.org, November 1999; accessed 12 February 2011.</ref> As this history shows, multiculturalism in Western countries was seen to combat racism, to protect minority communities of all types, and to undo policies that had prevented minorities from having full access to the opportunities for freedom and equality promised by the [[liberalism]] that has been the hallmark of Western societies since the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. The [[contact hypothesis]] in sociology is a well-documented phenomenon in which cooperative interactions with those from a different group than one's own reduce prejudice and inter-group hostility.
Will Kymlicka argues for "group differentiated rights", that help both religious and cultural minorities operate within the larger state as a whole, without impinging on the rights of the larger society. He bases this on his opinion that human rights fall short in protecting the rights of minorities, as the state has no stake in protecting the minorities.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/0198290918.003.0006 |chapter=Justice and Minority Rights |title=Multicultural Citizenship |year=1996 |last1=Kymlicka |first1=Will |pages=107–130 |isbn=9780198290919 }}</ref>
C. James Trotman argues that multiculturalism is valuable because it "uses several disciplines to highlight neglected aspects of our social history, particularly the histories of women and minorities [...and] promotes respect for the dignity of the lives and voices of the forgotten.<ref name="Trotman2002">{{cite book|author=C. James Trotman|title=Multiculturalism: roots and realities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ht8UKlutUaMC&pg=PR9|access-date=29 January 2012|year=2002|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34002-3|pages=9–10}}</ref> By closing gaps, by raising consciousness about the past, multiculturalism tries to restore a sense of wholeness in a [[postmodern]] era that fragments human life and thought."<ref name="Trotman2002"/>
[[Tariq Modood]] argues that in the early years of the 21st century, multiculturalism "is most timely and necessary, and [...] we need more not less", since it is "the form of integration" that (1) best fits the ideal of [[egalitarianism]], (2) has "the best chance of succeeding" in the "post-[[9/11]], post [[7/7]]" world, and (3) has remained "moderate [and] pragmatic".<ref name="Modood2007">{{cite book|author=Tariq Modood|title=Multiculturalism: a civic idea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlEMZuPhpWQC&pg=PA14|year=2007|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3288-9|page=14}}</ref>
[[Bhikhu Parekh]] counters what he sees as the tendencies to equate multiculturalism with racial minorities "demanding special rights" and to see these as promoting a "thinly veiled racis[m]". Instead, he argues that multiculturalism is in fact "not about minorities" but "is about the proper terms of the relationship between different cultural communities", which means that the standards by which the communities resolve their differences, e.g., "the principles of justice" must not come from only one of the cultures but must come "through an open and equal dialogue between them."<ref>{{cite book|last=Parekh|first=Bhikhu C.|title=Rethinking multiculturalism: cultural diversity and political theory|year=2002|publisher=Harvard UP|isbn=978-0-674-00995-0|page=13}}</ref>
Balibar characterizes criticisms of multiculturalism as "differentialist racism", which he describes as a covert form of racism that does not purport ethnic superiority as much as it asserts stereotypes of perceived "incompatibility of life-styles and traditions".<ref name="Gunew 2004 80">{{cite book|last=Gunew|first=Sneja|title=Haunted Nations: The colonial dimensions of multiculturalisms|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE|isbn=978-0-415-28483-7|page=80}}</ref>
While there is research that suggests that ethnic diversity increases chances of war, lower public goods provision and decreases democratization, there is also research that shows that ethnic diversity in itself is not detrimental to peace,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fearon |first1=James D. |last2=Laitin |first2=David D. |title=Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War |journal=American Political Science Review |date=February 2003 |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=75–90 |doi=10.1017/S0003055403000534 |citeseerx=10.1.1.453.3913 |s2cid=8303905 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wimmer |first1=Andreas |last2=Cederman |first2=Lars-Erik |last3=Min |first3=Brian |title=Ethnic Politics and Armed Conflict: A Configurational Analysis of a New Global Data Set |journal=American Sociological Review |date=April 2009 |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=316–337 |doi=10.1177/000312240907400208 |citeseerx=10.1.1.518.4825 |s2cid=9751858 }}</ref> public goods provision<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baldwin |first1=Kate |last2=Huber |first2=John D. |title=Economic versus Cultural Differences: Forms of Ethnic Diversity and Public Goods Provision |journal=American Political Science Review |date=November 2010 |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=644–662 |doi=10.1017/S0003055410000419 |s2cid=6811597 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wimmer |first1=Andreas |title=Is Diversity Detrimental? Ethnic Fractionalization, Public Goods Provision, and the Historical Legacies of Stateness |journal=Comparative Political Studies |date=September 2016 |volume=49 |issue=11 |pages=1407–1445 |doi=10.1177/0010414015592645 |s2cid=7998506 }}</ref> or democracy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerring |first1=John |last2=Hoffman |first2=Michael |last3=Zarecki |first3=Dominic |title=The Diverse Effects of Diversity on Democracy |journal=British Journal of Political Science |date=April 2018 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=283–314 |doi=10.1017/S000712341600003X |s2cid=18860350 }}</ref> Rather, it was found that promoting diversity actually helps in advancing disadvantaged students.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kislev |first1=Elyakim |title=The effect of education policies on higher-education attainment of immigrants in Western Europe: A cross-classified multilevel analysis |journal=Journal of European Social Policy |date=May 2016 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=183–199 |doi=10.1177/0958928716637142 |s2cid=156140332 }}</ref> A 2018 study in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kustov |first1=Alexander |last2=Pardelli |first2=Giuliana |title=Ethnoracial Homogeneity and Public Outcomes: The (Non)effects of Diversity |journal=American Political Science Review |date=November 2018 |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=1096–1103 |doi=10.1017/S0003055418000308 |s2cid=149495272 }}</ref> A 2015 study in the ''American Journal of Sociology'' challenged past research showing that racial diversity adversely affected trust.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abascal |first1=Maria |last2=Baldassarri |first2=Delia |title=Love Thy Neighbor? Ethnoracial Diversity and Trust Reexamined |journal=American Journal of Sociology |date=November 2015 |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=722–782 |doi=10.1086/683144 |pmid=26900618 |s2cid=20479598 }}</ref>
===Criticism{{anchor|Opposition}}===
{{Main|Criticism of multiculturalism}}
Critics of multiculturalism often debate whether the multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical, or even desirable.<ref name="Nagle2009">{{cite book|last = Nagle|first = John|title=Multiculturalism's double bind: creating inclusivity, cosmopolitanism and difference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqMCc37dW1kC&pg=PA129|date=23 September 2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7607-2|page=129}}</ref><ref name="Rajaee2000">{{cite book|last = Rajaee |first = Farhang |title=Globalization on trial: the human condition and the information civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyAt3T1V4EcC&pg=PT97|date=May 2000|publisher=IDRC |isbn= 9780889369092 |page=97}}</ref><ref name="SandercockAttili2009">{{cite book|last1 = Sandercock |first1 =Leonie |last2 = Attili |first2 = Giovanni |last3 = Cavers |first3 = Val |last4 = Carr |first4 = Paula |title=Where strangers become neighbours: integrating immigrants in Vancouver, Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmlGzr4s0uMC&pg=PA16|date=1 May 2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-9034-9|page=16}}</ref> It is argued that [[nation states]], who would previously have been synonymous with a distinctive cultural identity of their own, lose out to enforced multiculturalism and that this ultimately erodes the host nations' distinct culture.<ref name="Report attacks multiculturalism">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4295318.stm |title=Report attacks multiculturalism |work = [[BBC news]] |date=30 September 2005 |access-date=10 December 2010 }}</ref>
Sarah Song views cultures as historically shaped entities by its members, and that they lack boundaries due to globalization, thereby making them stronger than what others may assume.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Justice, Gender, and the Politics of Multiculturalism|last=Song|first=Sarah|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-511-49035-4}}</ref> She goes on to argue against the notion of special rights as she feels cultures are mutually constructive, and are shaped by the dominant culture. Brian Barry advocates a difference-blind approach to culture in the political realm and he rejects group-based rights as antithetical to the universalist liberal project, which he views as based on the individual.<ref>[[Brian Barry]], Culture and Equality ([[Polity Press]], 2001), p. 148.</ref>
[[Susan Moller Okin]], a feminist professor of political philosophy, argued in 1999, in "Is multiculturalism bad for women?", that the principle that all cultures are equal means that the equal rights of women in particular are sometimes severely violated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bostonreview.net/forum/susan-moller-okin-multiculturalism-bad-women|title=Is Multiculturalism Bad For Women?|date=1 October 1997|website=Boston Review}}</ref>
Harvard professor of political science [[Robert D. Putnam]] conducted a nearly decade-long study on how multiculturalism affects social trust.<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007">{{Cite journal |last= Putnam |first = Robert D. |author-link = Robert D. Putnam |title = ''E Pluribus Unum'': Diversity and community in the twenty-first century |journal = [[Scandinavian Political Studies]] |volume = 30 |issue = 2 |pages = 137–74 |doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x |date = June 2007 }}</ref> He surveyed 26,200 people in 40 American communities, finding that when the data were adjusted for class, income and other factors, the more racially diverse a community is, the greater the loss of trust. People in diverse communities "don’t trust the local mayor, they don’t trust the local paper, they don’t trust other people and they don’t trust institutions," writes Putnam.<ref>{{cite news |last = Sailer |first = Steve |author-link = Steve Sailer |title = Fragmented future |url = http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ |work = [[The American Conservative]] |publisher = Jon Basil Utley |date = 15 January 2007 |access-date = 19 November 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174328/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ |archive-date = 4 June 2011 |url-status = dead }}</ref> In the presence of such ethnic diversity, Putnam maintains that, "[W]e hunker down. We act like turtles. The effect of diversity is worse than had been imagined. And it’s not just that we don’t trust people who are not like us. In diverse communities, we don’t trust people who do not look like us".<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007" /> Putnam has also stated, however, that "this allergy to diversity tends to diminish and to go away... I think in the long run we'll all be better."<ref>Martin, Michel, "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12802663 Political Scientist: Does Diversity Really Work?]" Tell Me More, NPR. Written 15 August 2007, accessed 15 September 2017.</ref> Putnam denied allegations he was arguing against diversity in society and contended that his paper had been "twisted" to make a case against race-conscious admissions to universities. He asserted that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|title=Harvard Sociologist Says His Research Was 'Twisted'|last=Berlett|first=Tom|date=15 August 2012|work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101091923/https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|archive-date=1 January 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[Ethnologist]] Frank Salter writes:
<blockquote>
Relatively homogeneous societies invest more in public goods, indicating a higher level of public altruism. For example, the degree of ethnic homogeneity correlates with the government's share of gross domestic product as well as the average wealth of citizens. Case studies of the United States, Africa and South-East Asia find that multi-ethnic societies are less charitable and less able to cooperate to develop public infrastructure. Moscow beggars receive more gifts from fellow ethnics than from other ethnies {{sic}}. A recent multi-city study of municipal spending on public goods in the United States found that ethnically or racially diverse cities spend a smaller portion of their budgets and less per capita on public services than do the more homogeneous cities.<ref>Salter, Frank, ''On Genetic Interests'', p. 146.</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Dick Lamm]], former three-term Democratic governor of the US state of [[Colorado]], argued that "diverse peoples worldwide are mostly engaged in hating each other—that is, when they are not killing each other. A diverse, peaceful, or stable society is against most historical precedent."<ref>{{cite web |last = Lamm |first = Richard D. |title = I have a plan to destroy America |url = http://www.snopes.com/politics/soapbox/lamm.asp |website = Snopes.com |date = 2005 |access-date = 12 January 2011 }}</ref>
The American classicist [[Victor Davis Hanson]] used the perceived differences in "rationality" between Moctezuma and Cortés to argue that Western culture was superior to every culture in the entire world, which thus led him to reject multiculturalism as a false doctrine that placed all cultures on an equal footing.<ref name="Hanson, Victor Davis 2001. p. 205">Hanson, Victor Davis ''Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power'', New York: Random House, 2001. p. 205</ref>
In [[New Zealand]] ([[Aotearoa]]), which is officially bi-cultural, multiculturalism has been seen as a threat to the [[Māori people|Māori]] as an attempt by the New Zealand Government to undermine Māori demands for [[self-determination]] and encourage assimilation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Jay T. |title=Indigeneity's Challenges to the White Settler-State: Creating a Thirdspace for Dynamic Citizenship |journal=Alternatives: Global, Local, Political |date=January 2008 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=29–52 |doi=10.1177/030437540803300103 |s2cid=145192448 }}</ref>
Far-right sympathisers have been shown to increasingly take part in a multitude of online discursive efforts directed against global brands' multicultural advertisements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ulver |first1=Sofia |last2=Laurell |first2=Christofer |title=Political Ideology in Consumer Resistance: Analyzing Far-Right Opposition to Multicultural Marketing |journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing |date=October 2020 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=477–493 |doi=10.1177/0743915620947083 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== The Americas ==
===Argentina===
{{Main|Demographics of Argentina|Immigration to Argentina}}
[[File:Buenos Aires - San Telmo - Iglesia Ortodoxa Rusa - 20071215a.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity, Buenos Aires|Russian Orthodox Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity]] in [[Buenos Aires]].]]
Though not called ''Multiculturalism'' as such, the [[Constitution of Argentina#Preamble|preamble]] of Argentina's constitution explicitly promotes [[Immigration to Argentina|immigration]], and recognizes the individual's [[multiple citizenship]] from other countries. Though 97% of Argentina's population self-identify as of [[Argentines of European descent|European descent]] and mestizo<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/argentina/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Argentina |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2011-01-16}}</ref> to this day a high level of multiculturalism remains a feature of [[Argentine Culture|Argentina's culture]],<ref name="Faulk2012">{{cite book|author=Karen Faulk|title=In the Wake of Neoliberalism: Citizenship and Human Rights in Argentina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOGrGui0j0sC&pg=PA99|year=2012|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-8391-0|page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.argentina.ar/_en/culture/ |title=Argentine Culture Rich and Diverse |publisher=Argentina.ar |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531161309/http://www.argentina.ar/_en/culture/ |archive-date=31 May 2011 }}</ref> allowing foreign festivals and holidays (e.g. [[Saint Patrick's Day]]), supporting all kinds of art or cultural expression from [[ethnic groups]], as well as their diffusion through an important multicultural presence in the media.
In Argentina the are recognized regional languages [[Guarani language|Guaraní]] in [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]],<ref name="Corrientes-5598">{{Cite Argentine law|jur=CN|l=5598|dl=2326/2004|date=22 October 2004 |url=http://www.senadoctes.gov.ar/leyes-texto/Ley5598.doc }}</ref> [[Southern Quechua|Quechua]] in [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]],<ref>{{cite book |title=La educación intercultural bilingüe en Santiago del Estero, ¿mito o realidad?|publisher=Cámara de Diputados de la Nación |page=1 |url=http://usuarios.arnet.com.ar/yanasu/Ley5409.html |trans-title=La cámara de diputados de la provincia sanciona con fuerza de ley.|quote=Declárase de interés oficial la preservación, difusión, estímulo, estudio y práctica de la lengua Quíchua en todo el territorio de la provincia [..] |language=es-AR}}</ref> [[Toba Qom language|Qom]], [[Mocoví language|Mocoví]], and [[Wichí languages|Wichí]] in [[Chaco Province|Chaco]].<ref name=kom>{{cite Argentine law|jur=CC|l=6604|bo=9092|date=28 July 2010}}</ref>
According to the National Institute of Indigenous Affairs published on its website, there are 1,779 registered indigenous communities in Argentina, belonging to 39 indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.argentina.gob.ar/derechoshumanos/inai/mapa | title=Mapa de pueblos originarios | date=10 November 2020 }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cultura.gob.ar/dia-internacional-de-los-pueblos-indigenas_6292/#:~:text=Ellos%20son%3A%20Atacama%2C%20Chan%C3%A9%2C,Tehuelche%2C%20Tili%C3%A1n%2C%20Toba%20(Qom | title=Los Pueblos Originarios en Argentina, hoy }}</ref>
=== Bolivia ===
[[Bolivia]] is a diverse country made up of 36 different types of indigenous groups.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iwgia.org/en/bolivia|title=Bolivia|website=iwgia.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-07-14}}</ref> Over 62% of Bolivia's population falls into these different indigenous groups, making it the most indigenous country in [[Latin America]].<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-07-14}}</ref> Out of the indigenous groups the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] and the [[Quechua people|Quechua]] are the largest.<ref name="auto3"/> The latter 30% of the population is a part of the [[mestizo]], which are a people mixed with European and indigenous ancestry.<ref name="auto4"/> Bolivia's political administrations have endorsed multicultural politics and in 2009 Bolivia's Constitution was inscribed with multicultural principles.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-50958-1_3 |chapter=Paradoxes of Multiculturalism in Bolivia |title=The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America |year=2016 |last1=Canessa |first1=Andrew |pages=75–100 |isbn=978-1-137-50957-4 }}</ref> The [[Constitution of Bolivia]] recognizes 36 official languages besides [[Spanish language|Spanish]], each language has its own culture and indigenous group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bolivia.justia.com/nacionales/nueva-constitucion-politica-del-estado/primera-parte/titulo-i/capitulo-primero/|title=Justia Bolivia :: Nueva Constitución Política Del Estado > PRIMERA PARTE > TÍTULO I > CAPÍTULO PRIMERO :: Ley de Bolivia|website=bolivia.justia.com|language=es-BO|access-date=2018-07-14}}</ref> Bolivian culture is celebrated across the country and has heavy influences from the Aymara, the Quechua, the Spanish, and other popular cultures from around Latin America.
=== Brazil ===
[[File:Multiculturalismo.jpg|thumb|House with elements of people from different countries, including [[Russians]] and [[Germans]], in [[Carambeí]], [[South Region, Brazil|south of the country]], a city of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] majority]]
The Americas have been known to be some of the most multicultural geographical locations, with a diversity of language, religion, and ethnicity. The South American country [[Brazil]] can also acclaim multiculturalism, and has undergone many changes in the past few decades. Brazil is a controversial country when it comes to defining a multicultural country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=A revealing map of the world's most and least ethnically diverse countries|newspaper=The Washington Post|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref> There are two views: the Harvard Institute of Economic Research states that Brazil has an intersection of many cultures because of recent migration, while the [[Pew Research Center]] state that Brazil is culturally diverse but the majority of the country speaks [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world|date=18 July 2013|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=2018-07-27|language=en-US}}</ref>
Cities such as [[São Paulo]] are home to migrants from [[Japan]], [[Italy]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Portugal]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neira |first1=Marcos GARCIA |title=Possíveis relações entre multiculturalismo e teorias curriculares da Educação Física |trans-title=Possible relations between multiculturalism and curricular theories of Physical Education |journal=Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana |year=2017 |volume=22 |issue=79 |pages=41–55 |url=https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/279/27956721004/html/index.html |language=pt }}</ref> There is a multicultural presence within in this city, and this is prevalent throughout Brazil. Furthermore, Brazil is a country that has made great strides to embrace migrant cultures. There has been increased awareness of [[anti-blackness]] and active efforts to combat racism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wade |first1=Peter |title=Blackness, Indigeneity, Multiculturalism and Genomics in Brazil, Colombia and Mexico |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies |date=2013 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=205–233 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X13000011 |url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/blackness-indigeneity-multiculturalism-and-genomics-in-brazil-colombia-and-mexico(e5608414-9f57-4047-b858-2b7131c3c424).html }}</ref>
===Canada===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in Canada}}
[[File:Sikhs on the move!.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Sikh]]s celebrating the Sikh new year in [[Toronto]], Canada]]
Canadian society is often depicted as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural".<ref name="Cotter2011rt">{{cite book|author=Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter|title=Culture clash: an international legal perspective on ethnic discrimination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AcvVUevrMYC&pg=PA176|date=28 February 2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1936-5|page=176}}</ref> Multiculturalism (a [[Just Society]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr6/blms/6-4-4a.pdf |title=The Just Society |publisher=Government of Manitoba |author=Pierre Elliott Trudeau, as cited in The Essential Trudeau, ed. Ron Graham. (pp. 16–20) |access-date= 6 December 2015}}</ref>) was adopted as the official policy of the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] during the premiership of [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]] in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsINAAAAQAAJ&q=multiculturalism%20and%20Pierre%20Elliott%20Trudeau&pg=PA205|title=Place/culture/representation|first1=James S|last1=Duncan|first2=David |last2=Ley|publisher=Routledge|pages=205–06|year=1983|isbn=978-0-415-09451-1|access-date=2010-09-12}}</ref> Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the [[Canadian Multiculturalism Act]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/charter/charter.text.html|title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Being Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982)|publisher=Electronic Frontier Canada|year=2008|access-date=2010-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212155200/http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/charter/charter.text.html|archive-date=12 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-18.7/FullText.html|title=Canadian Multiculturalism Act (1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.)|date=14 November 2010|publisher=Department of Justice Canada|access-date=2010-09-12|archive-date=18 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218032814/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-18.7/FullText.html?noCookie|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Broadcasting Act (1991)|Broadcasting Act of 1991]] asserts the Canadian broadcasting system should reflect the diversity of cultures in the country.<ref name="Raboy">{{cite book|last=Raboy|first=Marc|title=Media Divides: Communication Rights and the Right to Communicate in Canada|year=2010|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|location=Vancouver|isbn=978-0-7748-1775-2|page=104 |author2=Jeremy Shtern |author3=William J. McIveret}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mahtani|first=Minelle|title=Representing Minorities: Canadian media and minority identities|journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies|year=2001|volume=33|issue=3}}</ref> Canadian multiculturalism is looked upon with admiration outside the country, resulting in the Canadian public dismissing most critics of the concept.<ref name="WhiteSimeon2009iu">{{cite book|author1=Linda A. White|author2=Richard Simeon|title=The Comparative Turn in Canadian Political Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATny9O-I6bwC&pg=PA102|year= 2009|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1428-7|page=102}}</ref><ref name="Tierney2011ytg">{{cite book|author=Stephen J Tierney|title=Multiculturalism and the Canadian Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY078NtGPkAC&pg=PA66|year=2011|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4007-1|page=66}}</ref> [[Multiculturalism in Canada]] is often looked at as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,<ref name="Sikka2014v">{{cite book|author=Sonia Sikka|title=Multiculturalism and Religious Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|year=2014|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-9220-9|page=237}}</ref> and a key distinguishing element of [[Canadian identity]].<ref name="polls">{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |title=A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006-2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |date=2011 |access-date= 18 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Caplow2001a">{{cite book|author=Theodore Caplow|title=Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146|year=2001|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2304-3|page=146}}</ref>
In a 2002 interview with ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', [[Aga Khan IV|Karīm al-Hussainī]], the 49th [[Aga Khan]] of the [[Ismaili|Ismaili Muslims]], described Canada as "the most successful [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist society]] on the face of our globe", citing it as "a model for the world".<ref name="GlobeMail20020202">{{cite news |author=Stackhouse, John |author2=Martin, Patrick |page=F3 |title=Canada: 'A model for the world'|url=http://ismaili.net/timeline/2002/20020202a.html |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=2 February 2002|access-date=2010-09-12}}</ref> He explained that the experience of Canadian governance—its commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural diversity of its people—is something that must be shared and would be of benefit to all societies in other parts of the world.<ref name="GlobeMail20020202"/> ''[[The Economist]]'' ran a cover story in 2016 praising Canada as the most successful multicultural society in the West.<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |title = The last liberals Why Canada is still at ease with openness |newspaper = The Economist|date=29 October 2016|url = https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21709291-why-canada-still-ease-openness-last-liberals |access-date = 2016-11-10}}</ref> ''The Economist'' argued that Canada's multiculturalism was a source of strength that united the diverse population and by attracting immigrants from around the world was also an engine of economic growth as well.<ref name="The Economist"/> Many public and private groups in Canada work to support both multiculturalism and recent immigrants to Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports-statistics/evaluations/multiculturalism-program/section-3.html|title=Evaluation of the Multiculturalism Program|last=Immigration|first=Refugees and Citizenship Canada|date=2012-06-10|website=aem|access-date=2019-03-19}}</ref> In an effort to support recent Filipino immigrants to Alberta, for example, one school board partnered with a local university and an immigration agency to support these new families in their school and community.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://bild-lida.ca/journal/volume_2_2_2018/supporting-reconnecting-immigrant-families-with-english-language-learners-in-rural-schools-an-exploratory-study-of-filipino-arrivals-to-alberta/|title=Supporting Reconnecting Immigrant Families with English Language Learners in Rural Schools: An Exploratory Study of Filipino Arrivals to Alberta |first1=Gregory|last1=Tweedie|first2=Anja|last2=Dressler|first3=Cora-Leah|last3=Schmidt| access-date=17 November 2018|date=2018-11-12 }}</ref>
===Mexico===
[[File:Mexico City 335.jpg|thumb|[[Teotihuacan]]]]
[[Mexico]] has historically always been a multicultural country. After the betrayal of [[Hernán Cortés]] to the Aztecs, the Spanish conquered the [[Aztec Empire]] and colonized indigenous people. They influenced the indigenous religion, politics, culture and ethnicity.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} The Spanish opened schools in which they taught [[Christianity]], and the [[Spanish language]] eventually surpassed indigenous languages, making it the most spoken language in Mexico. Mestizo was also born from the conquest, which meant being half-Indigenous and half-Spanish.<ref>{{cite web|last=Page |first=Index |url=http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/1932-ethnic-diversity-in-mexico |title=Ethnic diversity in Mexico : Mexico Travel |publisher=Mexconnect.com |date=20 May 2011 |access-date=2013-07-01}}</ref>
[[Mexico City]] has recently been integrating rapidly, doing much better than many cities in a sample conducted by the Intercultural Cities Index (being the only non-European city, alongside [[Montreal]], on the index).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/culture/cities/index/Mexico_en.pdf |title=Microsoft Word – Mexico City PR rev[1]-1.doc |access-date=2013-07-01}}</ref> Mexico is an ethnically diverse country with a population composed of approximately 123 million in 2017. There is a wide variety of ethnic groups, the major group being [[Mestizo]]s followed by [[White Mexicans]] and [[Indigenous Mexicans]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.investigacionyciencia.es/revistas/investigacion-y-ciencia/matemticas-del-planeta-tierra-585/el-impacto-del-mestizaje-en-mxico-11442|title=El impacto del mestizaje en México|work=Investigación y Ciencia|access-date=2018-07-25|language=es}}</ref> There are many other ethnic groups such as [[Arab Mexicans]], [[Afro-Mexicans]] and [[Asian Mexicans]].
From the year 2000 to 2010, the number of people in Mexico that were born in another country doubled, reaching a total of 961,121 people, mostly coming from Guatemala and the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/inegi/contenidos/espanol/prensa/contenidos/Articulos/sociodemograficas/nacidosenotropais.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427100913/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/inegi/contenidos/espanol/prensa/contenidos/Articulos/sociodemograficas/nacidosenotropais.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-04-27|date=27 April 2013|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref> Mexico is quickly becoming a [[melting pot]], with many immigrants coming into the country. It is considered to be a [[cradle of civilization]], which influences their multiculturalism and diversity, by having different civilizations influence them. A distinguishable trait of Mexico's culture is the [[mestizaje]] of its people, which caused the combination of Spanish influence, their indigenous roots while also adapting the culture traditions from their immigrants.
=== Peru ===
[[Peru]] is an exemplary country of multiculturalism, in 2016 the [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática|INEI]] reported a total population of 31 million people. They share their borders with Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Chile and Bolivia, and have welcomed many immigrants into their country creating a diverse community.
[[File:Tambomachay, Cuzco, Perú, 2015-07-31, DD 93.JPG|thumb|Tambomachay, Cuzco, Peru]]
Peru is the home to [[Amerindians]] but after the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish Conquest]], the Spanish brought African, and Asian peoples as slaves to Peru creating a mix of ethnic groups. After slavery was no longer permitted in Peru, African-Peruvians and Asian-Peruvians have contributed to Peruvian culture in many ways. Today, Amerindians make up 45% of the population, [[Mestizo]]s 37%, [[White people|white]] 15% and 3% is composed by [[Black people|black]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]], and others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.countryreports.org/country/Peru/population.htm|title=Peru population. Demographic data, ethnic groups population and demographics from Peru - CountryReports|website=countryreports.org|language=en|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> In 1821, Peru's president José de San Martín gave foreigners the freedom to start industries in Peru's ground, 2 years after, foreigners that lived in Peru for more than 5 years were considered naturalized citizens, which then decreased to 3 years.
===United States===
{{See also|Multicultural education|Race and ethnicity in the United States}}
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Mulberry Street NYC c1900 LOC 3g04637u edit.jpg
| width1 = 220
| image2 = Chinatown manhattan 2009.JPG
| width2 = 220
| caption2 = [[Little Italy (Manhattan)|Little Italy]] (top, ca. 1900) in [[New York City]] abuts [[Manhattan's Chinatown]].
}}
In the United States, multiculturalism is not clearly established in policy at the federal level, but ethnic diversity is common in [[Rural diversity|rural]], suburban and urban areas.<ref>Jeffrey Lehman, ed. ''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America'' (3rd edition; 6 vol. 2014) [https://www.cengage.com/search/productOverview.do?N=197&Ntk=P_EPI&Ntt=508676737550071330333596981793254059&Ntx=mode%2Bmatchallpartial Online]</ref>
Continuous mass immigration was a feature of the United States economy and society since the first half of the 19th century.<ref name="Isaacs2007">{{cite book|author=Ann Katherine Isaacs|title=Immigration and emigration in historical perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5asNot0c5kwC&pg=PA38|year=2007|publisher=Edizioni Plus|isbn=978-88-8492-498-8|page=38}}</ref> The absorption of the stream of immigrants became, in itself, a prominent feature of America's [[national myth]]. The idea of the [[melting pot]] is a [[metaphor]] that implies that all the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state intervention.<ref>Zangwill, Israel. ''The Melting Pot'', 1908.</ref> The melting pot theory implied that each individual immigrant, and each group of immigrants, assimilated into American society at their own pace. This is different from multiculturalism as it is defined above, which does not include complete assimilation and integration.<ref name="Suárez-OrozcoSuárez-Orozco2005">{{cite book|author1=Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco|author2=Carola Suárez-Orozco|title=The new immigration: an interdisciplinary reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a05uTxwIC4EC&pg=PA39|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-94916-3|page=39}}</ref> The melting pot tradition co-exists with a belief in national unity, dating from the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|American founding fathers]]:
<blockquote>Providence has been pleased to give this one connected country to one united people – a people descended from the same ancestors, speaking the same language, professing the same religion, attached to the same principles of government, very similar in their manners and customs... This country and this people seem to have been made for each other, and it appears as if it was the design of Providence, that an inheritance so proper and convenient for a band of brethren, united to each other by the strongest ties, should never be split into a number of unsocial, jealous, and alien sovereignties.<ref>[[John Jay]], ''First American Supreme Court Chief Justice'', [[Federalist No. 2|Federalist Paper No. 2]]'''</ref></blockquote>
[[File:President Clinton's Initiative on Race.jpg|thumb|Staff of President Clinton's [[One America Initiative]]. The President's Initiative on Race was a critical element in President Clinton's effort to prepare the country to embrace diversity.]]
As a [[philosophy]], multiculturalism began as part of the [[pragmatism]] movement at the end of the 19th century in [[Europe]] and the United States, then as [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|political]] and [[cultural pluralism]] at the turn of the 20th century.<ref name="CaputiFoster2006">{{cite book|author1=Peter Caputi|author2=Heather Foster|author3=Linda L. Viney|title=Personal construct psychology: new ideas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0RUXgzHqfOwC&pg=PA18|date=11 December 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-01943-6|page=18}}</ref> It was partly in response to a new wave of European imperialism in sub-Saharan Africa and the massive immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans to the United States and [[Latin America]]. Philosophers, psychologists and historians and early sociologists such as [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], [[William James]], [[George Santayana]], [[Horace Kallen]], [[John Dewey]], [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and [[Alain Locke]] developed concepts of cultural pluralism, from which emerged what we understand today as multiculturalism. In ''Pluralistic Universe'' (1909), William James espoused the idea of a "[[plural society]]." James saw pluralism as "crucial to the formation of philosophical and social [[humanism]] to help build a better, more egalitarian society.<ref name=Boening>{{cite news |last=Boening |first=Astrid B. |title=Euro-Islam – A Constructivist Idea or a Concept of the English School? |newspaper=European Union Miami Analysis (EUMA) |volume=4
|issue=12 |pages=3–10 |publisher=Miami-Florida European Union Center of Excellence |date=May 2007 |url=http://www.miami.edu/eucenter/Boening_EuroIslam_EUMA2007edi.pdf |access-date=30 September 2009 }}</ref>
The educational approach to multiculturalism has since spread to the [[grade school]] system, as school systems try to rework their curricula to introduce students to diversity earlier – often on the grounds that it is important for minority students to see themselves represented in the classroom.<ref name="Volk2004">{{cite book|author=Terese M. Volk|title=Music, Education, and Multiculturalism: Foundations and Principles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaeuLCnJLXAC&pg=PA160|date=14 October 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517975-0|page=160}}</ref><ref>[http://www.communitynewspapers.com/miami-beach/miami-beach-diversity-at-work/ Jesse Kirkpatrick. (2011). ''Miami Beach: Diversity at Work''. Miami Beach News. Retrieved from communitynewspapers.com]</ref> Studies estimated 46 million Americans ages 14 to 24 to be the most diverse generation in American society.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jayson|first=Sharon|title='Colorblind' Generation Doesn't Blink at Interracial Relationships|newspaper=USA Today|date=7 February 2006}}</ref> In 2009 and 2010, controversy erupted in Texas as the state's curriculum committee made several changes to the state's requirements, often at the expense of minorities. They chose to juxtapose [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|Abraham Lincoln's inaugural address]] with that of Confederate president [[Jefferson Davis]];<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/17/AR2010031700560.html Historians speak out against proposed Texas textbook changes] Michael Birnbaum, 18 March 2010.</ref> they debated removing Supreme Court Justice [[Thurgood Marshall]] and labor-leader [[Cesar Chavez]]<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124753078523935615 The Culture Wars' New Front: U.S. History Classes in Texas], Stephanie Simon, 14 July 2009.</ref> and rejected calls to include more Hispanic figures, in spite of the high Hispanic population in the state.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/13/education/13texas.html Texas Conservatives Win Curriculum Change], James C. McKinley Jr., 12 March 2010.</ref>
==== Effect of diversity on civic engagement ====
In a 2007 study by [[Robert D. Putnam|Robert Putnam]] encompassing 30,000 people across the US found that diversity had a negative effect on civic engagement. The greater the diversity, the fewer people voted, the less they volunteered for community projects and trust among neighbours was only half that of homogenous communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2007/08/05/the_downside_of_diversity/|title=The downside of diversity |website=The Boston Globe|language=en|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> Putnam says, however, that "in the long run immigration and diversity are likely to have important cultural, economic, fiscal, and developmental benefits", as long as society successfully overcomes the short-term problems.<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007"/> Putnam adds that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."<ref>{{cite news|last=Berlett|first=Tom|url=https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|title=Harvard Sociologist Says His Research Was 'Twisted'|date=15 August 2012|work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]}}</ref>[[File:San Carlos de la Barra Fort, Isla de San Carlos, Estado Zulia, Venezuela.jpg|thumb|Bartizan in Venezuela]]
=== Venezuela ===
Venezuela is the home to a variety of ethnic groups, with an estimated population of 32 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/venezuela-population/|title=Venezuela Population (2018) - Worldometers|website=worldometers.info|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref> Their population is composed of approximately 68% Mestizo, which means of mixed race.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Venezuela.html|title=Venezuela|website=nationsencyclopedia.com|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref> Venezuelan culture is mainly composed by the mixture of their indigenous people, Spanish and African.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.slideshare.net/jenny78/venezuela-sociedad-multietnica-y-pluricultural|title=Venezuela sociedad multietnica y pluricultural|website=slideshare.net|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27|date=2012-10-18}}</ref> There was a heavy influence of Spaniard culture due to the Spanish Conquest, which influence their religion, language, traditions. African influence can be seen on their music, with the drum usage.<ref name="auto5"/> While Spanish is Venezuela's main language, there is more than 40 indigenous languages spoken til this day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.studycountry.com/es/guia-paises/VE-language.htm|title=Los idiomas de Venezuela|website=Studycountry|language=es-ES|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref>
==Europe==
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|upright|Ethno-linguistic map of [[Austria-Hungary]], 1910.]]
[[File:Poland1937linguistic.jpg|thumb|upright|Ethno-linguistic map of the [[Second Polish Republic]], 1937.]]
The [[European Union]] is facing unprecedented demographic changes (an aging population, low birth rates, changing family structures and migration). According to the European Commission, it is important, both at EU and national level, to review and adapt existing policies. Following a public debate, a 2006 EU policy paper identified five key policy responses to manage demographic change, among them receiving and integrating migrants into Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=502&langId=en|title=Demographic analysis|work=europa.eu}}</ref>
Historically, Europe has always been a mixture of Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Uralic, Celtic, Hellenic, Illyrian, Thracian and other cultures influenced by the importation of Jewish, Christian, Muslim and other belief systems; although the continent was supposedly unified by the super-position of Imperial Roman Christianity, it is accepted that geographic and cultural differences continued from antiquity into the modern age.<ref name="OstergrenBossé2011">{{cite book|author1=Robert C. Ostergren|author2=Mathias Le Bossé|title=The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA226|date=7 March 2011|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-59385-384-6|page=226}}</ref>
In the nineteenth century, the ideology of [[nationalism]] transformed the way Europeans thought about the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref name="OstergrenBossé2011" /> Existing states were broken up and new ones created; the new [[nation-states]] were founded on the principle that each [[nation]] is entitled to its own [[sovereignty]] and to engender, protect, and preserve its own unique culture and history. Unity, under this ideology, is seen as an essential feature of the nation and the nation-state; unity of descent, unity of culture, unity of language, and often unity of religion. The nation-state constitutes a culturally [[wikt:Homogeneity|homogeneous]] society, although some national movements recognised regional differences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Conversi|first=Daniele|date=2007|title=Homogenisation, nationalism and war: Should we still read Ernest Gellner?|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=13|issue=3|pages=371–394|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00292.x}}</ref>
Where cultural unity was insufficient, it was encouraged and enforced by the state.<ref name="Kaplan" /> The nineteenth century nation-states developed an array of policies – the most important was compulsory [[primary education]] in the [[national language]].<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite book|author1=Guntram Henrik Herb |author2=David H. Kaplan |title=Nations and Nationalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UoQ-ueHjdEC&pg=PA522|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-907-8|page=522|date=22 May 2008}}</ref> The language itself was often standardised by a linguistic academy, and regional languages were ignored or suppressed. Some nation-states pursued violent policies of [[cultural assimilation]] and even [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref name="Kaplan" />
Some countries in the European Union have introduced policies for "social cohesion", "integration", and (sometimes) "assimilation". The policies include:
* Compulsory courses and/or tests on [[historiography and nationalism|national history]], on the [[constitution]] and the [[legal system]] (e.g., the computer-based test for individuals seeking naturalisation in the UK named [[Life in the United Kingdom test]])
* Introduction of an official national history, such as the national [[Canon of Dutch Literature|canon]] defined for the [[Netherlands]] by the [[Frits van Oostrom|van Oostrom]] Commission,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.entoen.nu/ |title=Official Web site |publisher=Entoen.nu |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref> and promotion of that history (e.g., by exhibitions about [[Folk hero|national heroes]])
* Tests designed to elicit "unacceptable" values. In [[Baden-Württemberg]], immigrants are asked what they would do if their son says he is a [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] (the desired answer is that they would accept it<ref>BBC report at [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4655240.stm News.BBC.co.uk], full list of questions in German at [http://www.taz.de/index.php?id=archivseite&dig=2006/01/04/a0154 TAZ.de]</ref>).
Other countries have instituted policies which encourage cultural separation.<ref name="ReitzBreton2009">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey G. Reitz|author2=Raymond Breton|author3=Karen Kisiel Dion |author4=Kenneth L. Dion|title=Multiculturalism and Social Cohesion: Potentials and Challenges of Diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j1uUIUjqLkgC&pg=PA17|year=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-9958-8|pages=17–20}}</ref> The concept of "[[Cultural exception]]" proposed by [[France]] in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations in 1993 was an example of a measure aimed at protecting local cultures.<ref name="GraberNenova2008">{{cite book|author1=Christoph Beat Graber|author2=Mira Burri Nenova|title=Intellectual property and traditional cultural expressions in a digital environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK6OI0hrANsC&pg=PA87|date=30 November 2008|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84720-921-4|pages=87–88}}</ref>
===Bulgaria===
[[File:Synagogue in Sofia 20090406 002.JPG|thumb|left|[[Sofia Synagogue]]]] [[File:Camia.jpg|thumb|left|[[Banya Bashi Mosque]] in Sofia]]
Since its establishment in the seventh century, [[Bulgaria]] has hosted many religions, ethnic groups and nations. The capital city [[Sofia]] is the only European city that has peacefully functioning, within walking distance of 300 metres,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer#view=photo&position=55&with_photo_id=7648128&order=date_desc&user=671534 |title=Panoramio.com |publisher=panoramio.com |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=2013-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715092150/http://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer |archive-date=15 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Alan Horton |url=http://bulgariafocus.com/religionsinbulgaria.html |title=Everything you want to know about the country of Bulgaria |publisher=Bulgaria Focus |access-date=2012-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103220916/http://www.bulgariafocus.com/religionsinbulgaria.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> four [[Places of worship]] of the major religions: Eastern Orthodox ([[St Nedelya Church]]), Islam ([[Banya Bashi Mosque]]), Roman Catholicism ([[Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia|St. Joseph Cathedral]]), and Orthodox Judaism ([[Sofia Synagogue]], the third-largest synagogue in Europe).
This unique arrangement has been called by historians a "multicultural cliche".<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Segaert, Barbara, 2008, Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans (Multiple Europes), P.I.E. Peter Lang s.a., {{ISBN|978-90-5201-374-9}}, p. 55</ref> It has also become known as "The Square of Religious Tolerance"<ref>Ban, Ki-moon, [http://www.ceibs.edu/ase/Documents/diplomacy06.pdf The World in the next 20 years] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517110042/http://www.ceibs.edu/ase/Documents/diplomacy06.pdf |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vagobond.com/vagobond-bulgaria-part-2-sofia-places-worship/|title=Vagobond in Bulgaria - Part 2 - Sofia Places of Worship - Vagobond|date=1 February 2014|website=vagobond.com|access-date=22 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016023758/http://www.vagobond.com/vagobond-bulgaria-part-2-sofia-places-worship/|archive-date=16 October 2017}}</ref> and has initiated the construction of a 100-square-metre scale model of the site that is to become a symbol of the capital.<ref>{{cite web|author=В.Е. |url=http://news.ibox.bg/news/id_2097364880 |title=News.bg – Макет на 4 храма – туристически символ на София |date=3 May 2010 |publisher=News.ibox.bg |access-date=2012-01-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bnr.bg/sites/en/Lifestyle/MapOfBulgaria/Pages/0405SofiasymbolNew.aspx |title=Sofia's new tourist symbol | Radio Bulgaria |publisher=Bnr.bg |access-date=2012-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622064217/http://bnr.bg/sites/en/Lifestyle/MapOfBulgaria/Pages/0405SofiasymbolNew.aspx |archive-date=22 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sofiasymbol.bg/ |title=София - Мъдрост в действие |publisher=Sofiasymbol.bg |access-date=2012-01-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127091513/http://www.sofiasymbol.bg/ |archive-date=27 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Furthermore, unlike some other [[Nazi Germany]] allies or German-occupied countries excluding [[Denmark]], Bulgaria managed to save its entire 48,000-strong Jewish population during World War II from deportation to [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Tzvetan |last=Todorov |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Why Bulgaria's Jews Survived the Holocaust |translator=Arthur Denner |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7026.html |isbn=9780691115641 |access-date=31 December 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709092623/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7026.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Levi |first=Primo |title= Beyond Hitler's Grasp|publisher=Adams Media |year= 2001 |isbn=978-1580625418}}</ref> According to Dr Marinova-Christidi, the main reason for the efforts of Bulgarian people to save their Jewish population during WWII is that within the region, they "co-existed for centuries with other religions" – giving it a unique multicultural and multiethnic history.<ref>{{cite web|author=Leadel.Net |url=http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=200216 |title=Exclusive video: 'Restoring the crown to former glory' |publisher=Jpost.com |access-date=2012-01-29}}</ref>
Consequently, within the Balkan region, Bulgaria has become an example for multiculturalism in terms of variety of religions, artistic creativity<ref>[http://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/314/390 The Highs and Lows of Ethno-Cultural Diversity: Young People’s Experiences of Chalga Culture in Bulgaria], Apostolov, Apostol, Anthropology of East Europe Review, Vol 26, No 1 (2008), Cambridge University Press</ref> and ethnicity.<ref>Ruegg, Francois, 2007, Interculturalism and Discrimination in Romania: Policies, Practices, Identities and Representations, Lit Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-8258-8075-0}}</ref><ref>Hristova, Svetlana, 2004, [http://press.swu.bg/volume-collection/volume-2/bulgarian-politics-of-multiculturalism.aspx?lang=en Bulgarian Politics of Multiculturalism - uses and abuses], Scientific Research, University Publishing House, South-West University, Blagoevgrad</ref> Its largest ethnic minority groups, Turks and Roma, enjoy wide political representation. In 1984, following a campaign by the Communist regime for a forcible change of the Islamic names of the Turkish minority,<ref>The history of Turkish community in Bulgaria, Ibrahim Yalamov</ref><ref>The Human Rights of Muslims in Bulgaria in Law and Politics since 1878, Bulgarian Helsinki Committee, 2003</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pomak.eu/en/content/bulgarian-mps-officially-condemn-revival-process |title=Bulgarian MPs Officially Condemn 'Revival Process' |publisher=Pomak.eu |access-date=2013-07-01}}</ref><ref>The Bulgarian state and Bulgarian Turks (to the mid-1930s until the early-1990s), Bulgarian Archive State Agency</ref> an underground organisation called «National Liberation Movement of the Turks in Bulgaria» was formed which headed the Turkish community's opposition movement. On 4 January 1990, the activists of the movement registered an organisation with the legal name [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (MRF) (in Bulgarian: Движение за права и свободи: in Turkish: Hak ve Özgürlükler Hareketi) in the Bulgarian city of Varna. At the moment of registration, it had 33 members, at present, according to the organisation's website, 68,000 members plus 24,000 in the organisation's youth wing [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030132259/http://www.dps.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0368&g=]. In 2012, Bulgarian Turks were represented at every level of government: local, with MRF having mayors in 35 municipalities, at parliamentary level with MRF having 38 deputies (14% of the votes in Parliamentary elections for 2009–13)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rezultati.cik2009.bg/results/proportional/rik_00.html |title=ЦИК : Резултати |publisher=Rezultati.cik2009.bg |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=2012-04-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225103151/http://rezultati.cik2009.bg/results/proportional/rik_00.html |archive-date=25 February 2012 }}</ref> and at executive level, where there is one Turkish minister, [[Vezhdi Rashidov]]. 21 Roma political organisations were founded between 1997-2003 in Bulgaria.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|year = 2005|url = http://www.politeia.net/themes/citizenship_and_participation/the_political_representation_of_the_roma_minority_in_bulgaria_1990_2005|title = The Political Representation of the Roma Minority in Bulgaria: (1990-2005)|publisher = POLITEIA – Participation for Citizenship and Democracy in Europe|access-date = 2012-04-01|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120420200504/http://www.politeia.net/Themes/citizenship_and_participation/the_political_representation_of_the_roma_minority_in_bulgaria_1990_2005|archive-date = 20 April 2012}}</ref>
===France===
{{Further|Immigration to France}}
After 1945 immigration significantly increased. During the period of reconstruction, France lacked labor, and as a result, the French government was eager to recruit immigrants coming from all over Europe, the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Although there was a presence of, [[Vietnamese people in France|Vietnamese in France]] since the late 19th century (mostly students and workers), a wave of Vietnamese migrated after 1954. These migrants consisted of those who were loyal to the colonial government and those married to French colonists. Following the [[partition of Vietnam]], students and professionals from [[South Vietnam]] continued to arrive in France. Although many initially returned to the country after a few years, as the [[Vietnam War]] situation worsened, a majority decided to remain in France and brought their families over as well.<ref>[http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas La Diaspora Vietnamienne en France un cas particulier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000103/http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas |date=3 December 2013}} (in French)</ref>
This period also saw a significant wave of immigrants from [[Algeria]]. As the [[Algerian War]] started in 1954, there were already 200,000 Algerian immigrants in France.<ref name="histoire-immigration.fr">"Le film: deux siècles d'histoire de l'immigration en France." http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/histoire-de-l-immigration/le-film</ref> However, because of the tension between the Algerians and the French, these immigrants were no longer welcome. This conflict between the two sides led to the [[Paris massacre of 1961|Paris Massacre]] of 17 October 1961, when the police used force against an Algerian demonstration on the streets of Paris. After the war, after Algeria gained its independence, the free circulation between France and Algeria was once again allowed, and the number of Algerian immigrants started to increase drastically. From 1962 to 1975, the Algerian immigrant population increased from 350,000 to 700,000.<ref>"En 1962, lors de l'Indépendance, ils sont 350 000. En 1975 les émigrants algériens sont 710 000 et constituent le deuxième groupe d'étrangers après les Portugais." "De 1945 à 1975." {{cite web |url=http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dix-themes-pour-connaitre-deux-siecles-d-histoire-de-l-immigration/emigrer/de-1945-a-1975 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-02-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030132/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dix-themes-pour-connaitre-deux-siecles-d-histoire-de-l-immigration/emigrer/de-1945-a-1975 |archive-date=12 September 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Many of these immigrants were known as the "[[harki]]s," and the others were known as the "[[Pied-Noir|pieds-noirs]]." The "harkis" were Algerians who supported the French during the Algerian War; once the war was over, they were deeply resented by other Algerians, and thus had to flee to France. The "pieds-noirs" were European settlers who moved to Algeria, but migrated back to France since 1962 when Algeria declared independence.
According to Erik Bleich, multiculturalism in France faced stiff resistance in the educational sector, especially regarding recent Muslim arrivals from Algeria. Gatekeepers often warned that multiculturalism was a threat to the historic basis of French culture.<ref>Erik Bleich,. "From international ideas to domestic policies: Educational multiculturalism in England and France." ''Comparative Politics'' (1998): 81-100 [http://www.middlebury.edu/media/view/251954/original/from_intl_ideas_to_domestic_policies.pdf online].</ref>
Jeremy Jennings finds three positions among elites regarding the question of reconciling traditional French Republican principles with multiculturalism. The traditionalists refuse to make any concessions and instead insist on clinging to the historic republican principles of [[Secularism in France|"laïcité"]] and the secular state in which religion and ethnicity are always ignored. In the middle are modernizing republicans who uphold republicanism but also accept some elements of cultural pluralism. Finally there are multiculturalist republicans who envision a pluralist conception of French identity and seek an appreciation of the positive values brought to France by the minority cultures.<ref>Jeremy Jennings, "Citizenship, Republicanism and Multiculturalism in Contemporary France," ''British Journal of Political Science'' (2000) 30#4 575-597.</ref>
A major attack on multiculturalism came in [[Stasi Commission|Stasi Report]] of 2003 which denounces "Islamism" as deeply opposed to the mainstream interpretations of French culture. It is portrayed as a dangerous political agenda that will create a major obstacle for Muslims to comply with [[Secularism in France|French secularism or "laïcité "]].<ref>Jennifer A. Selby, "Islam in France reconfigured: Republican Islam in the 2010 Gerin report." ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' 31.3 (2011): 383-398.</ref> Murat Akan, however, argues that the Stasi Report and the new regulations against the [[hijab]] and religious symbols in the schools must be set against gestures toward multiculturalism, such as the creation of Muslim schools under contract with the government.<ref>Murat Akan, "Laïcité and multiculturalism: the Stasi Report in context," ''British Journal of Sociology'' (2009) 60#2 pp 237-256 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Murat-Akan/publication/26260531_Laicite_and_multiculturalism_The_Stasi_Report_in_context/links/5e7c8990a6fdcc139c0486a1/Laicite-and-multiculturalism-The-Stasi-Report-in-context.pdf online].</ref>
===Germany===
{{Main|Immigration to Germany}}
In October 2010, [[Angela Merkel]] told a meeting of younger members of her [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) party at [[Potsdam]], near [[Berlin]], that attempts to build a multicultural society in [[Germany]] had "utterly failed",<ref name="fail">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11559451|work=BBC News |title=Merkel says German multicultural society has failed|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> stating: "The concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it does not work".<ref name="fail" /><ref>{{cite news|title= Germans argue over integration|work= BBC|date=30 November 2004|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4056109.stm|access-date=2010-10-18|first=Ray|last=Furlong}}</ref> She continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt Germany's culture and values. This has added to a growing debate within Germany<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11532699|work=BBC News|title=Germany's charged immigration debate|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> on the levels of immigration, its effect on Germany and the degree to which middle eastern immigrants have integrated into German society.<ref>[http://www.aicgs.org/publication/the-many-sides-of-muslim-integration-a-german-american-comparison/ "Rauf Ceylan: Muslims in Germany: Religious and Political Challenges and Perspectives in the Diaspora],</ref> In 2015, Merkel again criticized multiculturalism on the grounds that it leads to [[Parallel society|parallel societies]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/12/14/angela-merkel-multiculturalism-is-a-sham/|title=Multiculturalism is a sham, says Angela Merkel|date=14 December 2015|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref>
The [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community of Germany is the first Muslim group to have been granted "corporation under public law status", putting the community on par with the major Christian churches and Jewish communities of Germany.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dw.de/muslims-in-germany-have-rights-and-obligations/a-16888992 | title=Muslims in Germany have rights and obligations | date=18 June 2013 | access-date=7 June 2014}}</ref>
=== Luxembourg ===
Luxembourg has one of the highest foreign-born populations in Europe, foreigners account for nearly half of the country's total population.<ref>Sarah Krouse, "Piping Hot Gromperekichelcher, Only if You Pass the Sproochentest." WALL STREET JOURNAL, 19 Jan 2018, p.1</ref> The majority of foreigners are from: [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and [[Portugal]].<ref>"[http://www.statistiques.public.lu/fr/actualites/population/population/2013/04/20130418/20130418.pdf La progression de la population du Grand-Duché continue: 537 039 résidants au 1er janvier 2013]." Statnews 16/2013, op statec.lu, 18 April 2013. (in French).</ref> In total, 170 different nationalities make up the population of Luxembourg, out of this; 86% are of European descent.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.justarrived.lu/en/practical-information/population-in-luxembourg/|title=Luxembourg, an ever-growing multicultural population|work=JUST ARRIVED|access-date=2018-07-22|language=en-US}}</ref> The official languages of Luxembourg are German, French, and [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]] all of which are supported in the Luxembourg government and education system.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/luxembourg.htm|title=The Trilingual Education system in Luxembourg|website=unavarra.es|access-date=2018-07-22}}</ref> In 2005, Luxembourg officially promoted and implemented the objectives of the [[UNESCO]] Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. This Convention affirms multicultural policies in Luxembourg and creates political awareness of cultural diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/countries/luxembourg/conventions?title=&field_date_d_m_y_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Bdate%5D=|title=Conventions - Luxembourg|website=UNESCO|language=en|access-date=2018-07-22}}</ref>
===Netherlands===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Süleymaniye-moskee1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Süleymanìye Mosque in [[Tilburg]] built in 2001]]
Multiculturalism in the Netherlands began with major increases in immigration to the Netherlands during the mid-1950s and 1960s.<ref name="Wessendorf2010">{{cite book|author=Susanne Wessendorf|title=The multiculturalism backlash: European discourses, policies and practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUaHVimJkT0C&pg=PA73|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-55649-1|pages=73–75}}</ref> As a consequence, an official national policy of multiculturalism was adopted in the early-1980s.<ref name="Wessendorf2010" /> Different groups could themselves determine religious and cultural matters, while state authorities would handle matters of housing and work policy.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://kjonnsforskning.no/nb/2017/03/norske-likestillingsidealer-gjor-muslimske-kvinner-mer-religiose|title=Likestillingsidealer gjør muslimske kvinner mer religiøse|last=iStockphoto|first=Illustrasjonsfoto|website=Kilden|language=nb|access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref>
In the 1990s, the public debate were generally optimistic on immigration and the prevailing view was that a multicultural policy would reduce the social economic disparities over time.<ref name=":8" />
This policy subsequently gave way to more assimilationist policies in the 1990s and post-electoral surveys uniformly showed from 1994 onwards that a majority preferred that immigrants assimilated rather than retained the culture of their country of origin.<ref name="Wessendorf2010" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Damhuis|first=Koen|date=2019|title="The biggest problem in the Netherlands": Understanding the Party for Freedom's politicization of Islam|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-biggest-problem-in-the-netherlands-understanding-the-party-for-freedoms-politicization-of-islam/|access-date=2021-02-28|website=Brookings|language=en-US}}</ref>
Following the [[September 11 attacks]] in the United States and the murders of [[Pim Fortuyn]] (in 2002) and [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] (in 2004) there was increased political debate on the role of multiculturalism in the Netherlands.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="ModoodTriandafyllidou2006">{{cite book|author1=Tariq Modood|author2=Anna Triandafyllidou|author3-link=Ricard Zapata-Barrero|author3=Ricard Zapata-Barrero|title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and citizenship: a European approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7OAAV5eEmy4C&pg=PA27|date=6 April 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-35515-5|page=27|author1-link=Tariq Modood}}</ref>
[[Lord Sacks]], Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, made a distinction between tolerance and multiculturalism, citing the Netherlands as a tolerant, rather than multicultural, society.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12381027 |date=7 February 2011 |title=Multiculturalism: What does it mean? |newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref> In June 2011, the [[First Rutte cabinet]] said the Netherlands would turn away from multiculturalism: "Dutch culture, norms and values must be dominant" [[Piet Hein Donner|Minister Donner]] said.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Nieuws/Politiek/300160/Donner-Afscheid-van-multiculturele-samenleving-Nederland.htm |date=16 June 2011 |title=Donner: Afscheid van multiculturele samenleving Nederland |newspaper=[[Elsevier (magazine)|Elsevier]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129202053/http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Nieuws/Politiek/300160/Donner-Afscheid-van-multiculturele-samenleving-Nederland.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref>
===Romania===
Since Antiquity, Romania has hosted many religious and ethnic groups, including Roma people, Hungarians, Germans, Turks, Greeks, Tatars, Slovaks, Serbs, Jews and others. Unfortunately, during the WW2 and the Communism, most of these ethnic groups choose to emigrate to other countries. However, since 1990s, Romania has expected a growing number of immigrants and refugees, most of them from the Arab World, Asia or Africa. Immigration is expected to increase in the future, as large numbers of Romanian workers leave the country and are being replaced by foreigners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ziare.com/actual/social/10-14-2008/imigrantii-in-romania-nu-se-bucura-de-drepturile-care-li-s-ar-cuveni-434535 |title=Imigrantii in Romania nu se bucura de drepturile care li s-ar cuveni |publisher=Ziare.com |access-date=2013-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ziare.com/actual/diaspora/07-14-2009/le-monde-romania-noua-destinatie-a-imigrantilor-818911 |title=Le Monde: Romania, noua destinatie a imigrantilor |publisher=Ziare.com |date=2009-07-13 |access-date=2013-10-08}}</ref>
=== Scandinavia ===
[[File:2017-09-01 HS-Reise Multi-Kulti in Vuosaari (991).jpg|thumb|The population structure of the [[Vuosaari]] district in [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], is strongly based on multiculturalism.<ref>[https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari Vuosaari - Uutta Helsinkiä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154215/https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari Vuosaari – Uutta Helsinkiä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154215/https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569 Asukkaat ja kuvasarja kertoo, millainen on Vuosaari – Professori: "Vuosaari on maahanmuuton tienraivaaja"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154208/https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569 |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref>]]
Multiculturalism in Scandinavia has centered on discussions about marriage, dress, religious schools, Muslim funeral rites and gender equality. [[Forced marriage]]s have been widely debated in Denmark, Sweden and Norway but the countries differ in policy and responses by authorities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://kjonnsforskning.no/nb/2006/05/multikulturalisme-i-skandinavia|title=Multikulturalisme i Skandinavia|website=kjonnsforskning.no (sub-unit of the Research Council of Norway)|language=nb|access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref>
Sweden has the most permissive policies while Denmark the most restrictive ones.
==== Denmark ====
{{Main|Immigration to Denmark}}
{{Multiple issues|section=1|
{{Weasel|section|date=January 2019}}
{{POV-section|date=January 2019}}
}}
In 2001, Denmark a liberal-conservative coalition government with the support of the [[Danish People's Party]] which instituted less pluralistic policy, more geared towards [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].<ref name=":1" />
A 2018 study found that increases in local ethnic diversity in Denmark caused "rightward shifts in election outcomes by shifting electoral support away from traditional "big government" left‐wing parties and towards anti‐immigrant nationalist parties."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harmon |first1=Nikolaj A. |title=Immigration, Ethnic Diversity, and Political Outcomes: Evidence from Denmark |journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics |date=October 2018 |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=1043–1074 |doi=10.1111/sjoe.12239 |s2cid=54936991 |url=http://www.econ.ku.dk/nharmon/docs/harmon2013immigration.pdf }}</ref>
For decades, Danish immigration policy was built upon the belief that, with support, immigrants and their descendants would eventually reach the same levels of education as Danes. In a 2019 report, the [[Danish Immigration Service]] and the [[Ministry of Education (Denmark)|Ministry of Education]] found this to be false. The report found that, while the second-generation immigrants without a [[Western world|Western]] background do better than their parents, the same is not true for third-generation immigrants. One of the reasons given was that second-generation immigrants may marry someone from their country of origin, which may cause Danish not to be spoken at home, which would put the children at a disadvantage in school. Thereby, the process of integrating has to start from the beginning for each generation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/1329273|title=Opråb fra ministre: Problemer med integration af børn af ikkevestlige indvandrere|date=2018-12-16|website=[[Berlingske]].dk|language=da|access-date=2019-01-29|quote=Danmarks integrationspolitik har i årtier været bygget op om troen på, at med den rette hjælp vil indvandrere og deres efterkommerne generation for generation falde til. En ny undersøgelse rammer en pæl gennem den forestilling. Den fastslår, at tredjegenerationsindvandrerne ikke får bedre karakterer i folkeskolen end generationen før dem. At der ikke er flere, som færdiggør en ungdomsuddannelse. Og at der ikke er flere, som får et arbejde. Det fremgår af »Analyse af børn af efterkommere med ikke-vestlig baggrund«, som er udarbejdet af Integrationsministeriet og Undervisningsministeriet. Den kortlægger for første gang, hvordan tredjegenerationsindvandrerne klarer sig på centrale parametre. // »Vi ved fra forskningen, at børn, som taler dansk i hjemmet, klarer sig bedre i skolen. Men mange gifter sig med én, som kommer direkte fra hjemlandet. Det vil sige, at integrationen starter forfra i hver generation,« siger Merete Riisager.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uim.dk/nyheder/2018/2018-12/tredjegenerationsindvandrere-klarer-sig-ikke-bedre-end-anden-generation|title=Tredjegenerationsindvandrere klarer sig ikke bedre end anden generation – Udlændinge- og Integrationsministeriet|website=uim.dk|access-date=2019-10-19|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019094846/https://uim.dk/nyheder/2018/2018-12/tredjegenerationsindvandrere-klarer-sig-ikke-bedre-end-anden-generation|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==== Norway ====
{{Main|Immigration to Norway}}[[File:Norway migrant education.png|thumb|Educational attainment of migrants in Norway in 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/09623/|title = 09623: Educational attainment of immigrants, by country background (Single country) 2004 - 2020}}</ref>]]
Apart from citizens of [[Nordic countries]], all foreigners must apply for permanent residency in order to live and work in Norway.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2008-05-15-35|title=Lov om utlendingers adgang til riket og deres opphold her (utlendingsloven) – Lovdata|website=lovdata.no|language=no|access-date=2018-03-02}}</ref> In 2017, the Norwegian immigrant population was made up of: citizens of [[European Union|EU]] and [[European Economic Area|EEA]] countries (41.2%); citizens of Asian countries, including Turkey (32.4%); citizens of African countries (13.7%); and citizens of non-EU/EEA European, North American, South American and Oceanian countries (12.7%).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ssb.no/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef|title=Innvandrere og norskfødte med innvandrerforeldre|work=ssb.no|access-date=2018-03-02|language=nb-NO}}</ref>
In 2015, during the [[European migrant crisis]], a total of 31,145 asylum seekers, most of whom came from Afghanistan and Syria, crossed the Norwegian border.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://snl.no/asylsituasjonen_i_Norge_2015_og_2016|title=Asylsituasjonen i Norge 2015 og 2016|last=Garvik|first=Olav|date=2017|website=Store Norske Leksikon}}</ref> In 2016, the number of asylum seekers dramatically reduced by almost 90%, with 3460 asylum seekers coming to Norway. This was partly due to the stricter border control across Europe, including an agreement between the EU and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://forskning.no/innvandring-samfunn-samfunnskunnskap/2016/12/fra-30-000-til-3000-asylsokere-hva-har-skjedd|title=Fra 30 000 til 3000 asylsøkere, hva har skjedd?|last=Amundsen|first=Bård|date=23 December 2016|website=Forskning.no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/eu_turkey_statement_17032017_en.pdf|title=EU-Turkey Statement 2016}}</ref>
As of September 2019, 15 foreign residents who had travelled from Norway to Syria or Iraq to join the [[Islamic State]] have had their residence permits revoked.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=83&artikel=7299474|title=Norska IS-resenärer förlorar uppehållstillstånd - Nyheter (Ekot)|last=Radio|first=Sveriges|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|date=14 September 2019|language=sv|access-date=2019-09-15}}</ref>
The [[Progress Party (Norway)|Progress Party]] has named the reduction of high levels of immigration from non-European countries one of their goals:
: "Immigration from countries outside the EEA must be strictly enforced to ensure a successful integration. It can not be accepted that fundamental Western values and human rights are set aside by cultures and attitudes that certain groups of immigrants bring with them to Norway."<ref>[http://www.frp.no/nor/mener/En-enklere-hverdag/FrP-fra-A-til-AA#id38159 The Progress Party's politics] (In Norwegian) From the official website of the Progress Party (23 November 2014)</ref>
An extreme form of opposition to immigration in Norway were [[2011 Norway attacks|the 22/7 attacks]] carried out by the terrorist [[Anders Behring Breivik]] on 22 July 2011. He killed 8 people by bombing government buildings in Oslo and massacred 69 young people at a youth summer camp held by the [[Labour Party (Norway)|Labour Party]], who were in power at the time. He blamed the party for the high level of Muslim immigration and accused it of "promoting multiculturalism."<ref>"[http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/25/norway.terror.attacks/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD Prime minister: Norway still 'an open society' despite 'the horror']" [[CNN]], 25 July 2011</ref>
==== Sweden ====
{{Main|Immigration to Sweden}}[[File:Mångfaldsbarometern 2014 cultural distances in Sweden.png|thumb|322x322px|Source: [[Gävle University College]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|title=Mångfaldsbarometern 2014|publisher=Gävle University College|date=October 2014|pages=57|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621094211/https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2016}}</ref>]]
Sweden has from the early 1970s experienced a greater share of non-Western immigration than the other Scandinavian countries, which consequently have placed multiculturalism on the political agenda for a longer period of time.<ref name=":1" />
Sweden was the first country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism in Europe. On 14 May 1975, a unanimous Swedish parliament passed an act on a new multiculturalist immigrant and ethnic minority policy put forward by the [[social democracy|social democratic]] government, that explicitly rejected the ideal ethnic homogeneity and the policy of assimilation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dagenssamhalle.se/nyhet/dags-att-begrava-det-multikulturella-projektet-31651|title=Dags att begrava det multikulturella projektet|publisher=Dagens sahmälle|language=Swedish|date=17 February 2017|access-date=13 February 2021}}</ref> The three main principles of the new policy were equality, partnership and freedom of choice. The explicit policy aim of the freedom of choice principle was to create the opportunity for minority groups in Sweden to retain their own languages and cultures. From the mid-1970s, the goal of enabling the preservation of minorities and creating a positive attitude towards the new officially endorsed multicultural society among the majority population became incorporated into the Swedish constitution as well as cultural, educational and media policies. Despite the anti-multiculturalist protestations of the [[Sweden Democrats]], multiculturalism remains official policy in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The multicultural moment: the history of the idea and politics of multiculturalism in Sweden in comparative, transnational and biographical context, 1964–1975|last=Wickström|first=Mats|publisher=Åbo Akademi|year=2015|isbn=978-952-12-3133-9|url=http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe201501071068}}</ref>
A 2008 study which involved questionnaires sent to 5,000 people, showed that less than a quarter of the respondents (23%) wanted to live in areas characterised by cultural, ethnic and social diversity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende|title=Svenskar vill ha inhägnat boende {{!}} SvD|last=TT|work=SvD.se|access-date=2018-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322170850/http://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende|archive-date=22 March 2016|language=sv}}</ref>
A 2014 study published by [[Gävle University College]] showed that 38% of the population never interacted with anyone from Africa and 20% never interacted with any non-Europeans.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|title=Mångfaldsbarometern 2014|publisher=Gävle University College|date=October 2014|pages=7–8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621094211/https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2016}}</ref> The study concluded that while physical distance to the country of origin, also religion and other cultural expressions are significant for the perception of cultural familiarity. In general, peoples with [[Christianity]] as the dominant religion were perceived to be culturally closer than peoples from Muslim countries.<ref name=":0" />
A 2017 study by [[Lund University]] also found that social trust was lower among people in regions with high levels of past non-Nordic immigration than among people in regions with low levels of past immigration.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McShane|first1=Karl|date=2017|title=Getting used to diversity? Immigration and trust in Sweden|url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/6d33125a-0256-40b2-9c41-37a7486ddb0d|journal=Economics Bulletin|volume=37|issue=3|pages=16|access-date=2018-01-02}}</ref> The erosive effect on trust was more pronounced for immigration from culturally distant countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McShane|first=Karl|date=31 August 2017|title=Getting Used to Diversity? Immigration and Trust inSweden|url=http://www.accessecon.com/Pubs/EB/2017/Volume37/EB-17-V37-I3-P171.pdf|journal=Economics Bulletin|volume=37| issue = 3|pages=12|access-date=8 April 2018}}</ref>
===Serbia===
[[File:Voivodina Hungarians national costume and dance 6.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|[[Csárdás]] traditional Hungarian folk dance in [[Doroslovo]]]]
In [[Serbia]], there are 19 officially recognised ethnic groups with a status of national minorities.<ref>Gojkovic N. [http://www.kas.de/upload/auslandshomepages/serbien/Gojkovic_en.pdf System of minorities’ protection in Serbia] [[Konrad Adenauer Foundation]]</ref> [[Vojvodina]] is an [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomous province]] of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country. It has a multiethnic and multicultural identity;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vojvodina.gov.rs/en/autonomous-province-vojvodina|title=Покрајинска влада|work=vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref> there are more than 26 [[Ethnic groups in Vojvodina|ethnic groups]] in the province,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/cms/view.php/1045.print.html|title=Autonomous Province of Vojvodina|work=vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vip.org.rs/index.aspx?tabId=62&menutabid=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227015638/http://www.vip.org.rs/index.aspx?tabId=62&menutabid=10|url-status=dead|archive-date=2008-12-27|title=Error|work=vip.org.rs}}</ref> which has six official languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=22:podzakonska-akta&download=250:statut-autonomne-pokrajine-vojvodine&Itemid=54|title=Beogradski centar za ljudska prava |publisher= Belgrade Centre for Human Rights|date=29 March 2015|work=bgcentar.org.rs}}</ref> Largest ethnic groups in Vojvodina are [[Serbs]] (67%), [[Hungarians in Serbia|Hungarians]] (13%), [[Slovaks in Serbia|Slovaks]], [[Croats of Vojvodina|Croats]], [[Romani people in Serbia|Romani]], [[Romanians of Serbia|Romanians]], [[Montenegrins of Serbia|Montenegrins]], [[Bunjevci]], [[Bosniaks of Serbia|Bosniaks]], [[Pannonian Rusyns|Rusyns]]. The Chinese<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=83182&page=1|title=Chinese Migrants Use Serbia as Gate to Europe|website=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/reportaze/aktuelno.293.html:446510-I-Kinezi-napustaju-Srbiju|title=I Kinezi napuštaju Srbiju|website=NOVOSTI}}</ref> and Arabs, are the only two significant immigrant minorities in Serbia.
[[Radio Television of Vojvodina]] broadcasts program in ten local languages. The project by the [[Government of Vojvodina|Government of AP Vojvodina]] titled "Promotion of Multiculturalism and Tolerance in Vojvodina", whose primary goal is to foster the cultural diversity and develop the atmosphere of interethnic tolerance among the citizens of Vojvodina, has been successfully implemented since 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puma.vojvodina.gov.rs/etext.php?ID_mat=1373&PHPSESSID=fs04q4o2f89iff2agkt8ld4rq0|title=Promotion of Multiculturalism and Tolerance|date=26 July 2015|work=puma.vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref> Serbia is continually working on improving its relationship and inclusion of minorities in its effort to gain full accession to the European Union. Serbia has initiated talks through Stabilisation and Association Agreement on 7 November 2007.
===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Immigration to the United Kingdom}}
Multicultural policies<ref name="Wotherspoon1995">{{cite book|author=Terry Wotherspoon|title=Multicultural education in a changing global economy: Canada and the Netherlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcKGBd4itKYC&pg=PA1|year=1995|publisher=Waxmann Verlag|isbn=978-3-89325-331-9|page=1}}</ref> were adopted by local administrations from the 1970s and 1980s onwards. In 1997, the newly elected [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government committed to a multiculturalist approach at a national level,<ref name="Hadjetian2008">{{cite book|author=Sylvia Hadjetian|title=Multiculturalism and Magic Realism? Between Fiction and Reality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBaE1n0juzsC&pg=PA31|date=April 2008|publisher=GRIN Verlag|isbn=978-3-638-93283-7|page=31}}</ref> but after 2001, there was something of a [[Criticism of multiculturalism#United Kingdom|backlash]], led by centre-left commentators such as [[David Goodhart]] and [[Trevor Phillips]]. The Government then embraced a policy of [[community cohesion]] instead. In 2011, [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[David Cameron]] said in a speech that "state multiculturalism has failed".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12371994 |title=State multiculturalism has failed, says David Cameron |newspaper=[[BBC News Online]] |date=5 February 2011}}</ref> Critics argue that analyses which view society as 'too diverse' for social democracy and cohesion have "performative" effects that legitimate racism towards those classed as immigrants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erel |first1=Umut |last2=Murji |first2=Karim |last3=Nahaboo |first3=Zaki |title=Understanding the contemporary race–migration nexus |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=2016-05-13 |volume=39 |issue=8 |page=1353 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2016.1161808 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lentin |first1=Alana |last2=Titley |first2=Gavan |title=The Crisis of Multiculturalism: Racism in a Neoliberal Age |date=2011 |publisher=Zed Books |location=London; New York |isbn=978-1848135819 }}</ref>
==Asia==
===India===
[[File:Farewell Ritual - Durga Idol Immersion Ceremony - Baja Kadamtala Ghat - Kolkata 2012-10-24 1458.JPG|thumb|The [[Durga Puja]] celebrated in [[Kolkata]]]]
[[File:Delhi Jama Masjid.jpg|thumb|[[Jama Masjid, Delhi]], one of the largest mosques in India]]
According to the [[1961 Census of India]], there are 1652 indigenous languages in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/aug2002/indianmothertongues1961aug2002.html |title=Language in India |access-date=2012-01-29}}</ref> The [[culture of India]] has been shaped by its [[History of India|long history]], [[Geography of India|unique geography]] and [[Demographics of India|diverse demography]]. [[Languages of India|India's languages]], [[Religion in India|religions]], [[Dance in India|dance]], music, architecture and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse [[Subculture|sub-cultures]] spread all over the [[Indian subcontinent]] and traditions that are several millennia old.<ref>{{cite book |last = Mohammada
|first = Malika |title = The foundations of the composite culture in India |publisher = Aakar Books, 2007 |isbn = 9788189833183|year = 2007 }}</ref> The previously prevalent [[Indian caste system]] describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of [[endogamy|endogamous]] hereditary groups, often termed ''[[jāti]]s'' or [[caste]]s.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46404/Caste India – Caste]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.</ref>
Religiously, [[Hindus]] form the majority, followed by Muslims. The statistics are: [[Hindu]] (79.8%), [[Muslim]] (14.2%), [[Christians|Christian]] (2.3%), [[Sikh]] (1.7%), [[Buddhist]] (0.7%), [[Jain]] (0.4%), [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] (0.23%), [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], [[Jew]]s, [[Zoroastrians]], and others (0.65%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Indian Census |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511035603/http://censusindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=11 May 2008 }}</ref> Linguistically, the two main language families in India are [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] (a branch of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]. In India's northeast, people speaking [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] group of languages such as [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (Meitei-lon) recognized by the Indian constitution and [[Austroasiatic languages]] are commonly found. India (officially) follows a three-language policy. [[Hindi]] (spoken in the form of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]) is the official federal language, [[Indian English|English]] has the federal status of associate/subsidiary official language and each state has its own state official language (in the Hindi ''[[sprachraum]]'', this reduces to bilingualism). Further, India does not have any national language.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Hindi-not-a-national-language-Court/article16839525.ece|title=Hindi, not a national language: Court|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 January 2010|access-date=22 October 2017|via=thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court - Times of India|website=indiatimes.com|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> [[The Republic of India]]'s state boundaries are largely drawn based on linguistic groups; this decision led to the preservation and continuation of local ethno-linguistic sub-cultures, except for the Hindi ''sprachraum'' which is itself divided into many states. Thus, most states differ from one another in language, culture, [[Indian cuisine|cuisine]], [[Clothing in India|clothing]], [[Indian literature|literary style]], [[architecture of India|architecture]], [[music of India|music]] and festivities.
India has encountered [[Religious violence in India|religiously motivated violence]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future |year=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04156-1 |page=1}}</ref> such as the [[Moplah Riots]], the [[Bombay riots]], the [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]], the 1990 [[Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus]], the [[2002 Gujarat riots]], the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]], the [[2012 Assam violence]], the [[2013 Muzaffarnagar riots]], and the [[2020 Delhi riots]]. This has resulted from traditionally disadvantaged communities in public employment such as the policing of the same locality, apprehension of owners in giving properties for sale or rent<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/sachar_comm.pdf |title=Sachar Committee Report |publisher=(Cabinet Secretariat, Govt. of India) |pages=9–25 |date=Nov 2006 |access-date=2012-08-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021182551/http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/sachar_comm.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2012 }}</ref> and of society in accepting inter-marriages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111966 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516223255/http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111966 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-05-16 |title=Exploring the Concept of Mixed Marriages in Indian and selected states: First time evidences from large scale survey |first1=Deepti |last1=Singh |first2=Srinivas |last2=Goli |year=2011 |work=Princeton University }}</ref>
==== Cultural minorities in India ====
The Indian constitution requires the various state-run institutions to provide quotas for minorities, which give these cultural minorities equal opportunities, as well as a forum through which they can actively participate in the institutions of the dominant culture.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Pande|first=Rohini|date=September 2003|title=Can Mandated Political Representation Increase Policy Influence for Disadvantaged Minorities? Theory and Evidence from India|journal=The American Economic Review|volume=93|issue=4|pages=1132–1151|jstor=3132282|doi=10.1257/000282803769206232}}</ref> Indian polity after the 1990s has been marked by a shift from secular principles to a landscape that is dominated by pro-Hindu propaganda; the BJP has used this rhetoric by reconstructing Hinduism and bartering it under the guise of Indian nationalism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Datta|first=Rekha|date=Summer 1999|title=Hindu Nationalism or Pregmatic Party Politics? A Study of India's Hindu Party|journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society|volume=12|issue=4|pages=573–588|jstor=20019991|doi=10.1023/A:1025938125870|s2cid=141252957}}</ref> However, the rise of pro-Hindu ideology, commonly known as Hindutva, has impinged on the rights of cultural minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clarke|first=Sathianathan|date=April 2002|title=Hindutva, Religious and Ethnocultural Minorities, and Indian-Christian Theology|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|volume=95|issue=2|pages=197–226|doi=10.1017/S0017816002000123|jstor=4150720|s2cid=162722809}}</ref> This can be seen in the large scale violence against cultural minorities, the vote-bank politics used by the Indian National Congress, and the promotion of issues faced by the larger religious communities over those faced by the backward groups in religious minorities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=At Home with Democracy|last=Sheth|first=D.L.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2018|isbn=978-981-10-6412-8}}</ref>
==== Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Castes (OBC) ====
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are constitutionally recognized terms in India and constitute approximately 25% of the Indian population. Moreover more than 40 percent of India's population belongs to the Other Backward Castes as per the National Sample Survey Office or the NSSO which is a government organization for conducting surveys in India. So the total size of the lower castes in India is estimated to be around 70 percent of the country's population whereas the upper caste make up around 18 percent of the population. It has also been noted that a person of the upper caste generally tends to be fairer in skin whereas the lower caste tend to be darker. These groups have been provided with reservations that constitutionally guarantee them representation in governmental institutions, a mandate suggested by the Mandal Commission.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Basavaraju|first=C.|date=Summer 2009|journal=Journal of the Indian Law Institute|volume=51|issue=2|pages=267–274|jstor=43953443|title=Reservation Under the Constitution of India: Issues and Perspectives}}</ref> The Indian constitution also provides SC's and ST's with protective measures that ensure equality, which is the main issue faced by members of both communities. However, while scheduled castes have turned into important political communities that the state concerns itself about, scheduled tribes continue to be politically marginalized.<ref name=":03" />
===Indonesia===
{{further|Bhinneka Tunggal Ika|Demographics of Indonesia|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Culture of Indonesia}}
[[Cultural pluralism|Pluralism]], [[Unity in diversity|diversity]] and multiculturalism is a daily fact of life in [[Indonesia]]. There are over [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|1,300 ethnic groups]] in Indonesia.<ref>Kuoni – Far East, A world of difference. p. 88. Published 1999 by Kuoni Travel & JPM Publications</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/news/2015/11/18/127/mengulik-data-suku-di-indonesia.html|title=Mengulik Data Suku di Indonesia|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia|Badan Pusat Statistik]]|access-date=12 February 2020|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> 95% of those are of [[Native Indonesians|Native Indonesian]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title= Pribumi |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Modern Asia |publisher= Macmillan Reference USA |url= http://www.bookrags.com/research/pribumi-ema-05/ |access-date= 2006-10-05 }}</ref> The [[Javanese people|Javanese]] are the largest ethnic group in Indonesia who make up nearly 42% of the total population.<ref name="ISAS">{{cite book |last1=Suryadinata |first1=Leo |last2=Arifin |first2=Evi Nurvidya |last3=Ananta |first3=Aris |title=Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape |date=2003 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-230-212-0 }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], and [[Madurese people|Madurese]] are the next largest groups in the country.<ref name="ISAS" /> There are also more than [[Languages of Indonesia|700 living languages spoken in Indonesia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=indonesia |title=Ethnologue report for Indonesia |publisher=Ethnologue.com |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref> and although predominantly [[Islam in Indonesia|Muslim]] the country also has large [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christian]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] populations.
Indonesia's national motto, ''[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]'' ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one") enshrined in [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]] the national ideology, articulates the diversity that shapes the country.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Geography of Indonesia | publisher=Indonesia.go.id | url=http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/geography-indonesia | access-date=4 August 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103201331/http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/geography-indonesia | archive-date=3 January 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The government nurtures and promotes the diversity of Indonesian local culture; adopting a pluralist approach.
Due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government [[transmigration program]]s or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions. The Javanese for example, moved from their traditional homeland in Java to the other parts of the archipelago. The expansion of the Javanese and their influence throughout Indonesia has raised the issue of [[Javanization]], although [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], [[Malay Indonesian|Malay]], Madurese, [[Bugis]] and Makassar people, as a result of their ''merantau'' (migrating) culture are also quite widely distributed throughout the Indonesian archipelago, while [[Chinese Indonesian]]s can be found in most urban areas. Because of [[urbanization]], major Indonesian cities such as [[Greater Jakarta]], [[Surabaya]], [[Bandung]], [[Palembang]], [[Medan]] and [[Makassar]] have attracted large numbers of Indonesians from various ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. Jakarta in particular has almost all Indonesian ethnic groups represented.
However, this transmigration program and close interactions between people of different cultural backgrounds caused socio-cultural problems, as the inter-ethnics interactions have not always been conducted harmoniously. After the [[Post-Suharto era|fall of Suharto]] in 1998 into the 2000s, numbers of inter-ethnic and inter-religious clashes erupted in Indonesia. Like the clashes between native [[Dayak people|Dayak]] tribes against [[Madurese people|Madurese]] transmigrants in [[Kalimantan]] during [[Sambas riots]] in 1999<ref name="hrw">{{cite web|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=28 February 2001|title=Indonesia: The Violence in Central Kalimantan (Borneo)|url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/borneo0228.htm|access-date=2008-08-13}}</ref> and the [[Sampit conflict]] in 2001.<ref name="flashpoint">{{cite news|publisher=BBC|date=28 June 2004|access-date=2008-08-13|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3811219.stm|title=Indonesia flashpoints: Kalimantan}}</ref> There were also clashes between Muslims and Christians, such as [[Poso riots|violence erupted in Poso]] between 1998 and into 2000,<ref name="BBC flashpoints">{{cite news| work = BBC News| date = 28 June 2004| title = Indonesia flashpoints: Sulawesi| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3812737.stm| access-date = 13 October 2012}}</ref> and [[Maluku sectarian conflict|violences in Maluku]] between 1999 and into 2002.<ref name="timedirty">{{cite news|last=Elegant|first=Simon|title=Indonesia's Dirty Little Holy War|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187655,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423064855/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187655,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 April 2010|access-date=31 March 2011|newspaper=Time|date=17 December 2001}}</ref> Nevertheless, Indonesia today still struggles and has managed to maintain unity and inter-cultural harmony, through a national adherence of pro-pluralism policy of Pancasila; promoted and enforced by the government and its people.
[[Chinese Indonesians]] are the largest foreign-origin minority that has resided in Indonesia for generations. Despite centuries of acculturation with native Indonesians, because of their disproportionate influence on Indonesian economy, and alleged question of national loyalty, Chinese Indonesians have suffered [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|discrimination]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=2016-11-25|title=Jakarta's violent identity crisis: behind the vilification of Chinese-Indonesians|url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/25/jakarta-chinese-indonesians-governor-ahok|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213050845/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/25/jakarta-chinese-indonesians-governor-ahok%23comments|archive-date=13 February 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The [[Suharto]] ''Orde Baru'' or New Order adopted a forced [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] policy; which indicated that Chinese cultural elements were unacceptable.{{sfn|Tan|2008|p=24}} Chinese Indonesians were forced to adopt [[Chinese Indonesian surname|Indonesian-sounding names]], and the use of Chinese culture and language was banned.<ref name=":7" /> The violence targeting Chinese Indonesians erupted during [[Fall of Suharto#Riots of 13–14 May|riots in 1998.]] As the looting and destruction took place, a number of Chinese Indonesians, as well as looters, were killed. The Chinese Indonesians were treated as the scapegoat of [[1997 Asian Financial Crisis]], a result of ongoing discrimination and segregation policies enforced during Suharto's New Order regime. Soon after the fourth Indonesian President, [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] came into power in 1999, he quickly abolished some of the discriminatory laws in efforts to promote acceptance and to improve inter-racial relationships, such as abolishing the ban on Chinese culture; allowing Chinese traditions to be practised freely. Two years later President [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] declared that the [[Chinese New Year]] (''{{lang|id|Imlek}}'') would be marked as a [[Public holidays in Indonesia|national holiday]] from 2003.{{sfn|Setiono|2003|p=1099}} Tense incidents however have included attacks on Chinese temples<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-08-10|title=In Indonesia, Chinese Deity Is Covered in Sheet After Muslims Protest|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/world/asia/indonesia-chinese-statue-islam-muslims-protest-guan-yu.html|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and Indonesian politician [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]] being given a 2 year prison sentence for [[blasphemy]] due to comments he made to his supporters on September 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-11-26|title=In Indonesia, Fears Rise Among Ethnic Chinese Amid Blasphemy Probe|language=en-US|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213045340/https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601|archive-date=13 February 2022|issn=0099-9660|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-08-11|title=30m Chinese idol covered in sheet after Muslim protest|language=en-AU|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-11/chinese-statue-covered-up-in-indonesian-city/8796404}}</ref>
===Japan===
{{main|Ethnic issues in Japan}}
[[File:One Ainu man and bear.JPG|thumb|An [[Ainu people|Ainu]] man, circa 1930]]
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected any need to recognize ethnic differences in Japan, even as such claims have been rejected by such ethnic minorities as the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] and [[Ryukyuan people]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Abe fine with 'homogeneous' remark|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/02/27/national/abe-fine-with-homogeneous-remark/#.U9KWz4BdWwE|work=The Japan Times|date=27 February 2007|access-date=2014-07-25}}</ref> In 2005, former Japanese Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]] described Japan as a "one civilization, one language, one culture and one race" nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/10/18/national/aso-says-japan-is-nation-of-one-race/#.U9KXSIBdWwE |title=Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race' |work=The Japan Times |date=18 October 2005 |access-date=2014-07-25}}</ref> However, there are "International Society" NPOs funded by local governments throughout Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-international.org/ |title=International Societies in Japan |publisher=Tokyo-international.org |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226025402/http://www.tokyo-international.org/ |archive-date=26 February 2012 }}</ref>
According to [[Harvard University]] professor [[Theodore Bestor]], Japan does look very homogeneous from a distant perspective, but in fact there are a number of very significant minority groups – ethnically different minority groups – in Japan today, such as the already mentioned [[Ainu people|Ainu]] and [[Ryukyuan people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/at/contemp_japan/cjp_society_02.html |title=Contemporary Japan: Japanese Society |publisher=Asian Topics, [[Columbia University]] |access-date=2013-11-14}}</ref>
===Kazakhstan===
{{See also|1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan}}
According to local media, Kazakhstan is among the most multicultural countries in Eurasia, with sizeable populations of ethnic Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uighurs, Tatars, Germans and more.<ref name="historykz">{{cite web|last1=Marmontova|first1=T.V.|title=Interethnic relations in the Republic of Kazakhstan in the light of multicultural theories|url=http://e-history.kz/en/contents/view/2125|publisher=e-history.kz}}</ref> Kazakhstan was one of a few countries in post-Soviet territories that avoided interethnic clashes and conflicts in the period of USSR’s final crisis and its eventual breakup.<ref name="DND">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan –The Heaven of interfaith and interethnic harmony|url=http://www.dnd.com.pk/kazakhstan-heaven-interfaith-interethnic-harmony/84030|publisher=Dispatch News Desk}}</ref> In 1995, Kazakhstan created the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan]], an advisory body designed to represent the country's ethnic minorities.<ref name="Daly">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan's unique Assembly of People maintains ethnic harmony|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Analysis/Outside-View/2015/05/04/Opinion-Kazakhstans-unique-Assembly-of-People-maintains-ethnic-harmony/5051430316093/|publisher=UPI}}</ref> However, recent ethnic clashes and discrimination have been reported for groups such as Christians,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Michel|first=Casey|date=July 14, 2017|title=The Reality of Religious Freedom in Kazakhstan|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/the-reality-of-religious-freedom-in-kazakhstan/|website=[[The Diplomat]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=May 12, 2021|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/|website=[[United States Department of State]]|language=en-US}}</ref> ultraconservative Muslims,<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 4, 2018|title=Kazakhstan Targets Beards, Pants In Fight Against 'Destructive Religious Movements'|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-targets-islamist-beards-pants-destructive-movements/29017566.html|website=[[RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty]]|language=en}}</ref> ethnic [[Dungans]],<ref>{{Citation|last=[[Human Rights Watch]]|title=Kazakhstan: Events of 2020|date=2020-12-03|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/kazakhstan|language=en|access-date=2022-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Felix Corley|date=April 15, 2021|title=KAZAKHSTAN: Targeting ethnic Dungan Koran teachers|url=https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2652|website=[[Forum 18]]|language=en-gb}}</ref> [[Chechens]], [[Tajiks]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 10, 2020|title=Dungan Incident Just Kazakhstan's Latest Interethnic Violence|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/dungan-incident-just-kazakhstan-s-latest-interethnic-violence/30427037.html|website=[[RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty]]|language=en}}</ref> and [[LGBT rights in Kazakhstan|LGBT people]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=August 21, 2015|title=For Kazakhstan's LGBT Community, A Struggle For Recognition And Rights|language=en|work=[[NPR]]|url=http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/08/21/433450186/for-kazakhstans-lgbt-community-a-struggle-for-recognition-and-rights}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=July 23, 2015|title=A Climate of Fear for LGBT People in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/23/thats-when-i-realized-i-was-nobody/climate-fear-lgbt-people-kazakhstan|website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>
=== Malaysia ===
{{Main|Ketuanan Melayu|Bumiputera (Malaysia)|Demographics of Malaysia|Culture of Malaysia}}
[[Malaysia]] is a multiethnic country, with [[Malay (ethnic group)|Malays]] making up the majority, close to 58% of the population. About 25% of the population are [[Chinese Malaysian|Malaysians of Chinese descent]]. [[Indian Malaysian|Malaysians of Indian descent]] comprise about 7% of the population. The remaining 10% comprises:
* Native [[East Malaysia]]ns, namely [[Bajau]], [[Bruneian Malay people|Bruneian]], [[Bidayuh]], [[Dusun]], [[Iban people|Iban]], [[Kadazan]], [[Kedayan]], [[Melanau]], [[Orang Ulu]], [[Sarawakian Malay]]s, etc.
* Other native tribes of [[Peninsular Malaysia]], such as the [[Orang Asli]] and Siamese people, and
* Non-native tribes of Peninsular Malaysia such as the [[Chettiar]]s, the [[Peranakan]] and the Portuguese.
The [[Malaysian New Economic Policy]] or NEP serves as a form of racial equalization.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6237328.stm Malaysia fury at EU envoy remarks], BBC News</ref> It promotes structural changes in various aspects of life from education to economic to social integration. Established after the [[13 May Incident|13 May racial riots]] of 1969, it sought to address the significant imbalance in the economic sphere where the minority [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]] population had substantial control over commercial activity in the country.
The [[Malay Peninsula]] has a long history of international trade contacts, influencing its ethnic and religious composition. Predominantly [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] before the 18th century, the ethnic composition changed dramatically when the British introduced new industries, and imported Chinese and Indian labor. Several regions in the then [[British Malaya]] such as [[Penang]], [[Malacca]] and [[Singapore]] became Chinese dominated. Until the riots 1969, co-existence between the three ethnicities (and other minor groups) was largely peaceful, although the three main racial groups for the most part lived in separate communities – the Malays in the villages, the Chinese in the urban areas, and the Indians in the towns and plantation. More Malays however have moved into the cities since the 1970s, and the proportion of the non-Malays have been decreasing continually, especially the Chinese, due in large part to lower birth-rate and emigration as a result of [[institutionalized discrimination]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Treena Becker|date=2016-08-16|title=Racism drove me from Malaysia. Love brought me to America|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/16/racism-stories-malaysia-love-immigration-america|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213012238/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/16/racism-stories-malaysia-love-immigration-america|archive-date=13 February 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.cpiasia.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1804:honey-i-shrunk-the-chinese-&catid=198:helen-ang&Itemid=156 |title=Honey, I shrunk the Chinese! |publisher=CPI |date=9 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525132129/http://english.cpiasia.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1804:honey-i-shrunk-the-chinese-&catid=198:helen-ang&Itemid=156 |archive-date=25 May 2012 }}</ref>
Preceding independence of the [[Federation of Malaya]], a [[social contract (Malaysia)|social contract]] was negotiated as the basis of a new society. The contract as reflected in the [[Constitution of Malaysia|1957 Malayan Constitution and the 1963 Malaysian Constitution]] states that the immigrant groups are granted citizenship, and Malays' special rights are guaranteed. This is often referred to the [[Bumiputra]] policy.
These [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist]] policies have come under pressure from racialist Malay parties, who oppose perceived subversion of Malay rights. The issue is sometimes related to the controversial [[status of religious freedom in Malaysia]].
===Singapore===
[[File:Woodlands Town Park East, Singapore, looking north towards Marsiling Rise.jpg|thumb|right|High density public housing in Singapore, which are a common sight in the country, consists of different ethnic groups living together.]]
{{Main|Immigration to Singapore}}
Due to historical immigration trends, [[Singapore]] has a Chinese majority population with significant minority populations of [[Malay people|Malays]] and Indians (predominantly [[Tamil people|Tamils]]). Other prominent smaller groups include [[Peranakans]], [[Eurasians in Singapore|Eurasians]] and [[Ethnic groups of Europe|Europeans]]. Besides [[English language|English]], Singapore recognizes three other languages—[[Malay language|Malay]], [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. English was established as the medium of instruction in schools during the 1960s and 1970s and is the language of trade and government while the other three languages are taught as second languages ("mother tongues"). Besides being a [[Multilingualism|multilingual]] country, Singapore also acknowledges festivals celebrated by the three main ethnic communities.
Under the [[Raffles Plan of Singapore]], the city was divided into ethnic enclaves such as [[Geylang]], [[Chinatown, Singapore|Chinatown]], and [[Little India, Singapore|Little India]]. Housing in Singapore is governed by the Ethnic Integration Policy, which ensures an even ethnic distribution throughout Singapore.<ref>(n.d.) In [[Housing and Development Board|Housing Development Boards of Singapore website]]. Retrieved: 18 November 2010 from [http://www.hdb.gov.sg/fi10/fi10296p.nsf/PressReleases/C515273FA068DD58482576DD00169155?OpenDocument ''Policy Changes To Support An Inclusive And Cohesive Home''].</ref> A similar policy exists in politics as all [[Group Representation Constituency|Group Representation Constituencies]] are required to field at least one candidate from an ethnic minority.<ref>Goh, Parliamentary Elections (Amendment) Bill, cols. 180–183; {{citation|author=Edwin Lee|title=Singapore: The Unexpected Nation|location=Singapore|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2008|page=499|isbn=978-981-230-796-5}}.</ref>
Today, such ethnic enclaves has mostly been eliminated, due to the comtemporary Singapore's government policy to encourage further ethnic integration between the different [[Demographics of Singapore|races of Singapore]]. A prominent example is its public housing system. Unlike other countries, public housing is not ostracised by a wide majority of the population and its government, and acts as a necessary and vital measure to provide immaculate and safe housing surrounded by [[Amenity|public amenities]] at affordable prices, especially during its rapid development and industrialisation in the early years of independence.<ref name="LKS">{{cite book |title=Lim Kim San: a builder of Singapore |date=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9812309280}}</ref> It is also meant to foster [[Group cohesiveness|social cohesion]] between the [[social class]]es and races of Singapore, and prevent neglected areas or districts and [[ethnic enclaves]] from developing – known as the Ethnic Integration Policy (EIP).<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Integration Policy and SPR Quota - Housing & Development Board (HDB)|url=http://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/residential/buying-a-flat/resale/ethnic-integration-policy-and-spr-quota|website=Housing and Development Board (HDB)|access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> As such, it is considered a unique part of Singaporean culture, being commonly associated with the country.<ref name="SGCUL">{{cite web |url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/singapore/articles/11-things-you-should-know-about-singaporean-culture/ |title=11 Things You Should Know About Singaporean Culture |last=Kaur |first=Tarra |website=theculturetrip.com |publisher=Culture Trip |access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref>
===South Korea===
{{Main|Immigration to South Korea}}
[[South Korea]] remains a relatively homogenous country ethnically, linguistically, and culturally.<ref>"[http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/koreas_ethnic_nationalism_is_a_source_of_both_pride_and_prejudice_according_to_giwook_shin_20060802/ Korea's ethnic nationalism is a source of both pride and prejudice, according to Gi-Wook Shin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720053258/http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/koreas_ethnic_nationalism_is_a_source_of_both_pride_and_prejudice_according_to_giwook_shin_20060802 |date=20 July 2011 }}". The Korea Herald. 2 August 2006.</ref> Foreigners, expatriates, and immigrants are often rejected by the mainstream South Korean society and face discrimination.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/19991013000846/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/CMTS/MonoPaper3-13.html The Life Instability of Intermarried Japanese Women in Korea]" (1999), Eung-Ryul Kim (Korea University and University of Southern California, The Center for Multiethnic and Transnational Studies)</ref>
Han Geon-Soo 2007 notes the increased use of the word "multiculturalism" in South Korea: "As the increase of foreign migrants in [South] Korea transforms a single-ethnic homogeneous [South] Korean society into multiethnic and multicultural one, [the South] Korean government and the civil society pay close attention to multiculturalism as an alternative value to their policy and social movement." He argued, however, that "the current discourses and concerns on multiculturalism in [South] Korea" lacked "the constructive and analytical concepts for transforming a society".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Geon-Soo |title=Multicultural Korea: Celebration or Challenge of Multiethnic Shift in Contemporary Korea? |journal=Korea Journal |date=December 2007 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=32–31 |doi=10.25024/KJ.2007.47.4.32 |s2cid=151038291 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The same year, Stephen Castles of the International Migration Institute argued:
:"Korea no longer has to decide whether it wants to become a multicultural society. It made that decision years ago – perhaps unconsciously – when it decided to be a full participant in the emerging global economy. It confirmed that decision when it decided to actively recruit foreign migrants to meet the economic and demographic needs of a fast-growing society. Korea is faced by a different decision today: what type of multicultural society does it want to be?"<ref>Stephen Castles, [http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SC%20paper%20on%20MC%20soc%20for%20GHFR%20Korea%202007.pdf "Will Labour Migration lead to a Multicultural Society in Korea?", Global Human Resources Forum 2007 / International Migration Institute] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725111757/http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SC%20paper%20on%20MC%20soc%20for%20GHFR%20Korea%202007.pdf |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref>
The ''[[Korea Times]]'' suggested in 2009 that South Korea was likely to become a multicultural society.<ref>[https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2010/10/123_57884.html "Multiculturalism Likely to Prevail in Korea"], Lee Hyo-sik, ''Korea Times'', 24 December 2009</ref> In 2010, an opinion editorial written by Peter Underwood for the ''[[JoongAng Ilbo]]'' stated: "Media in [South] Korea is abuzz with the new era of multiculturalism. With more than one million foreigners in [South] Korea, 2 percent of the population comes from other cultures." He further opined:
:"If you stay too long, Koreans become uncomfortable with you. [...] Having a two percent foreign population unquestionably causes ripples, but having one million temporary foreign residents does not make Korea a multicultural society. [...] In many ways, this homogeneity is one of Korea’s greatest strengths. Shared values create harmony. Sacrifice for the nation is a given. Difficult and painful political and economic initiatives are endured without discussion or debate. It is easy to anticipate the needs and behavior of others. It is the cornerstone that has helped Korea survive adversity. But there is a downside, too. [...] Koreans are immersed in their culture and are thus blind to its characteristics and quirks. Examples of group think are everywhere. Because Koreans share values and views, they support decisions even when they are obviously bad. Multiculturalism will introduce contrasting views and challenge existing assumptions. While it will undermine the homogeneity, it will enrich Koreans with a better understanding of themselves."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Underwood |first=Peter |date=26 August 2010 |url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925120 |title=Multiculturalism in Korea |work=JoongAng Ilbo |location=South Korea |publisher=JoongAng Ilbo |access-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902022520/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925120 |archive-date=2 September 2010 }}</ref>
In 2010, results from the Korean Identity Survey suggested that government programs promoting multicultralism had seen some success with over 60% of Koreans supporting the idea a multicultural society.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Palmer |first1=James |last2=Park |first2=Ga-Yong |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/south-koreans-learn-to-love-the-other-multiculturalism/ |title=South Koreans Learn to Love the Other: How to manufacture multiculturalism |access-date=3 December 2019 |newspaper=Foreign Policy |date=26 July 2018}}</ref> However, the same poll in 2015 showed that support of a multicultural society had dropped to 49.7% suggesting a possible return to ethnic exclusivism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Denney |first=Steven |url=https://sinonk.com/2016/10/28/south-korean-identity-the-return-of-ethnic-exclusivism/ |title=South Korean Identity: The Return of Ethnic Exclusivism |access-date=4 December 2019 |journal=Sino-NK |date=28 October 2016}}</ref>
=== Turkey ===
{{Main|Immigration to Turkey}}
[[Turkey]] is a country that borders both Europe and Asia, therefore placing it as the multicultural intersection for Eurasia – thus including people of Armenian, Jewish, Kurds, Arabs, Turks, and Persian descent. This cultural influence mainly stems from the [[Culture of Iran|Iranian culture]], which spread through multiple ways but mainly during the early modern period where Iranian and Ottoman contact flourished and the influence of the [[Kurds]], an Iranian ethnic group, on Turkish culture. However, it also entails influence from Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim influence.<ref name="auto2">{{cite journal |last1=Rauf |first1=Imam Feisal Abdul |title=MULTICULTURALISMS: Western, Muslim and Future |journal=CrossCurrents |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=100–105 |jstor=24461190 }}</ref> In recent years there has been an increase of diversity acceptance in Turkey, mainly because there was fear of losing values of the non-existent [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaya |first=Ayhan |chapter=Multiculturalism and Minorities in Turkey |date=2013 |title=Challenging Multiculturalism |pages=297–316 |series=European Models of Diversity |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-6457-3 |jstor=10.3366/j.ctt20q22fw.20 }}</ref> However, just after the turn of the century, Turkey has embraced its multicultural location and has even began to influence other countries. With Turkey having roots of Islam they have been provided a path for Islam to be accepted into neighboring countries in Europe.<ref name="auto2"/>
== Africa ==
===Cameroon===
Officially known as the Republic of Cameroon, [[Cameroon]] is found in [[central Africa]] consisting of a diverse geographical and cultural area that makes it one of the most diverse countries known today. Ranging from mountains, deserts, and rainforests, to coast-lands and savanna grasslands, its diverse geography makes a large diverse population possible. This diverse geography resembles Africa as a whole and due to this, many people commonly label Cameroon as "Africa in Miniature".<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Mbenda |first1=Huguette Gaelle Ngassa |last2=Awasthi |first2=Gauri |last3=Singh |first3=Poonam K |last4=Gouado |first4=Inocent |last5=Das |first5=Aparup |title=Does malaria epidemiology project Cameroon as 'Africa in miniature'? |journal=Journal of Biosciences |date=September 2014 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=727–738 |doi=10.1007/s12038-014-9451-y |pmid=25116627 |s2cid=17219470 }}</ref>
==== Demographics and official languages ====
Before Cameroon’s independence, it was under British and French colonial rule from 1916-1961.<ref name=":13"/> Upon gaining [[sovereignty]], a major colonial influence was evident, having both English and French become the national language to roughly 25,000,000 Cameroonian residents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=esa.un.org|access-date=2018-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919061238/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite conference |last1=Asanga Fon |first1=Nguh Nwei |title=Can Bilingualism Survive in Cameroon? |pages=260–275 |conference=The Future of Humanities, Education and Creative Industries |date=October 2017 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338146687 }}</ref> Apart from these two major languages, a new language consisting of a mixture of French, English, and [[Cameroonian Pidgin English|Pidgin]] known as [[Camfranglais|Frananglais]] gained popularity among Cameroonian residents.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://newuh.blog/2012/12/13/cameroon-africa-in-miniature-in-what-sense/|title=Cameroon: Africa in Miniature – In what Sense?|date=13 December 2012|work=KINGSLEY SHETEH'S BLOG|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Indigenous languages ====
Although these three languages are the most common in Cameroon, there are still approximately 273 [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] languages being spoken throughout the country, making it not only culturally diverse but linguistically as well.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CM|title=Cameroon|website=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> Among those who speak these indigenous languages are people from [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], Sudanic, [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]], [[Wodaabe]] (or [[Mbororo]]) and even primitive hunter-gatherer groups known as [[Pygmy peoples|Pygmies]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Cameroon|title=Cameroon {{!}} Culture, History, & People|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iwgia.org/en/cameroon|title=Cameroon|website=iwgia.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref>
==== Indigenous peoples' rights ====
Although native to Cameroonian land, they faced constant discrimination much like other indigenous groups around the world. The United Nations General Assembly ([[United Nations General Assembly|UNGA]]) adopted the United Nations' Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples ([[UNDRIP]]) in 2007. What this allowed was the protection of land and resource rights and prevented others from [[wiktionary:Exploitation|exploiting]] or violating them.<ref>{{cite document |last1=Samuel |first1=Nguiffo |last2=Amougou |first2=Victor Amougou |last3=Schwartz |first3=Brendan |last4=Cotula |first4=Lorenzo |title=Indigenous peoples' land rights in Cameroon: progress to date and possible futures |date=December 2017 |publisher=International Institute for Environment and Development |url=https://pubs.iied.org/17448IIED |jstor=resrep16706 }}</ref> In 2016, a group of indigenous Baka and Bagyeli groups united to form Gbabandi. Gbabandi allowed these indigenous groups to have a form of representation and a declared list of requirements that people of Cameroon had to abide by. Among these requirements were guaranteed land rights, peoples' consent to the usage of their sacred land, traditional chiefs and the ability to participate in "local, regional, and national levels" of political and economic matters. As a result, this established a sense of justice and acknowledgment among indigenous groups in Cameroon and posed for future battles for indigenous peoples' rights.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/rights-land-natural-resources/news-article/2017/declaration-land-rights-gbabandi-platform-cameroon|title=Declaration on land rights from the Gbabandi Platform, Cameroon {{!}} Forest Peoples Programme|website=forestpeoples.org|language=en|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref>
===Mauritius===
Multiculturalism has been a characteristic feature of the island of [[Mauritius]].<ref name="LionnetShi2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJKgGEb2jpsC&pg=PA203|title=Minor transnationalism|author1=Françoise Lionnet|author2=Shumei Shi|date=16 February 2005|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-3490-3|page=203|access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref> This is mainly because of colonization that has been present from, the English, the French, and the Dutch.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng Tseung-Wong |first1=Caroline |last2=Verkuyten |first2=Maykel |title=Multiculturalism, Mauritian Style: Cultural Diversity, Belonging, and a Secular State |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |date=May 2015 |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=679–701 |doi=10.1177/0002764214566498 |s2cid=144906729 }}</ref> However, the Mauritian society includes people from many different ethnic and religious groups: Hindu, Muslim and [[Indo-Mauritian]]s, [[Mauritian Creole people|Mauritian Creoles]] (of African and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] descent), Buddhist and Roman Catholic [[Sino-Mauritian]]s and [[Franco-Mauritian]]s (descendants of the original [[French people|French]] colonists).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infomauritius.com/|title=Some facts about Mauritius|publisher=Infomauritius.com|access-date=2010-12-10|archive-date=21 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821215852/http://www.infomauritius.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mauritius has embraced intertwining of cultures from the origin of the country, and has coined the term fruit-salad, which is a much more appealing term in comparison to melting-pot showing that they were not forced to these cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=Eddy S. |last2=Bloemraad |first2=Irene |title=A SWOT Analysis of Multiculturalism in Canada, Europe, Mauritius, and South Korea |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |date=May 2015 |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=619–636 |doi=10.1177/0002764214566500 |s2cid=147514771 }}</ref>
=== South Africa ===
{{Main|Immigration to South Africa}}
[[South Africa]] is the fifth-most populous country and one of the most developed countries in Africa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-10-most-populated-countries-in-africa.html|title=The 10 Most Populated Countries in Africa|work=WorldAtlas|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en}}</ref> South Africa also officially recognises 11 languages including English, making it third behind Bolivia and India in most official languages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf|title=Census 2011 Census in Brief|date=13 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513171240/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf|archive-date=2015-05-13|url-status=dead|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> The three most common languages are Zulu, Xhosa, and Afrikaans. Though South Africa's cultural traditions may decline as it becomes more and more Westernised, it is still known for its diverse culture.
== Oceania ==
===Australia===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in Australia}}
The next country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism after Canada was Australia, a country with similar immigration situations and similar policies, for example the formation of the [[Special Broadcasting Service]].<ref name="immi.gov.au">{{cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/research/_pdf/poa-2008.pdf |title=IMMI.gov.au |access-date=2010-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209074027/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/research/_pdf/poa-2008.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Australian Government]] retains multiculturalism in policy and as a defining aspect of Australia today.<ref name="Reference"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="policy"/><ref>{{cite web|title=A Team to Build a Stronger Australia|url=http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106010039/http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|archive-date=6 November 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Chinatown Sydney.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Chinatown, Sydney|Sydney's Chinatown]]]]
The [[White Australia Policy]] was dismantled after World War II by various changes to [[Immigration to Australia|immigration policy]], although the official policy of multiculturalism was not formally introduced until 1972.<ref name="GalliganRavenhill1997">{{cite book|author1=Brian Galligan|author2=John Ravenhill|title=New developments in Australian politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFUm9uiS5akC&pg=PA13|date=15 June 1997|publisher=Macmillan Education AU|isbn=978-0-7329-4304-2|page=13}}</ref> The election of [[Howard government|John Howard's Liberal-National Coalition]] government in 1996 was a major watershed for Australian multiculturalism. [[John Howard|Howard]] had long been a critic of multiculturalism, releasing his [[One Australia policy]] in the late 1980s.<ref name="Cornelius2004">{{cite book|author=Wayne A. Cornelius|title=Controlling immigration: a global perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0d10wbGkWEC&pg=PA143|year=2004|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4490-4|page=143}}</ref> ''[[A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services]]'', first published in 1999, was a publication of the [[Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau]] designed to offer guidance to police and emergency services personnel on how religious affiliation can affect their contact with the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=Document Details|work=Abstract Database|publisher=US National Criminal Justice Reference Service|url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails.aspx?id=183016|access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="dunn">{{Cite journal|last=Dunn|first=Andy|title=Two-Way Tolerance|journal=Police Journal Online|volume=81|issue=6|date=June 2000|url=http://www.policejournalsa.org.au/0006/17a.html|access-date=27 April 2010|archive-date=28 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090928055931/http://policejournalsa.org.au/0006/17a.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chilana|first=Rajwant Singh|title=International bibliography of Sikh studies|publisher=Springer|year=2005|page=444|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEX-98eVyBcC&pg=PA444|isbn=978-1-4020-3043-7}}</ref> The first edition covered [[Buddhist]], [[Hindu]], [[Islamic]], [[Jewish]] and [[Sikh]] faiths, with participation of representatives of the various religions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police|publisher=National Police Ethnic Advisory Bureau |edition=1st |year=1999 |url=http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious/religious.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316104007/http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious/religious.pdf|archive-date=16 March 2003}}</ref> The second edition, published in 2002, added [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] and [[Torres Strait Islander]] religions and the [[Baháʼí Faith]] to the list of religions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police|publisher=Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau |edition=2nd |year=2002 |url=http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious2/religious_guide.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050619070219/http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious2/religious_guide.pdf|archive-date=19 June 2005}}</ref>
Contact between people of different cultures in Australia has been characterised by tolerance and engagement, but have also occasionally resulted in conflict and rifts.<ref>{{Cite journal |url = http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Racism,_Ethnicity_and_Hate_Crime.pdf |last1 = White |first1 = Rob |last2 = Perrone |first2 = Santina |year = 2001 |title = Racism, Ethnicity and Hate Crime |journal = Communal/Plural |volume = 9 |issue = 2 |pages = 161–81 |access-date = 2012-08-18 |doi = 10.1080/13207870120081479 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100705040633/http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Racism,_Ethnicity_and_Hate_Crime.pdf |archive-date = 5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title = Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech in Australia |chapter = The Volatility of Racism in Australia |pages = 20–33 |editor1= Katharine Gelber |editor2=Adrienne Stone |isbn = 9781862876538 |publisher = Federation Press |year=2007 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3oYYweMrF8C&q=%22volatility+of+racism+in+australia%22&pg=PA20 |author = Ann Curthoys |author-link=Ann Curthoys }}</ref> Australia's diverse migrant communities have brought with them food, lifestyle and cultural practices, many of which have been absorbed into mainstream Australian culture.<ref name="Reference"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Members of a multicultural community who are not of [[Anglo-Australian]] background or not [[cultural assimilation|"assimilated"]] are often referred to in policy discourse as [[culturally and linguistically diverse]] (CALD), introduced in 1996 to replace non-English speaking background (NESB).<ref>{{cite document |last1=Sawrikar |first1=Pooja |last2=Katz |first2=Ilan |year=2009 |title=How useful is the term 'culturally and linguistically diverse' (CALD) in Australian research and policy discourse? |hdl=10707/20945 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=What is CALD? - Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (2020 Edition) | website=EthnoLink | date=19 February 2019 | url=https://www.ethnolink.com.au/cald-culturally-and-linguistically-diverse/ | access-date=30 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeon |first1=Yun-Hee |last2=Chenoweth |first2=Lynn |title=Working With a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) Group of Nurses |journal=Collegian |date=January 2007 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=16–22 |doi=10.1016/s1322-7696(08)60543-0 |pmid=17294682 |hdl=10453/5895 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== New Zealand ===
[[New Zealand]] is a [[Sovereign state|sovereign]] Oceanic country that adopted its multicultural policies post World War II. The country used to have immigration policies similar to Australia's [[White Australia Policy]], and The United States [[Immigration Act of 1924]],<ref>Socidad Peruana de Medicina Intensiva (SOPEMI) (2000). ''Trends in international migration: continuous reporting system on migration''. [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]. pp. 276–278.</ref> but it would later follow suit with Australia and Canada in the 1970s and adopt similar multicultural policies. The relaxation of migration led to an influx of new migration to New Zealand in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/history-of-immigration|title=History of immigration – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|website=teara.govt.nz|language=en|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref><ref>Phillips, Jock (11 August 2015). "History of immigration". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2 June 2017.</ref> This led to an increase of Asian and Pacific islander peoples on the island, and ultimately a more diverse European population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealanders/page-13|title=13. – The New Zealanders – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|website=teara.govt.nz|language=en|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref> In 1985 the Law Commission Act was passed which required the New Zealand Law Commission to review laws while taking into account both the indigenous [[Māori people|Māori]] of New Zealand and New Zealand's multicultural character.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/mcp/immigrant-minorities/evidence/new-zealand|title=New Zealand {{!}} Multiculturalism Policies in Contemporary Democracies|website=queensu.ca|language=en|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref> In 1987 New Zealand officially recognized the indigenous Māori language as a national language.<ref>"Waitangi Tribunal claim – Māori Language Week". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2011.</ref> The revitalization in the Māori language led to its immersion in schools and television broadcast.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11670518|title=John Drinnan: 'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television|last=@Zagzigger2|first=John Drinnan John Drinnan is the Media writer for the New Zealand Herald jdrinnan@xtra co nz|date=7 July 2016|work=NZ Herald|access-date=2018-07-16|language=en-NZ|issn=1170-0777}}</ref>
In 2001 the New Zealand government opened an Office of Ethnic Affairs to advise its local governments on the advancement of ethnic diversity and affairs of its multicultural communities.<ref name="auto"/> [[List of dual place names in New Zealand|Many landmarks]] on the island have both their Māori and English names officially recognized. Māori makes up 3.7% of the population's speaking language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/topics/language?url=/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/languages.aspx|title=Language {{!}} Stats NZ|website=stats.govt.nz|language=en-NZ|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref> A 2013 census of New Zealand's population showed that 74% of the population identifies ethnically as European, while the latter 15% majority identify as Māori. The remainder identify as Asian, Arab, African, Pacific Islander and Latin American.
=== Papua New Guinea ===
[[Papua New Guinea]] is one of the most multicultural countries in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fearon |first1=James D. |title=Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |date=1 June 2003 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=195–222 |doi=10.1023/A:1024419522867 |s2cid=152680631 }}</ref> This [[Oceania]]n country is home to over eight million people<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=esa.un.org|access-date=2018-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919061238/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> that are divided into hundreds of different indigenous ethnic groups and cultures with over 820 different indigenous languages.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG|title=Papua New Guinea|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-06|language=en}}</ref> A majority of the indigenous groups are [[Papuan people|Papuans]] who have ancestors that lived in New Guinea over ten thousand years ago. The latter majority are [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] whose ancestors arrived less than four thousand years ago. The island's population is also made up of many [[expatriate]] citizens from China, Australia, Indonesia, Europe and the Philippines. In 1975 the island population was found to be made up of 40,000 of these diverse expatriate citizens.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea|title=Papua New Guinea {{!}} Culture, History, & People|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-07-11|language=en}}</ref> Despite the large amount of culturally diverse locations on the island, the [[Kuk Early Agricultural Site]] is the only [[UNESCO]] World heritage location.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/PG|title=Papua New Guinea |work= UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2018-07-28}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Society}}
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Acceptance]]
* [[Cosmopolitanism]]
* [[Cross-cultural]]
* [[Cross-cultural communication]]
* [[Cultural assimilation]]
* [[Cultural competence]]
* [[Cultural conflict]]
* [[Cultural homogenization]]
* [[Diversity (politics)]]
* [[Ethnic penalty]]
* [[Ethnocentrism]]
* [[Ethnocultural empathy]]
* [[Ethnopluralism]]
* [[Europeanism]]
* [[Global Centre for Pluralism]] (Canada)
* [[Hybridity]]
* [[Immigration and crime]]
* [[Intercultural competence]]
* [[Intercultural relations]]
* [[Leitkultur]]
* [[List of countries ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level]]
* [[Miscegenation]]
* ''[[Multiculturalism without Culture]]'' (book)
* [[Sociology of race and ethnic relations]]
* [[Multicultural art]]
* [[Multicultural education]]
* [[Multikulti]]
* [[Multinational state]]
* [[National personal autonomy]]
* [[Parallel society]]
* [[Pluriculturalism]]
* [[Plurinationalism]]
* [[Polyculturalism]]
* [[Polyethnicity]]
* [[Rainbow Nation]]
* [[Racial integration]]
* [[Syncretism]]
* [[The Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States]]
* [[Transculturation]]
* ''[[Unrooted Childhoods]]'' (book)
*[[Unity in diversity]]
* [[Xenocentrism]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
<!-- === Citations === -->
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Brian Barry|author=Barry Brian|title=Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COkp0MUhV-4C&pg=PP1|date=30 October 2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01001-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Baumann, Gerd|title=The Multicultural Riddle: Rethinking National, Ethnic, and Religious Identities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzJqENtElDAC&pg=PP1|date=22 March 1999|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-92213-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Bennett, David|title=Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PhRagnCkF0C&pg=PP1|date=10 November 1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-12159-0}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Gad Barzilai|author=Barzilai, Gad|title=Communities And Law: Politics And Cultures of Legal Identities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHWXPvD3TGcC&pg=PP1|date=9 February 2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-03079-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Caravantes, Ernesto|title=From melting pot to witch's cauldron: how multiculturalism failed America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fF9TI8BsOdAC&pg=PP1|date=30 June 2010|publisher=Government Institutes|isbn=978-0-7618-5056-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Eriksen, Jens-Martin and Stjernfelt, Frederik|title=The democratic contradictions of multiculturalism|url=http://www.telospress.com/teloscasteriksen-and-stjernfelts-the-democratic-contradictions-of-multiculturalism/|year=2012|publisher=Telos Press|isbn=978-0914386469}}
* {{cite book|author=Fillion, Réal Robert|title=Multicultural dynamics and the ends of history: exploring Kant, Hegel, and Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eh9JrJH1HiwC&pg=PP1|year=2008|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|isbn=978-0-7766-0670-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Fortier, Anne-Marie|title=Multicultural Horizons: Diversity and the Limits of the Civil Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ReWEWKXwrsC&pg=PP1|date=2 April 2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-39608-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Goldber, David Theo|title=Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader|year=1994|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|isbn=978-0-631-18912-1}}
* {{cite book|author1=Gordon, Avery|author2=Newfield, Christopher|name-list-style=amp|title=Mapping Multiculturalism|year=1996|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-2547-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Gottfried, Paul|title=Multiculturalism and the Politics of Guilt: Toward a Secular Theocracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkDOtBZHm5UC&pg=PP1|date=January 2004|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-1520-8|author-link=Paul Gottfried}}
* Icart, Jean-Claude (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090319070206/http://www3.nfb.ca/duneculturealautre/theme_article.php?id=2006&pubid=18197 "Racism in Canada"] in ''Across Cultures'' Montreal: National Film Board of Canada.
* {{cite book|author1=International Progress Organization|author2-link=UNESCO|author2=UNESCO|name-list-style=amp|title=Cultural self-comprehension of nations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YI_nZjqwPIYC&pg=PP1|year=1978|publisher=International Progress Organization|isbn=978-3-7711-0311-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Hesse, Barnor|title=Un/settled Multiculturalisms: Diasporas, Entanglements, "transruptions"|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KiWYDGkcipQC&pg=PP1|year=2000|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-560-8}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Will Kymlicka|author=Kymlicka, Will|title=Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5Kaqqy-W78C&pg=PP1|date=1 June 1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-152097-6}})
* Kymlicka, Will (8 December 2005). ''Multiculturalism in Asia''. Oxford University Press. ({{ISBN|019927763X}})
* Ley, David "multiculturalism" in Gregory, Derek (ed.) (2009) ''The Dictionary of Human Geography'' (5th ed.) Blackwell Publishers.
* {{cite book|author1=Mendola, Louis |author2=Alio, Jacqueline |title=The Peoples of Sicily: A Multicultural Legacy|year=2013|publisher=Trinacria|isbn=978-0-615-79694-9}}
* {{cite book|author-link1=Tariq Modood|author1=Modood, Tariq|author2=Werbner, Phina|name-list-style=amp|title=The Politics of Multiculturalism in the New Europe: Racism, Identity, and Community|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqRPR6RA-x0C&pg=PP1|date=15 October 1997|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-85649-422-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Okin, Susan Moller|title=Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOCjHMn_SbUC&pg=PP1|date=9 August 1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4099-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Parekh, Bhikhu C.|title=Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ajx-AoUIW6wC&pg=PP1|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00995-0}}
* {{Cite journal | last= Putnam | first = Robert D. | author-link = Robert D. Putnam | title = ''E Pluribus Unum'': Diversity and community in the twenty-first century | id = [[Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science|The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture]] | journal = [[Scandinavian Political Studies]] | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–174 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x | date = June 2007 }}
* {{cite book | last = Russon | first = John | author-link = John Russon | title = Human experience philosophy, neurosis, and the elements of everyday life | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780791486757 }}
* {{cite news | last = Sailer | first = Steve | author-link = Steve Sailer | title = Fragmented future | url = http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ | work = [[The American Conservative]] | publisher = Jon Basil Utley | date = 15 January 2007 | access-date = 19 November 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174328/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ | archive-date = 4 June 2011 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book|author=Taylor, Charles|title=Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnebqvkFiCwC&pg=PP1|date=20 December 2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-2140-2|author-link=Charles Taylor (philosopher)|edition=Expanded Paperback}}.
* {{cite book|author=Tremblay, Arjun|title=Diversity in Decline: The rise of the political right and the Fate of Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoV-uwEACAAJ|year=2019|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn= 978-3-030-02299-0}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Žižek | first = Slavoj | author-link = Slavoj Žižek | title = Multiculturalism, or, the cultural logic of multinational capitalism | journal = [[New Left Review]] | volume = I | issue = 225 | pages = 28–51 | date = September–October 1997 | url = http://newleftreview.org/I/225/slavoj-zizek-multiculturalism-or-the-cultural-logic-of-multinational-capitalism }}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://theriskyshift.com/2012/09/multiculturalism-modern-discourse Multiculturalism In Modern Discourse]
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/multicul/ Multiculturalism] – ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/multiculturalism/ Multiculturalism] – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/politics/language-culture/language-culture-general/true-canadians.html Multiculturalism in Canada debated] – CBC video archives (14 September 2004 – 42:35 min)
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-18.7/FullText.html Canadian Multiculturalism Act]
{{-}}
{{Multiculturalism}}
{{Culture}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Multiculturalism| ]]
[[Category:Cultural politics]]
[[Category:Identity politics]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Social theories]]
[[Category:Sociology of culture]]
[[Category:Human resource management]]
[[Category:Pluralism (philosophy)]]
[[Category:Social movements]]' |
New page wikitext, after the edit (new_wikitext) | '{{short description|Existence of multiple cultural traditions within a single country}}
{{Distinguish|Polyculturalism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
[[File:Reach Toronto.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5| The ''Monument to Multiculturalism'' in Toronto, [[Canada]]. Four identical sculptures are located in [[Buffalo City Local Municipality|East London]], [[South Africa]]; in [[Changchun]], [[China]]; in [[Sarajevo]], [[Bosnia]] and in [[Sydney]], [[Australia]].|alt=]]
{{Discrimination sidebar|state=collapsed}}
The term '''multiculturalism''' has a range of meanings within the contexts of [[sociology]], [[political philosophy]], and colloquial use. In [[sociology]] and in everyday usage, it is a synonym for "[[Pluralism (political theory)|ethnic pluralism]]", with the two terms often used interchangeably, and for [[cultural pluralism]]<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1002/9780470373699.speced1627 |chapter=Pluralism, Cultural |title=Encyclopedia of Special Education |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-37369-9 |editor1-last=Reynolds |editor1-first=Cecil R. |editor2-last=Fletcher-Janzen |editor2-first=Elaine }}</ref> in which various ethnic groups collaborate and enter into a dialogue with one another without having to sacrifice their particular identities. It can describe a mixed ethnic community area where multiple cultural traditions exist (such as [[New York City]] or [[London]]) or a single country within which they do (such as Switzerland, Belgium or Russia). Groups associated with an [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]], aboriginal or [[wikt:autochthonous|autochthonous]] ethnic group and settler-descended ethnic groups are often the focus.
In reference to sociology, multiculturalism is the end-state of either a natural or artificial process (for example: legally-controlled [[immigration]]) and occurs on either a large national scale or on a smaller scale within a nation's communities. On a smaller scale this can occur artificially when a jurisdiction is established or expanded by amalgamating areas with two or more different cultures (e.g. [[French Canadians|French Canada]] and [[English Canadians|English Canada]]). On a large scale, it can occur as a result of either legal or illegal [[Human migration|migration]] to and from different jurisdictions around the world.
In reference to political science, multiculturalism can be defined as a state's capacity to effectively and efficiently deal with cultural plurality within its sovereign borders. Multiculturalism as a political philosophy involves [[Diversity ideologies|ideologies]] and policies which vary widely.<ref name="Harper2011">{{cite book|author= Thomas L. Harper|title= Dialogues in urban and regional planning|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7mZOF_gFhfYC&pg=PA50|date= 13 January 2011|publisher= Taylor & Francis|isbn= 978-0-415-59334-2|page= 50}}</ref> It has been described as a "[[Salad bowl (cultural idea)|salad bowl]]" and as a "[[cultural mosaic]]",<ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=cAg_jwEACAAJ |page= 31|title= Guide to Western Canada|edition= 7th|first1= Ann Carroll|last1= Burgess|first2= Tom |last2= Burgess|publisher= Globe Pequot Press|year= 2005|isbn= 978-0-7627-2987-6|access-date = 2011-01-16}}</ref> in contrast to a "[[melting pot]]".<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lazWAQAAQBAJ&q=melting+pot+around+the+world&pg=PA111|title=Encyclopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing around the World [2 volumes]|first=Jill|last=Condra|date=9 April 2013|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=111|isbn=9780313376375}}</ref>
==Prevalence==
===History===
States that embody multicultural ideals have arguably existed since ancient times. The [[Achaemenid Empire]] founded by [[Cyrus the Great]] followed a policy of incorporating and tolerating various cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Menek |first1=İbrahim Halil |title=A HISTORICAL EXAMPLE OF MULTICULTURALISM: ACHAEMENID EMPIRE MULTICULTURALISM |journal=Gaziantep Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi |date=26 May 2020 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=118–138 |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/gauniibf/issue/54503/626711 |language=en |issn=2651-267X}}</ref>
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|Ethnographic map of Austria-Hungary]]
A historical example of multiculturalism was the [[Habsburg monarchy]], which had broken up in 1918 and under whose roof many different ethnic, linguistic and religious groups lived together. One of the foundations of this centuries-old state structure was the Habsburg principle of "live and let live". The effects of this multicultural political system can still be statistically measured today, since a particularly positive relationship of trust between citizens and authorities (the so-called Habsburg effect) can still be seen in the former dominion.<ref>Sascha O. Becker, Katrin Boeckh, Christa Hainz, Ludger Woessmann: The Empire Is Dead, Long Live the Empire! Long-Run Persistence of Trust and Corruption in the Bureaucracy. In: The Economic Journal. Volume 126, Nr. 590, Februar 2016, p 40–74.</ref> Today's topical issues such as social and cultural differentiation, multilingualism, competing identity offers or multiple cultural identities have already shaped the scientific theories of many thinkers of this multi-ethnic empire.<ref>Doris Griesser "Denkanstöße aus der Multikulti-Monarchie" in: Standard, 3 July 2012; Pieter M. Judson "The Habsburg Empire. A New History" (Harvard 2016); Christopher Clark "The Sleepwalkers" (New York 2012).</ref> After the First World War, ethnic minorities were disadvantaged, forced to emigrate or even murdered in most regions in the area of the former Habsburg monarchy due to the prevailing nationalism at the time. In many areas, these ethnic mosaics no longer exist today. The ethnic mix of that time can only be experienced in a few areas, such as in the former Habsburg port city of [[Trieste]].<ref>Patricia Engelhorn "Wie Wien mit Meersicht: Ein Tag in der Hafenstadt Triest" In: NZZ 15.2.2020.</ref>
In the [[political philosophy]] of multiculturalism, ideas are focused on the ways in which societies are either believed to or should, respond to cultural and Christian differences. It is often associated with "identity politics", "the politics of difference", and "the politics of recognition". It is also a matter of economic interests and [[Power (social and political)|political power]].<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/multiculturalism/ Multiculturalism] – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</ref> In more recent times political multiculturalist ideologies have been expanding in their use to include and define disadvantaged groups such as [[African American]]s, [[LGBT]], with arguments often focusing on ethnic and religious minorities, minority nations, [[indigenous peoples]] and even people with disabilities. It is within this context in which the term is most commonly understood and the broadness and scope of the definition, as well as its practical use, has been the subject of serious debate.
Most debates over multiculturalism center around whether or not multiculturalism is the appropriate way to deal with diversity and immigrant integration. The arguments regarding the perceived rights to a multicultural education include the proposition that it acts as a way to demand recognition of aspects of a group's culture subordination and its entire experience in contrast to a [[melting pot]] or non-multicultural societies.
The term multiculturalism is most often used in reference to Western [[nation-state]]s, which had seemingly achieved a de facto single national identity during the 18th and/or 19th centuries.<ref name="ZarateLevy2011">{{cite book|author1=Geneviève Zarate|author2=Danielle Levy|author3=Claire Kramsch|title=Handbook of Multilingualism and Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYL4_6SvxewC&pg=PA377|date=19 April 2011|publisher=Archives contemporaines|isbn=978-2-8130-0039-2|page=377}}</ref>
Multiculturalism has been official policy in several [[Western world|Western nations]] since the 1970s, for reasons that varied from country to country,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/most/pp4.htm |title=Policy Paper no. 4 – Multiculturalism: New Policy Responses to Diversity |publisher=Unesco.org |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ai-ia/rir-iro/gbll/divers/index-eng.cfm |title=Multiculturalism in Canada |publisher=Pch.gc.ca |date=9 April 2009 |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www4.gu.edu.au/ext/civics/cv02/mod03/cv02m03t02.htm |title=Immigration and Multiculturalism |publisher=.gu.edu.au |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219034150/http://www4.gu.edu.au/ext/civics/cv02/mod03/cv02m03t02.htm |archive-date=19 February 2011 }}</ref> including the fact that many of the great cities of the Western world are increasingly made of a mosaic of cultures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unu.edu/dialogue/papers/claval-s2.pdf |title=Multiculturalism and the Dynamics of Modern Civilizations |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref>
The [[Canadian government]] has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the [[Economic impact of immigration to Canada|social importance of immigration]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1163/15718119720907408|title=Immigration, Multiculturalism and National Identity in Canada|journal= International Journal of Group Rights|first=Shara|last=Wayland|year=1997|volume=5|issue=1|pages= 33–58}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.nationalpost.com/full-comment/ujjal-dosanjh-by-silencing-white-men-canada-cant-have-an-honest-debate-about-equality-race-and-culture|title=Ujjal Dosanjh: By silencing white men, Canada can't have an honest debate about equality, race and culture|date=4 January 2016|newspaper=National Post|access-date=2017-01-16}}</ref> The Canadian [[Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism]] is often referred to as the origins of modern political awareness of multiculturalism.<ref name="II2010.">{{cite book|author=Ronald L. Jackson, II|title=Encyclopedia of Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2WmSCOBR2IC&pg=PA480|date=29 June 2010|publisher=SAGE|isbn=978-1-4129-5153-1|page=480}}</ref> Canada has provided provisions to the French speaking majority of Quebec, whereby they function as an autonomous community with special rights to govern the members of their community, as well as establish French as one of the official languages. In the Western English-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an official national policy started in Canada in 1971, followed by Australia in 1973 where it is maintained today.<ref name="Reference">{{cite web|url=http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country |title=About Australia: Our Country |publisher= australia.gov.au |access-date=2013-10-25}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.html |title=About Australia: People, culture and lifestyle |publisher=Dfat.gov.au |access-date=2013-10-25 |archive-date=12 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512195954/http://dfat.gov.au/facts/people_culture.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Team to Build a Stronger Australia|url=http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|publisher=liberal.org.au|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106010039/http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|archive-date=6 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="policy">{{cite web|title=The People of Australia – Australia's Multicultural Policy|url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/pdf_doc/people-of-australia-multicultural-policy-booklet.pdf|publisher=Department of Immigration and Citizenship|access-date=14 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140212145223/https://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/multicultural/pdf_doc/people-of-australia-multicultural-policy-booklet.pdf|archive-date=12 February 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> It was quickly adopted as official policy by most member-states of the [[European Union]]. Recently, right-of-center governments in several European states – notably the [[Netherlands]] and [[Denmark]] – have reversed the national policy and returned to an official monoculturalism.<ref name = Bissoondath>Bissoondath, Neil. 2002. ''Selling Illusions: The Myth of Multiculturalism''. Toronto: Penguin. {{ISBN|978-0-14-100676-5}}.</ref>{{Unreliable source?|reason=Opinionated source|date=September 2016}} A similar reversal is the subject of debate in the United Kingdom, among others, due to evidence of incipient segregation and anxieties over "home-grown" [[terrorism]].<ref>[http://www.workpermit.com/news/2005_04_26/uk/uk_immigration_debate.htm Fact or fiction in the great UK immigration debate]. workpermit.com. News. 26 April 2005. Retrieved: 21 October 2007.</ref> Several heads-of-state or heads-of-government have expressed doubts about the success of multicultural policies: The United Kingdom's ex-[[Prime Minister]] [[David Cameron]], [[Germany|German]] [[Chancellor]] [[Angela Merkel]], [[Australia]]'s ex-prime minister [[John Howard]], [[Spain|Spanish]] ex-prime minister [[José María Aznar]] and [[France|French]] ex-president [[Nicolas Sarkozy]] have voiced concerns about the effectiveness of their multicultural policies for integrating immigrants.<ref name="PeskinWehrle2011">{{cite book|author1=Lawrence A. Peskin|author2=Edmund F. Wehrle|title=America and the World: Culture, Commerce, Conflict|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KTezRgjW5osC&pg=PA262|access-date=31 January 2012|date=17 November 2011|publisher=JHU Press|isbn=978-1-4214-0296-3|pages=262–}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Heneghan |first=Tom |date=11 February 2011 |title=Sarkozy joins allies burying multiculturalism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-sarkozy-multiculturalism-idUSTRE71A4UP20110211 |work=Reuters|access-date=2 November 2019}}</ref>
Many nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are culturally diverse and are 'multicultural' in a [[descriptive]] sense. In some, [[Communalism (South Asia)|ethnic communalism]] is a major political issue. The policies adopted by these states often have parallels with multiculturalist policies in the Western world, but the historical background is different, and the goal may be a mono-cultural or [[Monoethnicity|mono-ethnic]] [[nation-building]] – for instance in the Malaysian government's attempt to create a 'Malaysian race' by 2020.<ref>[[The Economist]]: ''[http://www.economist.com/surveys/displayStory.cfm?story_id=1677228 The changing of the guard]'', 3 April 2003.</ref>
===Support===
[[File:India Square JC jeh.JPG|thumb|[[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|People of Indian origin]] have been able to achieve a high [[demographic profile]] in [[India Square]], [[Jersey City, New Jersey#Demographics|Jersey City]], [[New Jersey]], US, known as ''Little [[Bombay]]'',<ref>Kiniry, Laura. "Moon Handbooks New Jersey", Avalon Travel Publishing, 2006. pg. 34 {{ISBN|1-56691-949-5}}</ref> home to the highest concentration of [[Indian people|Asian Indians]] in the [[Western Hemisphere]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jerseycityindependent.com/2014/04/neighborhood-spotlight-journal-square/|title=Neighborhood Spotlight: Journal Square|author=Laryssa Wirstiuk|newspaper=Jersey City Independent|date=21 April 2014|access-date=26 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180630085618/http://www.jerseycityindependent.com/2014/04/neighborhood-spotlight-journal-square/|archive-date=30 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and one of at least 24 [[ethnic enclave|enclaves]] characterized as a ''Little India'' which have emerged within the [[Indians in the New York City metropolitan region|New York City Metropolitan Area]], with the largest metropolitan Indian population outside [[Asia]], as large-scale immigration from [[India]] continues into [[New York City|New York]],<ref name=Immigrants2014est>{{cite web|url=https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immsuptable2d_5.xls|title=Supplemental Table 2. Persons Obtaining Lawful Permanent Resident Status by Leading Core Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs) of Residence and Region and Country of Birth: Fiscal Year 2014|publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref><ref name=Immigrants2013est>{{cite web |url=https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2013/LPR/immsuptable2d.xls |title=Yearbook of Immigration Statistics: 2013 Supplemental Table 2 |publisher=U.S. Department of Homeland Security |access-date=2 July 2017}}</ref> through the support of the surrounding community.]]
Multiculturalism is seen by its supporters as a fairer system that allows people to truly express who they are within a society, that is more tolerant and that adapts better to social issues.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/22/multiculturalism-blame-culture-segregation |title=Guardian.co.uk |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 March 2010 |access-date=2010-12-10 |location=London |first=Antony |last=Lerman}}</ref> They argue that culture is not one definable thing based on one race or religion, but rather the result of multiple factors that change as the world changes.
Historically, support for modern multiculturalism stems from the changes in Western societies after World War II, in what Susanne Wessendorf calls the "human rights revolution", in which the horrors of institutionalized racism and [[ethnic cleansing]] became almost impossible to ignore in the wake of the [[Holocaust]]; with the collapse of the [[Colonial empire|European colonial system]], as colonized nations in Africa and [[Western imperialism in Asia|Asia]] successfully [[African independence movements|fought for their independence]] and pointed out the discriminatory underpinnings of the colonial system; and, in the United States in particular, with the rise of the [[Civil Rights Movement]], which criticized ideals of [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] that often led to prejudices against those who did not act according to Anglo-American standards and which led to the development of academic [[ethnic studies]] programs as a way to counteract the neglect of contributions by racial minorities in classrooms.<ref>Susanne Wessendorf, ''The multiculturalism backlash: European discourses, policies and practices'', p. 35; accessed through Google Books, 12 February 2011.</ref><ref>Paul C. Gorski, [http://www.edchange.org/multicultural/papers/edchange_history.html "A Brief History of Multicultural Education"], EdChange.org, November 1999; accessed 12 February 2011.</ref> As this history shows, multiculturalism in Western countries was seen to combat racism, to protect minority communities of all types, and to undo policies that had prevented minorities from having full access to the opportunities for freedom and equality promised by the [[liberalism]] that has been the hallmark of Western societies since the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. The [[contact hypothesis]] in sociology is a well-documented phenomenon in which cooperative interactions with those from a different group than one's own reduce prejudice and inter-group hostility.
Will Kymlicka argues for "group differentiated rights", that help both religious and cultural minorities operate within the larger state as a whole, without impinging on the rights of the larger society. He bases this on his opinion that human rights fall short in protecting the rights of minorities, as the state has no stake in protecting the minorities.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1093/0198290918.003.0006 |chapter=Justice and Minority Rights |title=Multicultural Citizenship |year=1996 |last1=Kymlicka |first1=Will |pages=107–130 |isbn=9780198290919 }}</ref>
C. James Trotman argues that multiculturalism is valuable because it "uses several disciplines to highlight neglected aspects of our social history, particularly the histories of women and minorities [...and] promotes respect for the dignity of the lives and voices of the forgotten.<ref name="Trotman2002">{{cite book|author=C. James Trotman|title=Multiculturalism: roots and realities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ht8UKlutUaMC&pg=PR9|access-date=29 January 2012|year=2002|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34002-3|pages=9–10}}</ref> By closing gaps, by raising consciousness about the past, multiculturalism tries to restore a sense of wholeness in a [[postmodern]] era that fragments human life and thought."<ref name="Trotman2002"/>
[[Tariq Modood]] argues that in the early years of the 21st century, multiculturalism "is most timely and necessary, and [...] we need more not less", since it is "the form of integration" that (1) best fits the ideal of [[egalitarianism]], (2) has "the best chance of succeeding" in the "post-[[9/11]], post [[7/7]]" world, and (3) has remained "moderate [and] pragmatic".<ref name="Modood2007">{{cite book|author=Tariq Modood|title=Multiculturalism: a civic idea|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlEMZuPhpWQC&pg=PA14|year=2007|publisher=Polity|isbn=978-0-7456-3288-9|page=14}}</ref>
[[Bhikhu Parekh]] counters what he sees as the tendencies to equate multiculturalism with racial minorities "demanding special rights" and to see these as promoting a "thinly veiled racis[m]". Instead, he argues that multiculturalism is in fact "not about minorities" but "is about the proper terms of the relationship between different cultural communities", which means that the standards by which the communities resolve their differences, e.g., "the principles of justice" must not come from only one of the cultures but must come "through an open and equal dialogue between them."<ref>{{cite book|last=Parekh|first=Bhikhu C.|title=Rethinking multiculturalism: cultural diversity and political theory|year=2002|publisher=Harvard UP|isbn=978-0-674-00995-0|page=13}}</ref>
Balibar characterizes criticisms of multiculturalism as "differentialist racism", which he describes as a covert form of racism that does not purport ethnic superiority as much as it asserts stereotypes of perceived "incompatibility of life-styles and traditions".<ref name="Gunew 2004 80">{{cite book|last=Gunew|first=Sneja|title=Haunted Nations: The colonial dimensions of multiculturalisms|date=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE|isbn=978-0-415-28483-7|page=80}}</ref>
While there is research that suggests that ethnic diversity increases chances of war, lower public goods provision and decreases democratization, there is also research that shows that ethnic diversity in itself is not detrimental to peace,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fearon |first1=James D. |last2=Laitin |first2=David D. |title=Ethnicity, Insurgency, and Civil War |journal=American Political Science Review |date=February 2003 |volume=97 |issue=1 |pages=75–90 |doi=10.1017/S0003055403000534 |citeseerx=10.1.1.453.3913 |s2cid=8303905 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wimmer |first1=Andreas |last2=Cederman |first2=Lars-Erik |last3=Min |first3=Brian |title=Ethnic Politics and Armed Conflict: A Configurational Analysis of a New Global Data Set |journal=American Sociological Review |date=April 2009 |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=316–337 |doi=10.1177/000312240907400208 |citeseerx=10.1.1.518.4825 |s2cid=9751858 }}</ref> public goods provision<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baldwin |first1=Kate |last2=Huber |first2=John D. |title=Economic versus Cultural Differences: Forms of Ethnic Diversity and Public Goods Provision |journal=American Political Science Review |date=November 2010 |volume=104 |issue=4 |pages=644–662 |doi=10.1017/S0003055410000419 |s2cid=6811597 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wimmer |first1=Andreas |title=Is Diversity Detrimental? Ethnic Fractionalization, Public Goods Provision, and the Historical Legacies of Stateness |journal=Comparative Political Studies |date=September 2016 |volume=49 |issue=11 |pages=1407–1445 |doi=10.1177/0010414015592645 |s2cid=7998506 }}</ref> or democracy.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gerring |first1=John |last2=Hoffman |first2=Michael |last3=Zarecki |first3=Dominic |title=The Diverse Effects of Diversity on Democracy |journal=British Journal of Political Science |date=April 2018 |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=283–314 |doi=10.1017/S000712341600003X |s2cid=18860350 }}</ref> Rather, it was found that promoting diversity actually helps in advancing disadvantaged students.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kislev |first1=Elyakim |title=The effect of education policies on higher-education attainment of immigrants in Western Europe: A cross-classified multilevel analysis |journal=Journal of European Social Policy |date=May 2016 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=183–199 |doi=10.1177/0958928716637142 |s2cid=156140332 }}</ref> A 2018 study in the ''[[American Political Science Review]]'' cast doubts on findings that ethnoracial homogeneity led to greater public goods provision.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kustov |first1=Alexander |last2=Pardelli |first2=Giuliana |title=Ethnoracial Homogeneity and Public Outcomes: The (Non)effects of Diversity |journal=American Political Science Review |date=November 2018 |volume=112 |issue=4 |pages=1096–1103 |doi=10.1017/S0003055418000308 |s2cid=149495272 }}</ref> A 2015 study in the ''American Journal of Sociology'' challenged past research showing that racial diversity adversely affected trust.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Abascal |first1=Maria |last2=Baldassarri |first2=Delia |title=Love Thy Neighbor? Ethnoracial Diversity and Trust Reexamined |journal=American Journal of Sociology |date=November 2015 |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=722–782 |doi=10.1086/683144 |pmid=26900618 |s2cid=20479598 }}</ref>
===Criticism{{anchor|Opposition}}===
{{Main|Criticism of multiculturalism}}
Critics of multiculturalism often debate whether the multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical, or even desirable.<ref name="Nagle2009">{{cite book|last = Nagle|first = John|title=Multiculturalism's double bind: creating inclusivity, cosmopolitanism and difference|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqMCc37dW1kC&pg=PA129|date=23 September 2009|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-0-7546-7607-2|page=129}}</ref><ref name="Rajaee2000">{{cite book|last = Rajaee |first = Farhang |title=Globalization on trial: the human condition and the information civilization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZyAt3T1V4EcC&pg=PT97|date=May 2000|publisher=IDRC |isbn= 9780889369092 |page=97}}</ref><ref name="SandercockAttili2009">{{cite book|last1 = Sandercock |first1 =Leonie |last2 = Attili |first2 = Giovanni |last3 = Cavers |first3 = Val |last4 = Carr |first4 = Paula |title=Where strangers become neighbours: integrating immigrants in Vancouver, Canada|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TmlGzr4s0uMC&pg=PA16|date=1 May 2009|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-9034-9|page=16}}</ref> It is argued that [[nation states]], who would previously have been synonymous with a distinctive cultural identity of their own, lose out to enforced multiculturalism and that this ultimately erodes the host nations' distinct culture.<ref name="Report attacks multiculturalism">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/4295318.stm |title=Report attacks multiculturalism |work = [[BBC news]] |date=30 September 2005 |access-date=10 December 2010 }}</ref>
Sarah Song views cultures as historically shaped entities by its members, and that they lack boundaries due to globalization, thereby making them stronger than what others may assume.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Justice, Gender, and the Politics of Multiculturalism|last=Song|first=Sarah|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-511-49035-4}}</ref> She goes on to argue against the notion of special rights as she feels cultures are mutually constructive, and are shaped by the dominant culture. Brian Barry advocates a difference-blind approach to culture in the political realm and he rejects group-based rights as antithetical to the universalist liberal project, which he views as based on the individual.<ref>[[Brian Barry]], Culture and Equality ([[Polity Press]], 2001), p. 148.</ref>
[[Susan Moller Okin]], a feminist professor of political philosophy, argued in 1999, in "Is multiculturalism bad for women?", that the principle that all cultures are equal means that the equal rights of women in particular are sometimes severely violated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bostonreview.net/forum/susan-moller-okin-multiculturalism-bad-women|title=Is Multiculturalism Bad For Women?|date=1 October 1997|website=Boston Review}}</ref>
Harvard professor of political science [[Robert D. Putnam]] conducted a nearly decade-long study on how multiculturalism affects social trust.<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007">{{Cite journal |last= Putnam |first = Robert D. |author-link = Robert D. Putnam |title = ''E Pluribus Unum'': Diversity and community in the twenty-first century |journal = [[Scandinavian Political Studies]] |volume = 30 |issue = 2 |pages = 137–74 |doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x |date = June 2007 }}</ref> He surveyed 26,200 people in 40 American communities, finding that when the data were adjusted for class, income and other factors, the more racially diverse a community is, the greater the loss of trust. People in diverse communities "don’t trust the local mayor, they don’t trust the local paper, they don’t trust other people and they don’t trust institutions," writes Putnam.<ref>{{cite news |last = Sailer |first = Steve |author-link = Steve Sailer |title = Fragmented future |url = http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ |work = [[The American Conservative]] |publisher = Jon Basil Utley |date = 15 January 2007 |access-date = 19 November 2009 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174328/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ |archive-date = 4 June 2011 |url-status = dead }}</ref> In the presence of such ethnic diversity, Putnam maintains that, "[W]e hunker down. We act like turtles. The effect of diversity is worse than had been imagined. And it’s not just that we don’t trust people who are not like us. In diverse communities, we don’t trust people who do not look like us".<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007" /> Putnam has also stated, however, that "this allergy to diversity tends to diminish and to go away... I think in the long run we'll all be better."<ref>Martin, Michel, "[https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12802663 Political Scientist: Does Diversity Really Work?]" Tell Me More, NPR. Written 15 August 2007, accessed 15 September 2017.</ref> Putnam denied allegations he was arguing against diversity in society and contended that his paper had been "twisted" to make a case against race-conscious admissions to universities. He asserted that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|title=Harvard Sociologist Says His Research Was 'Twisted'|last=Berlett|first=Tom|date=15 August 2012|work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]|access-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101091923/https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|archive-date=1 January 2020|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[Ethnologist]] Frank Salter writes:
<blockquote>
Relatively homogeneous societies invest more in public goods, indicating a higher level of public altruism. For example, the degree of ethnic homogeneity correlates with the government's share of gross domestic product as well as the average wealth of citizens. Case studies of the United States, Africa and South-East Asia find that multi-ethnic societies are less charitable and less able to cooperate to develop public infrastructure. Moscow beggars receive more gifts from fellow ethnics than from other ethnies {{sic}}. A recent multi-city study of municipal spending on public goods in the United States found that ethnically or racially diverse cities spend a smaller portion of their budgets and less per capita on public services than do the more homogeneous cities.<ref>Salter, Frank, ''On Genetic Interests'', p. 146.</ref>
</blockquote>
[[Dick Lamm]], former three-term Democratic governor of the US state of [[Colorado]], argued that "diverse peoples worldwide are mostly engaged in hating each other—that is, when they are not killing each other. A diverse, peaceful, or stable society is against most historical precedent."<ref>{{cite web |last = Lamm |first = Richard D. |title = I have a plan to destroy America |url = http://www.snopes.com/politics/soapbox/lamm.asp |website = Snopes.com |date = 2005 |access-date = 12 January 2011 }}</ref>
The American classicist [[Victor Davis Hanson]] used the perceived differences in "rationality" between Moctezuma and Cortés to argue that Western culture was superior to every culture in the entire world, which thus led him to reject multiculturalism as a false doctrine that placed all cultures on an equal footing.<ref name="Hanson, Victor Davis 2001. p. 205">Hanson, Victor Davis ''Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise to Western Power'', New York: Random House, 2001. p. 205</ref>
In [[New Zealand]] ([[Aotearoa]]), which is officially bi-cultural, multiculturalism has been seen as a threat to the [[Māori people|Māori]] as an attempt by the New Zealand Government to undermine Māori demands for [[self-determination]] and encourage assimilation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Johnson |first1=Jay T. |title=Indigeneity's Challenges to the White Settler-State: Creating a Thirdspace for Dynamic Citizenship |journal=Alternatives: Global, Local, Political |date=January 2008 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=29–52 |doi=10.1177/030437540803300103 |s2cid=145192448 }}</ref>
Far-right sympathisers have been shown to increasingly take part in a multitude of online discursive efforts directed against global brands' multicultural advertisements.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ulver |first1=Sofia |last2=Laurell |first2=Christofer |title=Political Ideology in Consumer Resistance: Analyzing Far-Right Opposition to Multicultural Marketing |journal=Journal of Public Policy & Marketing |date=October 2020 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=477–493 |doi=10.1177/0743915620947083 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== The Americas ==
===Argentina===
{{Main|Demographics of Argentina|Immigration to Argentina}}
[[File:Buenos Aires - San Telmo - Iglesia Ortodoxa Rusa - 20071215a.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity, Buenos Aires|Russian Orthodox Cathedral of the Most Holy Trinity]] in [[Buenos Aires]].]]
Though not called ''Multiculturalism'' as such, the [[Constitution of Argentina#Preamble|preamble]] of Argentina's constitution explicitly promotes [[Immigration to Argentina|immigration]], and recognizes the individual's [[multiple citizenship]] from other countries. Though 97% of Argentina's population self-identify as of [[Argentines of European descent|European descent]] and mestizo<ref name="CIA">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/argentina/ |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Argentina |publisher=Cia.gov |access-date=2011-01-16}}</ref> to this day a high level of multiculturalism remains a feature of [[Argentine Culture|Argentina's culture]],<ref name="Faulk2012">{{cite book|author=Karen Faulk|title=In the Wake of Neoliberalism: Citizenship and Human Rights in Argentina|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XOGrGui0j0sC&pg=PA99|year=2012|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-8391-0|page=99}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.argentina.ar/_en/culture/ |title=Argentine Culture Rich and Diverse |publisher=Argentina.ar |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531161309/http://www.argentina.ar/_en/culture/ |archive-date=31 May 2011 }}</ref> allowing foreign festivals and holidays (e.g. [[Saint Patrick's Day]]), supporting all kinds of art or cultural expression from [[ethnic groups]], as well as their diffusion through an important multicultural presence in the media.
In Argentina the are recognized regional languages [[Guarani language|Guaraní]] in [[Corrientes Province|Corrientes]],<ref name="Corrientes-5598">{{Cite Argentine law|jur=CN|l=5598|dl=2326/2004|date=22 October 2004 |url=http://www.senadoctes.gov.ar/leyes-texto/Ley5598.doc }}</ref> [[Southern Quechua|Quechua]] in [[Santiago del Estero Province|Santiago del Estero]],<ref>{{cite book |title=La educación intercultural bilingüe en Santiago del Estero, ¿mito o realidad?|publisher=Cámara de Diputados de la Nación |page=1 |url=http://usuarios.arnet.com.ar/yanasu/Ley5409.html |trans-title=La cámara de diputados de la provincia sanciona con fuerza de ley.|quote=Declárase de interés oficial la preservación, difusión, estímulo, estudio y práctica de la lengua Quíchua en todo el territorio de la provincia [..] |language=es-AR}}</ref> [[Toba Qom language|Qom]], [[Mocoví language|Mocoví]], and [[Wichí languages|Wichí]] in [[Chaco Province|Chaco]].<ref name=kom>{{cite Argentine law|jur=CC|l=6604|bo=9092|date=28 July 2010}}</ref>
According to the National Institute of Indigenous Affairs published on its website, there are 1,779 registered indigenous communities in Argentina, belonging to 39 indigenous peoples.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.argentina.gob.ar/derechoshumanos/inai/mapa | title=Mapa de pueblos originarios | date=10 November 2020 }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cultura.gob.ar/dia-internacional-de-los-pueblos-indigenas_6292/#:~:text=Ellos%20son%3A%20Atacama%2C%20Chan%C3%A9%2C,Tehuelche%2C%20Tili%C3%A1n%2C%20Toba%20(Qom | title=Los Pueblos Originarios en Argentina, hoy }}</ref>
=== Bolivia ===
[[Bolivia]] is a diverse country made up of 36 different types of indigenous groups.<ref name="auto3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iwgia.org/en/bolivia|title=Bolivia|website=iwgia.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-07-14}}</ref> Over 62% of Bolivia's population falls into these different indigenous groups, making it the most indigenous country in [[Latin America]].<ref name="auto4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-07-14}}</ref> Out of the indigenous groups the [[Aymara people|Aymara]] and the [[Quechua people|Quechua]] are the largest.<ref name="auto3"/> The latter 30% of the population is a part of the [[mestizo]], which are a people mixed with European and indigenous ancestry.<ref name="auto4"/> Bolivia's political administrations have endorsed multicultural politics and in 2009 Bolivia's Constitution was inscribed with multicultural principles.<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-50958-1_3 |chapter=Paradoxes of Multiculturalism in Bolivia |title=The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Latin America |year=2016 |last1=Canessa |first1=Andrew |pages=75–100 |isbn=978-1-137-50957-4 }}</ref> The [[Constitution of Bolivia]] recognizes 36 official languages besides [[Spanish language|Spanish]], each language has its own culture and indigenous group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bolivia.justia.com/nacionales/nueva-constitucion-politica-del-estado/primera-parte/titulo-i/capitulo-primero/|title=Justia Bolivia :: Nueva Constitución Política Del Estado > PRIMERA PARTE > TÍTULO I > CAPÍTULO PRIMERO :: Ley de Bolivia|website=bolivia.justia.com|language=es-BO|access-date=2018-07-14}}</ref> Bolivian culture is celebrated across the country and has heavy influences from the Aymara, the Quechua, the Spanish, and other popular cultures from around Latin America.
=== Brazil ===
[[File:Multiculturalismo.jpg|thumb|House with elements of people from different countries, including [[Russians]] and [[Germans]], in [[Carambeí]], [[South Region, Brazil|south of the country]], a city of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] majority]]
The Americas have been known to be some of the most multicultural geographical locations, with a diversity of language, religion, and ethnicity. The South American country [[Brazil]] can also acclaim multiculturalism, and has undergone many changes in the past few decades. Brazil is a controversial country when it comes to defining a multicultural country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=A revealing map of the world's most and least ethnically diverse countries|newspaper=The Washington Post|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref> There are two views: the Harvard Institute of Economic Research states that Brazil has an intersection of many cultures because of recent migration, while the [[Pew Research Center]] state that Brazil is culturally diverse but the majority of the country speaks [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2013/07/18/the-most-and-least-culturally-diverse-countries-in-the-world/|title=The most (and least) culturally diverse countries in the world|date=18 July 2013|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=2018-07-27|language=en-US}}</ref>
Cities such as [[São Paulo]] are home to migrants from [[Japan]], [[Italy]], [[Lebanon]] and [[Portugal]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Neira |first1=Marcos GARCIA |title=Possíveis relações entre multiculturalismo e teorias curriculares da Educação Física |trans-title=Possible relations between multiculturalism and curricular theories of Physical Education |journal=Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana |year=2017 |volume=22 |issue=79 |pages=41–55 |url=https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/279/27956721004/html/index.html |language=pt }}</ref> There is a multicultural presence within in this city, and this is prevalent throughout Brazil. Furthermore, Brazil is a country that has made great strides to embrace migrant cultures. There has been increased awareness of [[anti-blackness]] and active efforts to combat racism.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wade |first1=Peter |title=Blackness, Indigeneity, Multiculturalism and Genomics in Brazil, Colombia and Mexico |journal=Journal of Latin American Studies |date=2013 |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=205–233 |doi=10.1017/S0022216X13000011 |url=https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/blackness-indigeneity-multiculturalism-and-genomics-in-brazil-colombia-and-mexico(e5608414-9f57-4047-b858-2b7131c3c424).html }}</ref>
===Canada===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in Canada}}
[[File:Sikhs on the move!.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Sikh]]s celebrating the Sikh new year in [[Toronto]], Canada]]
Canadian society is often depicted as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural".<ref name="Cotter2011rt">{{cite book|author=Anne-Marie Mooney Cotter|title=Culture clash: an international legal perspective on ethnic discrimination|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0AcvVUevrMYC&pg=PA176|date=28 February 2011|publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.|isbn=978-1-4094-1936-5|page=176}}</ref> Multiculturalism (a [[Just Society]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.edu.gov.mb.ca/k12/cur/socstud/foundation_gr6/blms/6-4-4a.pdf |title=The Just Society |publisher=Government of Manitoba |author=Pierre Elliott Trudeau, as cited in The Essential Trudeau, ed. Ron Graham. (pp. 16–20) |access-date= 6 December 2015}}</ref>) was adopted as the official policy of the [[Government of Canada|Canadian government]] during the premiership of [[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]] in the 1970s and 1980s.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XsINAAAAQAAJ&q=multiculturalism%20and%20Pierre%20Elliott%20Trudeau&pg=PA205|title=Place/culture/representation|first1=James S|last1=Duncan|first2=David |last2=Ley|publisher=Routledge|pages=205–06|year=1983|isbn=978-0-415-09451-1|access-date=2010-09-12}}</ref> Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the [[Canadian Multiculturalism Act]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/charter/charter.text.html|title=Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms (Being Part I of the Constitution Act, 1982)|publisher=Electronic Frontier Canada|year=2008|access-date=2010-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181212155200/http://www.efc.ca/pages/law/charter/charter.text.html|archive-date=12 December 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-18.7/FullText.html|title=Canadian Multiculturalism Act (1985, c. 24 (4th Supp.)|date=14 November 2010|publisher=Department of Justice Canada|access-date=2010-09-12|archive-date=18 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110218032814/http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/C-18.7/FullText.html?noCookie|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Broadcasting Act (1991)|Broadcasting Act of 1991]] asserts the Canadian broadcasting system should reflect the diversity of cultures in the country.<ref name="Raboy">{{cite book|last=Raboy|first=Marc|title=Media Divides: Communication Rights and the Right to Communicate in Canada|year=2010|publisher=University of British Columbia Press|location=Vancouver|isbn=978-0-7748-1775-2|page=104 |author2=Jeremy Shtern |author3=William J. McIveret}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Mahtani|first=Minelle|title=Representing Minorities: Canadian media and minority identities|journal=Canadian Ethnic Studies|year=2001|volume=33|issue=3}}</ref> Canadian multiculturalism is looked upon with admiration outside the country, resulting in the Canadian public dismissing most critics of the concept.<ref name="WhiteSimeon2009iu">{{cite book|author1=Linda A. White|author2=Richard Simeon|title=The Comparative Turn in Canadian Political Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ATny9O-I6bwC&pg=PA102|year= 2009|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-1428-7|page=102}}</ref><ref name="Tierney2011ytg">{{cite book|author=Stephen J Tierney|title=Multiculturalism and the Canadian Constitution|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY078NtGPkAC&pg=PA66|year=2011|publisher=UBC Press|isbn=978-0-7748-4007-1|page=66}}</ref> [[Multiculturalism in Canada]] is often looked at as one of Canada's significant accomplishments,<ref name="Sikka2014v">{{cite book|author=Sonia Sikka|title=Multiculturalism and Religious Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4NLBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|year=2014|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-9220-9|page=237}}</ref> and a key distinguishing element of [[Canadian identity]].<ref name="polls">{{cite web |url=http://www.cic.gc.ca/english/resources/research/por-multi-imm/sec02-1.asp |title=A literature review of Public Opinion Research on Canadian attitudes towards multiculturalism and immigration, 2006-2009 |publisher=Government of Canada |date=2011 |access-date= 18 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Caplow2001a">{{cite book|author=Theodore Caplow|title=Leviathan Transformed: Seven National States in the New Century|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRunB0w4G-EC&pg=PA146|year=2001|publisher=McGill-Queen's Press|isbn=978-0-7735-2304-3|page=146}}</ref>
In a 2002 interview with ''[[The Globe and Mail]]'', [[Aga Khan IV|Karīm al-Hussainī]], the 49th [[Aga Khan]] of the [[Ismaili|Ismaili Muslims]], described Canada as "the most successful [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist society]] on the face of our globe", citing it as "a model for the world".<ref name="GlobeMail20020202">{{cite news |author=Stackhouse, John |author2=Martin, Patrick |page=F3 |title=Canada: 'A model for the world'|url=http://ismaili.net/timeline/2002/20020202a.html |newspaper=The Globe and Mail |date=2 February 2002|access-date=2010-09-12}}</ref> He explained that the experience of Canadian governance—its commitment to pluralism and its support for the rich multicultural diversity of its people—is something that must be shared and would be of benefit to all societies in other parts of the world.<ref name="GlobeMail20020202"/> ''[[The Economist]]'' ran a cover story in 2016 praising Canada as the most successful multicultural society in the West.<ref name="The Economist">{{cite news |title = The last liberals Why Canada is still at ease with openness |newspaper = The Economist|date=29 October 2016|url = https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21709291-why-canada-still-ease-openness-last-liberals |access-date = 2016-11-10}}</ref> ''The Economist'' argued that Canada's multiculturalism was a source of strength that united the diverse population and by attracting immigrants from around the world was also an engine of economic growth as well.<ref name="The Economist"/> Many public and private groups in Canada work to support both multiculturalism and recent immigrants to Canada.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/reports-statistics/evaluations/multiculturalism-program/section-3.html|title=Evaluation of the Multiculturalism Program|last=Immigration|first=Refugees and Citizenship Canada|date=2012-06-10|website=aem|access-date=2019-03-19}}</ref> In an effort to support recent Filipino immigrants to Alberta, for example, one school board partnered with a local university and an immigration agency to support these new families in their school and community.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://bild-lida.ca/journal/volume_2_2_2018/supporting-reconnecting-immigrant-families-with-english-language-learners-in-rural-schools-an-exploratory-study-of-filipino-arrivals-to-alberta/|title=Supporting Reconnecting Immigrant Families with English Language Learners in Rural Schools: An Exploratory Study of Filipino Arrivals to Alberta |first1=Gregory|last1=Tweedie|first2=Anja|last2=Dressler|first3=Cora-Leah|last3=Schmidt| access-date=17 November 2018|date=2018-11-12 }}</ref>
===Mexico===
[[File:Mexico City 335.jpg|thumb|[[Teotihuacan]]]]
[[Mexico]] has historically always been a multicultural country. After the betrayal of [[Hernán Cortés]] to the Aztecs, the Spanish conquered the [[Aztec Empire]] and colonized indigenous people. They influenced the indigenous religion, politics, culture and ethnicity.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} The Spanish opened schools in which they taught [[Christianity]], and the [[Spanish language]] eventually surpassed indigenous languages, making it the most spoken language in Mexico. Mestizo was also born from the conquest, which meant being half-Indigenous and half-Spanish.<ref>{{cite web|last=Page |first=Index |url=http://www.mexconnect.com/articles/1932-ethnic-diversity-in-mexico |title=Ethnic diversity in Mexico : Mexico Travel |publisher=Mexconnect.com |date=20 May 2011 |access-date=2013-07-01}}</ref>
[[Mexico City]] has recently been integrating rapidly, doing much better than many cities in a sample conducted by the Intercultural Cities Index (being the only non-European city, alongside [[Montreal]], on the index).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/culture/cities/index/Mexico_en.pdf |title=Microsoft Word – Mexico City PR rev[1]-1.doc |access-date=2013-07-01}}</ref> Mexico is an ethnically diverse country with a population composed of approximately 123 million in 2017. There is a wide variety of ethnic groups, the major group being [[Mestizo]]s followed by [[White Mexicans]] and [[Indigenous Mexicans]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.investigacionyciencia.es/revistas/investigacion-y-ciencia/matemticas-del-planeta-tierra-585/el-impacto-del-mestizaje-en-mxico-11442|title=El impacto del mestizaje en México|work=Investigación y Ciencia|access-date=2018-07-25|language=es}}</ref> There are many other ethnic groups such as [[Arab Mexicans]], [[Afro-Mexicans]] and [[Asian Mexicans]].
From the year 2000 to 2010, the number of people in Mexico that were born in another country doubled, reaching a total of 961,121 people, mostly coming from Guatemala and the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inegi.gob.mx/inegi/contenidos/espanol/prensa/contenidos/Articulos/sociodemograficas/nacidosenotropais.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427100913/http://www.inegi.gob.mx/inegi/contenidos/espanol/prensa/contenidos/Articulos/sociodemograficas/nacidosenotropais.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2013-04-27|date=27 April 2013|access-date=2018-07-25}}</ref> Mexico is quickly becoming a [[melting pot]], with many immigrants coming into the country. It is considered to be a [[cradle of civilization]], which influences their multiculturalism and diversity, by having different civilizations influence them. A distinguishable trait of Mexico's culture is the [[mestizaje]] of its people, which caused the combination of Spanish influence, their indigenous roots while also adapting the culture traditions from their immigrants.
=== Peru ===
[[Peru]] is an exemplary country of multiculturalism, in 2016 the [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática|INEI]] reported a total population of 31 million people. They share their borders with Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Chile and Bolivia, and have welcomed many immigrants into their country creating a diverse community.
[[File:Tambomachay, Cuzco, Perú, 2015-07-31, DD 93.JPG|thumb|Tambomachay, Cuzco, Peru]]
Peru is the home to [[Amerindians]] but after the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish Conquest]], the Spanish brought African, and Asian peoples as slaves to Peru creating a mix of ethnic groups. After slavery was no longer permitted in Peru, African-Peruvians and Asian-Peruvians have contributed to Peruvian culture in many ways. Today, Amerindians make up 45% of the population, [[Mestizo]]s 37%, [[White people|white]] 15% and 3% is composed by [[Black people|black]], [[Chinese people|Chinese]], and others.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.countryreports.org/country/Peru/population.htm|title=Peru population. Demographic data, ethnic groups population and demographics from Peru - CountryReports|website=countryreports.org|language=en|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> In 1821, Peru's president José de San Martín gave foreigners the freedom to start industries in Peru's ground, 2 years after, foreigners that lived in Peru for more than 5 years were considered naturalized citizens, which then decreased to 3 years.
===United States===
{{See also|Multicultural education|Race and ethnicity in the United States}}
{{multiple image
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| caption2 = [[Little Italy (Manhattan)|Little Italy]] (top, ca. 1900) in [[New York City]] abuts [[Manhattan's Chinatown]].
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In the United States, multiculturalism is not clearly established in policy at the federal level, but ethnic diversity is common in [[Rural diversity|rural]], suburban and urban areas.<ref>Jeffrey Lehman, ed. ''Gale Encyclopedia of Multicultural America'' (3rd edition; 6 vol. 2014) [https://www.cengage.com/search/productOverview.do?N=197&Ntk=P_EPI&Ntt=508676737550071330333596981793254059&Ntx=mode%2Bmatchallpartial Online]</ref>
Continuous mass immigration was a feature of the United States economy and society since the first half of the 19th century.<ref name="Isaacs2007">{{cite book|author=Ann Katherine Isaacs|title=Immigration and emigration in historical perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5asNot0c5kwC&pg=PA38|year=2007|publisher=Edizioni Plus|isbn=978-88-8492-498-8|page=38}}</ref> The absorption of the stream of immigrants became, in itself, a prominent feature of America's [[national myth]]. The idea of the [[melting pot]] is a [[metaphor]] that implies that all the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state intervention.<ref>Zangwill, Israel. ''The Melting Pot'', 1908.</ref> The melting pot theory implied that each individual immigrant, and each group of immigrants, assimilated into American society at their own pace. This is different from multiculturalism as it is defined above, which does not include complete assimilation and integration.<ref name="Suárez-OrozcoSuárez-Orozco2005">{{cite book|author1=Marcelo M. Suárez-Orozco|author2=Carola Suárez-Orozco|title=The new immigration: an interdisciplinary reader|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a05uTxwIC4EC&pg=PA39|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-94916-3|page=39}}</ref> The melting pot tradition co-exists with a belief in national unity, dating from the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|American founding fathers]]:
<blockquote>Providence has been pleased to give this one connected country to one united people – a people descended from the same ancestors, speaking the same language, professing the same religion, attached to the same principles of government, very similar in their manners and customs... This country and this people seem to have been made for each other, and it appears as if it was the design of Providence, that an inheritance so proper and convenient for a band of brethren, united to each other by the strongest ties, should never be split into a number of unsocial, jealous, and alien sovereignties.<ref>[[John Jay]], ''First American Supreme Court Chief Justice'', [[Federalist No. 2|Federalist Paper No. 2]]'''</ref></blockquote>
[[File:President Clinton's Initiative on Race.jpg|thumb|Staff of President Clinton's [[One America Initiative]]. The President's Initiative on Race was a critical element in President Clinton's effort to prepare the country to embrace diversity.]]
As a [[philosophy]], multiculturalism began as part of the [[pragmatism]] movement at the end of the 19th century in [[Europe]] and the United States, then as [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|political]] and [[cultural pluralism]] at the turn of the 20th century.<ref name="CaputiFoster2006">{{cite book|author1=Peter Caputi|author2=Heather Foster|author3=Linda L. Viney|title=Personal construct psychology: new ideas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0RUXgzHqfOwC&pg=PA18|date=11 December 2006|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-01943-6|page=18}}</ref> It was partly in response to a new wave of European imperialism in sub-Saharan Africa and the massive immigration of Southern and Eastern Europeans to the United States and [[Latin America]]. Philosophers, psychologists and historians and early sociologists such as [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], [[William James]], [[George Santayana]], [[Horace Kallen]], [[John Dewey]], [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and [[Alain Locke]] developed concepts of cultural pluralism, from which emerged what we understand today as multiculturalism. In ''Pluralistic Universe'' (1909), William James espoused the idea of a "[[plural society]]." James saw pluralism as "crucial to the formation of philosophical and social [[humanism]] to help build a better, more egalitarian society.<ref name=Boening>{{cite news |last=Boening |first=Astrid B. |title=Euro-Islam – A Constructivist Idea or a Concept of the English School? |newspaper=European Union Miami Analysis (EUMA) |volume=4
|issue=12 |pages=3–10 |publisher=Miami-Florida European Union Center of Excellence |date=May 2007 |url=http://www.miami.edu/eucenter/Boening_EuroIslam_EUMA2007edi.pdf |access-date=30 September 2009 }}</ref>
The educational approach to multiculturalism has since spread to the [[grade school]] system, as school systems try to rework their curricula to introduce students to diversity earlier – often on the grounds that it is important for minority students to see themselves represented in the classroom.<ref name="Volk2004">{{cite book|author=Terese M. Volk|title=Music, Education, and Multiculturalism: Foundations and Principles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PaeuLCnJLXAC&pg=PA160|date=14 October 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-517975-0|page=160}}</ref><ref>[http://www.communitynewspapers.com/miami-beach/miami-beach-diversity-at-work/ Jesse Kirkpatrick. (2011). ''Miami Beach: Diversity at Work''. Miami Beach News. Retrieved from communitynewspapers.com]</ref> Studies estimated 46 million Americans ages 14 to 24 to be the most diverse generation in American society.<ref>{{cite news|last=Jayson|first=Sharon|title='Colorblind' Generation Doesn't Blink at Interracial Relationships|newspaper=USA Today|date=7 February 2006}}</ref> In 2009 and 2010, controversy erupted in Texas as the state's curriculum committee made several changes to the state's requirements, often at the expense of minorities. They chose to juxtapose [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|Abraham Lincoln's inaugural address]] with that of Confederate president [[Jefferson Davis]];<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/17/AR2010031700560.html Historians speak out against proposed Texas textbook changes] Michael Birnbaum, 18 March 2010.</ref> they debated removing Supreme Court Justice [[Thurgood Marshall]] and labor-leader [[Cesar Chavez]]<ref>[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124753078523935615 The Culture Wars' New Front: U.S. History Classes in Texas], Stephanie Simon, 14 July 2009.</ref> and rejected calls to include more Hispanic figures, in spite of the high Hispanic population in the state.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/13/education/13texas.html Texas Conservatives Win Curriculum Change], James C. McKinley Jr., 12 March 2010.</ref>
==== Effect of diversity on civic engagement ====
In a 2007 study by [[Robert D. Putnam|Robert Putnam]] encompassing 30,000 people across the US found that diversity had a negative effect on civic engagement. The greater the diversity, the fewer people voted, the less they volunteered for community projects and trust among neighbours was only half that of homogenous communities.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.boston.com/news/globe/ideas/articles/2007/08/05/the_downside_of_diversity/|title=The downside of diversity |website=The Boston Globe|language=en|access-date=2018-12-31}}</ref> Putnam says, however, that "in the long run immigration and diversity are likely to have important cultural, economic, fiscal, and developmental benefits", as long as society successfully overcomes the short-term problems.<ref name="Putnam, Robert D. 2007"/> Putnam adds that his "extensive research and experience confirm the substantial benefits of diversity, including racial and ethnic diversity, to our society."<ref>{{cite news|last=Berlett|first=Tom|url=https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357|title=Harvard Sociologist Says His Research Was 'Twisted'|date=15 August 2012|work=[[The Chronicle of Higher Education]]}}</ref>[[File:San Carlos de la Barra Fort, Isla de San Carlos, Estado Zulia, Venezuela.jpg|thumb|Bartizan in Venezuela]]
=== Venezuela ===
Venezuela is the home to a variety of ethnic groups, with an estimated population of 32 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldometers.info/world-population/venezuela-population/|title=Venezuela Population (2018) - Worldometers|website=worldometers.info|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref> Their population is composed of approximately 68% Mestizo, which means of mixed race.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Americas/Venezuela.html|title=Venezuela|website=nationsencyclopedia.com|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref> Venezuelan culture is mainly composed by the mixture of their indigenous people, Spanish and African.<ref name="auto5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.slideshare.net/jenny78/venezuela-sociedad-multietnica-y-pluricultural|title=Venezuela sociedad multietnica y pluricultural|website=slideshare.net|language=en|access-date=2018-07-27|date=2012-10-18}}</ref> There was a heavy influence of Spaniard culture due to the Spanish Conquest, which influence their religion, language, traditions. African influence can be seen on their music, with the drum usage.<ref name="auto5"/> While Spanish is Venezuela's main language, there is more than 40 indigenous languages spoken til this day.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.studycountry.com/es/guia-paises/VE-language.htm|title=Los idiomas de Venezuela|website=Studycountry|language=es-ES|access-date=2018-07-27}}</ref>
==Europe==
[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|upright|Ethno-linguistic map of [[Austria-Hungary]], 1910.]]
[[File:Poland1937linguistic.jpg|thumb|upright|Ethno-linguistic map of the [[Second Polish Republic]], 1937.]]
The [[European Union]] is facing unprecedented demographic changes (an aging population, low birth rates, changing family structures and migration). According to the European Commission, it is important, both at EU and national level, to review and adapt existing policies. Following a public debate, a 2006 EU policy paper identified five key policy responses to manage demographic change, among them receiving and integrating migrants into Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=502&langId=en|title=Demographic analysis|work=europa.eu}}</ref>
Historically, Europe has always been a mixture of Latin, Slavic, Germanic, Uralic, Celtic, Hellenic, Illyrian, Thracian and other cultures influenced by the importation of Jewish, Christian, Muslim and other belief systems; although the continent was supposedly unified by the super-position of Imperial Roman Christianity, it is accepted that geographic and cultural differences continued from antiquity into the modern age.<ref name="OstergrenBossé2011">{{cite book|author1=Robert C. Ostergren|author2=Mathias Le Bossé|title=The Europeans: A Geography of People, Culture, and Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y-1fwix23zMC&pg=PA226|date=7 March 2011|publisher=Guilford Press|isbn=978-1-59385-384-6|page=226}}</ref>
In the nineteenth century, the ideology of [[nationalism]] transformed the way Europeans thought about the [[State (polity)|state]].<ref name="OstergrenBossé2011" /> Existing states were broken up and new ones created; the new [[nation-states]] were founded on the principle that each [[nation]] is entitled to its own [[sovereignty]] and to engender, protect, and preserve its own unique culture and history. Unity, under this ideology, is seen as an essential feature of the nation and the nation-state; unity of descent, unity of culture, unity of language, and often unity of religion. The nation-state constitutes a culturally [[wikt:Homogeneity|homogeneous]] society, although some national movements recognised regional differences.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Conversi|first=Daniele|date=2007|title=Homogenisation, nationalism and war: Should we still read Ernest Gellner?|journal=Nations and Nationalism|volume=13|issue=3|pages=371–394|doi=10.1111/j.1469-8129.2007.00292.x}}</ref>
Where cultural unity was insufficient, it was encouraged and enforced by the state.<ref name="Kaplan" /> The nineteenth century nation-states developed an array of policies – the most important was compulsory [[primary education]] in the [[national language]].<ref name="Kaplan">{{cite book|author1=Guntram Henrik Herb |author2=David H. Kaplan |title=Nations and Nationalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UoQ-ueHjdEC&pg=PA522|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-85109-907-8|page=522|date=22 May 2008}}</ref> The language itself was often standardised by a linguistic academy, and regional languages were ignored or suppressed. Some nation-states pursued violent policies of [[cultural assimilation]] and even [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref name="Kaplan" />
Some countries in the European Union have introduced policies for "social cohesion", "integration", and (sometimes) "assimilation". The policies include:
* Compulsory courses and/or tests on [[historiography and nationalism|national history]], on the [[constitution]] and the [[legal system]] (e.g., the computer-based test for individuals seeking naturalisation in the UK named [[Life in the United Kingdom test]])
* Introduction of an official national history, such as the national [[Canon of Dutch Literature|canon]] defined for the [[Netherlands]] by the [[Frits van Oostrom|van Oostrom]] Commission,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.entoen.nu/ |title=Official Web site |publisher=Entoen.nu |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref> and promotion of that history (e.g., by exhibitions about [[Folk hero|national heroes]])
* Tests designed to elicit "unacceptable" values. In [[Baden-Württemberg]], immigrants are asked what they would do if their son says he is a [[Homosexuality|homosexual]] (the desired answer is that they would accept it<ref>BBC report at [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4655240.stm News.BBC.co.uk], full list of questions in German at [http://www.taz.de/index.php?id=archivseite&dig=2006/01/04/a0154 TAZ.de]</ref>).
Other countries have instituted policies which encourage cultural separation.<ref name="ReitzBreton2009">{{cite book|author1=Jeffrey G. Reitz|author2=Raymond Breton|author3=Karen Kisiel Dion |author4=Kenneth L. Dion|title=Multiculturalism and Social Cohesion: Potentials and Challenges of Diversity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j1uUIUjqLkgC&pg=PA17|year=2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-9958-8|pages=17–20}}</ref> The concept of "[[Cultural exception]]" proposed by [[France]] in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) negotiations in 1993 was an example of a measure aimed at protecting local cultures.<ref name="GraberNenova2008">{{cite book|author1=Christoph Beat Graber|author2=Mira Burri Nenova|title=Intellectual property and traditional cultural expressions in a digital environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gK6OI0hrANsC&pg=PA87|date=30 November 2008|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing|isbn=978-1-84720-921-4|pages=87–88}}</ref>
===Bulgaria===
[[File:Synagogue in Sofia 20090406 002.JPG|thumb|left|[[Sofia Synagogue]]]] [[File:Camia.jpg|thumb|left|[[Banya Bashi Mosque]] in Sofia]]
Since its establishment in the seventh century, [[Bulgaria]] has hosted many religions, ethnic groups and nations. The capital city [[Sofia]] is the only European city that has peacefully functioning, within walking distance of 300 metres,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer#view=photo&position=55&with_photo_id=7648128&order=date_desc&user=671534 |title=Panoramio.com |publisher=panoramio.com |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=2013-07-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130715092150/http://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer |archive-date=15 July 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=Alan Horton |url=http://bulgariafocus.com/religionsinbulgaria.html |title=Everything you want to know about the country of Bulgaria |publisher=Bulgaria Focus |access-date=2012-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103220916/http://www.bulgariafocus.com/religionsinbulgaria.html |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> four [[Places of worship]] of the major religions: Eastern Orthodox ([[St Nedelya Church]]), Islam ([[Banya Bashi Mosque]]), Roman Catholicism ([[Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia|St. Joseph Cathedral]]), and Orthodox Judaism ([[Sofia Synagogue]], the third-largest synagogue in Europe).
This unique arrangement has been called by historians a "multicultural cliche".<ref>Detrez, Raymond; Segaert, Barbara, 2008, Europe and the Historical Legacies in the Balkans (Multiple Europes), P.I.E. Peter Lang s.a., {{ISBN|978-90-5201-374-9}}, p. 55</ref> It has also become known as "The Square of Religious Tolerance"<ref>Ban, Ki-moon, [http://www.ceibs.edu/ase/Documents/diplomacy06.pdf The World in the next 20 years] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517110042/http://www.ceibs.edu/ase/Documents/diplomacy06.pdf |date=17 May 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vagobond.com/vagobond-bulgaria-part-2-sofia-places-worship/|title=Vagobond in Bulgaria - Part 2 - Sofia Places of Worship - Vagobond|date=1 February 2014|website=vagobond.com|access-date=22 October 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016023758/http://www.vagobond.com/vagobond-bulgaria-part-2-sofia-places-worship/|archive-date=16 October 2017}}</ref> and has initiated the construction of a 100-square-metre scale model of the site that is to become a symbol of the capital.<ref>{{cite web|author=В.Е. |url=http://news.ibox.bg/news/id_2097364880 |title=News.bg – Макет на 4 храма – туристически символ на София |date=3 May 2010 |publisher=News.ibox.bg |access-date=2012-01-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://bnr.bg/sites/en/Lifestyle/MapOfBulgaria/Pages/0405SofiasymbolNew.aspx |title=Sofia's new tourist symbol | Radio Bulgaria |publisher=Bnr.bg |access-date=2012-01-29 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120622064217/http://bnr.bg/sites/en/Lifestyle/MapOfBulgaria/Pages/0405SofiasymbolNew.aspx |archive-date=22 June 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sofiasymbol.bg/ |title=София - Мъдрост в действие |publisher=Sofiasymbol.bg |access-date=2012-01-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127091513/http://www.sofiasymbol.bg/ |archive-date=27 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Furthermore, unlike some other [[Nazi Germany]] allies or German-occupied countries excluding [[Denmark]], Bulgaria managed to save its entire 48,000-strong Jewish population during World War II from deportation to [[Nazi concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Tzvetan |last=Todorov |title=The Fragility of Goodness: Why Bulgaria's Jews Survived the Holocaust |translator=Arthur Denner |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7026.html |isbn=9780691115641 |access-date=31 December 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100709092623/http://press.princeton.edu/titles/7026.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Levi |first=Primo |title= Beyond Hitler's Grasp|publisher=Adams Media |year= 2001 |isbn=978-1580625418}}</ref> According to Dr Marinova-Christidi, the main reason for the efforts of Bulgarian people to save their Jewish population during WWII is that within the region, they "co-existed for centuries with other religions" – giving it a unique multicultural and multiethnic history.<ref>{{cite web|author=Leadel.Net |url=http://www.jpost.com/JewishWorld/JewishFeatures/Article.aspx?id=200216 |title=Exclusive video: 'Restoring the crown to former glory' |publisher=Jpost.com |access-date=2012-01-29}}</ref>
Consequently, within the Balkan region, Bulgaria has become an example for multiculturalism in terms of variety of religions, artistic creativity<ref>[http://scholarworks.iu.edu/journals/index.php/aeer/article/view/314/390 The Highs and Lows of Ethno-Cultural Diversity: Young People’s Experiences of Chalga Culture in Bulgaria], Apostolov, Apostol, Anthropology of East Europe Review, Vol 26, No 1 (2008), Cambridge University Press</ref> and ethnicity.<ref>Ruegg, Francois, 2007, Interculturalism and Discrimination in Romania: Policies, Practices, Identities and Representations, Lit Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3-8258-8075-0}}</ref><ref>Hristova, Svetlana, 2004, [http://press.swu.bg/volume-collection/volume-2/bulgarian-politics-of-multiculturalism.aspx?lang=en Bulgarian Politics of Multiculturalism - uses and abuses], Scientific Research, University Publishing House, South-West University, Blagoevgrad</ref> Its largest ethnic minority groups, Turks and Roma, enjoy wide political representation. In 1984, following a campaign by the Communist regime for a forcible change of the Islamic names of the Turkish minority,<ref>The history of Turkish community in Bulgaria, Ibrahim Yalamov</ref><ref>The Human Rights of Muslims in Bulgaria in Law and Politics since 1878, Bulgarian Helsinki Committee, 2003</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pomak.eu/en/content/bulgarian-mps-officially-condemn-revival-process |title=Bulgarian MPs Officially Condemn 'Revival Process' |publisher=Pomak.eu |access-date=2013-07-01}}</ref><ref>The Bulgarian state and Bulgarian Turks (to the mid-1930s until the early-1990s), Bulgarian Archive State Agency</ref> an underground organisation called «National Liberation Movement of the Turks in Bulgaria» was formed which headed the Turkish community's opposition movement. On 4 January 1990, the activists of the movement registered an organisation with the legal name [[Movement for Rights and Freedoms]] (MRF) (in Bulgarian: Движение за права и свободи: in Turkish: Hak ve Özgürlükler Hareketi) in the Bulgarian city of Varna. At the moment of registration, it had 33 members, at present, according to the organisation's website, 68,000 members plus 24,000 in the organisation's youth wing [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030132259/http://www.dps.bg/cgi-bin/e-cms/vis/vis.pl?s=001&p=0368&g=]. In 2012, Bulgarian Turks were represented at every level of government: local, with MRF having mayors in 35 municipalities, at parliamentary level with MRF having 38 deputies (14% of the votes in Parliamentary elections for 2009–13)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://rezultati.cik2009.bg/results/proportional/rik_00.html |title=ЦИК : Резултати |publisher=Rezultati.cik2009.bg |date=1 January 1970 |access-date=2012-04-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225103151/http://rezultati.cik2009.bg/results/proportional/rik_00.html |archive-date=25 February 2012 }}</ref> and at executive level, where there is one Turkish minister, [[Vezhdi Rashidov]]. 21 Roma political organisations were founded between 1997-2003 in Bulgaria.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite web|year = 2005|url = http://www.politeia.net/themes/citizenship_and_participation/the_political_representation_of_the_roma_minority_in_bulgaria_1990_2005|title = The Political Representation of the Roma Minority in Bulgaria: (1990-2005)|publisher = POLITEIA – Participation for Citizenship and Democracy in Europe|access-date = 2012-04-01|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120420200504/http://www.politeia.net/Themes/citizenship_and_participation/the_political_representation_of_the_roma_minority_in_bulgaria_1990_2005|archive-date = 20 April 2012}}</ref>
===France===
{{Further|Immigration to France}}
After 1945 immigration significantly increased. During the period of reconstruction, France lacked labor, and as a result, the French government was eager to recruit immigrants coming from all over Europe, the Americas, Africa and Asia.
Although there was a presence of, [[Vietnamese people in France|Vietnamese in France]] since the late 19th century (mostly students and workers), a wave of Vietnamese migrated after 1954. These migrants consisted of those who were loyal to the colonial government and those married to French colonists. Following the [[partition of Vietnam]], students and professionals from [[South Vietnam]] continued to arrive in France. Although many initially returned to the country after a few years, as the [[Vietnam War]] situation worsened, a majority decided to remain in France and brought their families over as well.<ref>[http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas La Diaspora Vietnamienne en France un cas particulier] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203000103/http://eglasie.mepasie.org/divers-horizons/1995-10-16-la-diaspora-vietnamienne-en-france-un-cas |date=3 December 2013}} (in French)</ref>
This period also saw a significant wave of immigrants from [[Algeria]]. As the [[Algerian War]] started in 1954, there were already 200,000 Algerian immigrants in France.<ref name="histoire-immigration.fr">"Le film: deux siècles d'histoire de l'immigration en France." http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/histoire-de-l-immigration/le-film</ref> However, because of the tension between the Algerians and the French, these immigrants were no longer welcome. This conflict between the two sides led to the [[Paris massacre of 1961|Paris Massacre]] of 17 October 1961, when the police used force against an Algerian demonstration on the streets of Paris. After the war, after Algeria gained its independence, the free circulation between France and Algeria was once again allowed, and the number of Algerian immigrants started to increase drastically. From 1962 to 1975, the Algerian immigrant population increased from 350,000 to 700,000.<ref>"En 1962, lors de l'Indépendance, ils sont 350 000. En 1975 les émigrants algériens sont 710 000 et constituent le deuxième groupe d'étrangers après les Portugais." "De 1945 à 1975." {{cite web |url=http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dix-themes-pour-connaitre-deux-siecles-d-histoire-de-l-immigration/emigrer/de-1945-a-1975 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2012-02-22 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912030132/http://www.histoire-immigration.fr/dix-themes-pour-connaitre-deux-siecles-d-histoire-de-l-immigration/emigrer/de-1945-a-1975 |archive-date=12 September 2011 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Many of these immigrants were known as the "[[harki]]s," and the others were known as the "[[Pied-Noir|pieds-noirs]]." The "harkis" were Algerians who supported the French during the Algerian War; once the war was over, they were deeply resented by other Algerians, and thus had to flee to France. The "pieds-noirs" were European settlers who moved to Algeria, but migrated back to France since 1962 when Algeria declared independence.
According to Erik Bleich, multiculturalism in France faced stiff resistance in the educational sector, especially regarding recent Muslim arrivals from Algeria. Gatekeepers often warned that multiculturalism was a threat to the historic basis of French culture.<ref>Erik Bleich,. "From international ideas to domestic policies: Educational multiculturalism in England and France." ''Comparative Politics'' (1998): 81-100 [http://www.middlebury.edu/media/view/251954/original/from_intl_ideas_to_domestic_policies.pdf online].</ref>
Jeremy Jennings finds three positions among elites regarding the question of reconciling traditional French Republican principles with multiculturalism. The traditionalists refuse to make any concessions and instead insist on clinging to the historic republican principles of [[Secularism in France|"laïcité"]] and the secular state in which religion and ethnicity are always ignored. In the middle are modernizing republicans who uphold republicanism but also accept some elements of cultural pluralism. Finally there are multiculturalist republicans who envision a pluralist conception of French identity and seek an appreciation of the positive values brought to France by the minority cultures.<ref>Jeremy Jennings, "Citizenship, Republicanism and Multiculturalism in Contemporary France," ''British Journal of Political Science'' (2000) 30#4 575-597.</ref>
A major attack on multiculturalism came in [[Stasi Commission|Stasi Report]] of 2003 which denounces "Islamism" as deeply opposed to the mainstream interpretations of French culture. It is portrayed as a dangerous political agenda that will create a major obstacle for Muslims to comply with [[Secularism in France|French secularism or "laïcité "]].<ref>Jennifer A. Selby, "Islam in France reconfigured: Republican Islam in the 2010 Gerin report." ''Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs'' 31.3 (2011): 383-398.</ref> Murat Akan, however, argues that the Stasi Report and the new regulations against the [[hijab]] and religious symbols in the schools must be set against gestures toward multiculturalism, such as the creation of Muslim schools under contract with the government.<ref>Murat Akan, "Laïcité and multiculturalism: the Stasi Report in context," ''British Journal of Sociology'' (2009) 60#2 pp 237-256 [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Murat-Akan/publication/26260531_Laicite_and_multiculturalism_The_Stasi_Report_in_context/links/5e7c8990a6fdcc139c0486a1/Laicite-and-multiculturalism-The-Stasi-Report-in-context.pdf online].</ref>
===Germany===
{{Main|Immigration to Germany}}
In October 2010, [[Angela Merkel]] told a meeting of younger members of her [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) party at [[Potsdam]], near [[Berlin]], that attempts to build a multicultural society in [[Germany]] had "utterly failed",<ref name="fail">{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11559451|work=BBC News |title=Merkel says German multicultural society has failed|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> stating: "The concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it does not work".<ref name="fail" /><ref>{{cite news|title= Germans argue over integration|work= BBC|date=30 November 2004|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/4056109.stm|access-date=2010-10-18|first=Ray|last=Furlong}}</ref> She continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt Germany's culture and values. This has added to a growing debate within Germany<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-11532699|work=BBC News|title=Germany's charged immigration debate|date=17 October 2010}}</ref> on the levels of immigration, its effect on Germany and the degree to which middle eastern immigrants have integrated into German society.<ref>[http://www.aicgs.org/publication/the-many-sides-of-muslim-integration-a-german-american-comparison/ "Rauf Ceylan: Muslims in Germany: Religious and Political Challenges and Perspectives in the Diaspora],</ref> In 2015, Merkel again criticized multiculturalism on the grounds that it leads to [[Parallel society|parallel societies]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/12/14/angela-merkel-multiculturalism-is-a-sham/|title=Multiculturalism is a sham, says Angela Merkel|date=14 December 2015|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=24 February 2019}}</ref>
The [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community of Germany is the first Muslim group to have been granted "corporation under public law status", putting the community on par with the major Christian churches and Jewish communities of Germany.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.dw.de/muslims-in-germany-have-rights-and-obligations/a-16888992 | title=Muslims in Germany have rights and obligations | date=18 June 2013 | access-date=7 June 2014}}</ref>
=== Luxembourg ===
Luxembourg has one of the highest foreign-born populations in Europe, foreigners account for nearly half of the country's total population.<ref>Sarah Krouse, "Piping Hot Gromperekichelcher, Only if You Pass the Sproochentest." WALL STREET JOURNAL, 19 Jan 2018, p.1</ref> The majority of foreigners are from: [[Belgium]], [[France]], [[Italy]], [[Germany]], and [[Portugal]].<ref>"[http://www.statistiques.public.lu/fr/actualites/population/population/2013/04/20130418/20130418.pdf La progression de la population du Grand-Duché continue: 537 039 résidants au 1er janvier 2013]." Statnews 16/2013, op statec.lu, 18 April 2013. (in French).</ref> In total, 170 different nationalities make up the population of Luxembourg, out of this; 86% are of European descent.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.justarrived.lu/en/practical-information/population-in-luxembourg/|title=Luxembourg, an ever-growing multicultural population|work=JUST ARRIVED|access-date=2018-07-22|language=en-US}}</ref> The official languages of Luxembourg are German, French, and [[Luxembourgish language|Luxembourgish]] all of which are supported in the Luxembourg government and education system.<ref name="auto1"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.unavarra.es/tel2l/eng/luxembourg.htm|title=The Trilingual Education system in Luxembourg|website=unavarra.es|access-date=2018-07-22}}</ref> In 2005, Luxembourg officially promoted and implemented the objectives of the [[UNESCO]] Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions. This Convention affirms multicultural policies in Luxembourg and creates political awareness of cultural diversity.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/countries/luxembourg/conventions?title=&field_date_d_m_y_value%5Bvalue%5D%5Bdate%5D=|title=Conventions - Luxembourg|website=UNESCO|language=en|access-date=2018-07-22}}</ref>
===Netherlands===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in the Netherlands}}
[[File:Süleymaniye-moskee1.JPG|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Süleymanìye Mosque in [[Tilburg]] built in 2001]]
Multiculturalism in the Netherlands began with major increases in immigration to the Netherlands during the mid-1950s and 1960s.<ref name="Wessendorf2010">{{cite book|author=Susanne Wessendorf|title=The multiculturalism backlash: European discourses, policies and practices|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wUaHVimJkT0C&pg=PA73|year=2010|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-55649-1|pages=73–75}}</ref> As a consequence, an official national policy of multiculturalism was adopted in the early-1980s.<ref name="Wessendorf2010" /> Different groups could themselves determine religious and cultural matters, while state authorities would handle matters of housing and work policy.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web|url=http://kjonnsforskning.no/nb/2017/03/norske-likestillingsidealer-gjor-muslimske-kvinner-mer-religiose|title=Likestillingsidealer gjør muslimske kvinner mer religiøse|last=iStockphoto|first=Illustrasjonsfoto|website=Kilden|language=nb|access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref>
In the 1990s, the public debate were generally optimistic on immigration and the prevailing view was that a multicultural policy would reduce the social economic disparities over time.<ref name=":8" />
This policy subsequently gave way to more assimilationist policies in the 1990s and post-electoral surveys uniformly showed from 1994 onwards that a majority preferred that immigrants assimilated rather than retained the culture of their country of origin.<ref name="Wessendorf2010" /><ref>{{Cite web|last=Damhuis|first=Koen|date=2019|title="The biggest problem in the Netherlands": Understanding the Party for Freedom's politicization of Islam|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/the-biggest-problem-in-the-netherlands-understanding-the-party-for-freedoms-politicization-of-islam/|access-date=2021-02-28|website=Brookings|language=en-US}}</ref>
Following the [[September 11 attacks]] in the United States and the murders of [[Pim Fortuyn]] (in 2002) and [[Theo van Gogh (film director)|Theo van Gogh]] (in 2004) there was increased political debate on the role of multiculturalism in the Netherlands.<ref name=":8" /><ref name="ModoodTriandafyllidou2006">{{cite book|author1=Tariq Modood|author2=Anna Triandafyllidou|author3-link=Ricard Zapata-Barrero|author3=Ricard Zapata-Barrero|title=Multiculturalism, Muslims and citizenship: a European approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7OAAV5eEmy4C&pg=PA27|date=6 April 2006|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-35515-5|page=27|author1-link=Tariq Modood}}</ref>
[[Lord Sacks]], Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, made a distinction between tolerance and multiculturalism, citing the Netherlands as a tolerant, rather than multicultural, society.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-12381027 |date=7 February 2011 |title=Multiculturalism: What does it mean? |newspaper=[[BBC News Online]]}}</ref> In June 2011, the [[First Rutte cabinet]] said the Netherlands would turn away from multiculturalism: "Dutch culture, norms and values must be dominant" [[Piet Hein Donner|Minister Donner]] said.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Nieuws/Politiek/300160/Donner-Afscheid-van-multiculturele-samenleving-Nederland.htm |date=16 June 2011 |title=Donner: Afscheid van multiculturele samenleving Nederland |newspaper=[[Elsevier (magazine)|Elsevier]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111129202053/http://www.elsevier.nl/web/Nieuws/Politiek/300160/Donner-Afscheid-van-multiculturele-samenleving-Nederland.htm |archive-date=29 November 2011 }}</ref>
===Romania===
Since Antiquity, Romania has hosted many religious and ethnic groups, including Roma people, Hungarians, Germans, Turks, Greeks, Tatars, Slovaks, Serbs, Jews and others. Unfortunately, during the WW2 and the Communism, most of these ethnic groups choose to emigrate to other countries. However, since 1990s, Romania has expected a growing number of immigrants and refugees, most of them from the Arab World, Asia or Africa. Immigration is expected to increase in the future, as large numbers of Romanian workers leave the country and are being replaced by foreigners.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ziare.com/actual/social/10-14-2008/imigrantii-in-romania-nu-se-bucura-de-drepturile-care-li-s-ar-cuveni-434535 |title=Imigrantii in Romania nu se bucura de drepturile care li s-ar cuveni |publisher=Ziare.com |access-date=2013-10-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ziare.com/actual/diaspora/07-14-2009/le-monde-romania-noua-destinatie-a-imigrantilor-818911 |title=Le Monde: Romania, noua destinatie a imigrantilor |publisher=Ziare.com |date=2009-07-13 |access-date=2013-10-08}}</ref>
=== Scandinavia ===
[[File:2017-09-01 HS-Reise Multi-Kulti in Vuosaari (991).jpg|thumb|The population structure of the [[Vuosaari]] district in [[Helsinki]], [[Finland]], is strongly based on multiculturalism.<ref>[https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari Vuosaari - Uutta Helsinkiä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154215/https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari Vuosaari – Uutta Helsinkiä] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154215/https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref><ref>[https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569 Asukkaat ja kuvasarja kertoo, millainen on Vuosaari – Professori: "Vuosaari on maahanmuuton tienraivaaja"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606154208/https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569 |date=6 June 2020 }} (in Finnish)</ref>]]
Multiculturalism in Scandinavia has centered on discussions about marriage, dress, religious schools, Muslim funeral rites and gender equality. [[Forced marriage]]s have been widely debated in Denmark, Sweden and Norway but the countries differ in policy and responses by authorities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://kjonnsforskning.no/nb/2006/05/multikulturalisme-i-skandinavia|title=Multikulturalisme i Skandinavia|website=kjonnsforskning.no (sub-unit of the Research Council of Norway)|language=nb|access-date=2019-02-24}}</ref>
Sweden has the most permissive policies while Denmark the most restrictive ones.
==== Denmark ====
{{Main|Immigration to Denmark}}
{{Multiple issues|section=1|
{{Weasel|section|date=January 2019}}
{{POV-section|date=January 2019}}
}}
In 2001, Denmark a liberal-conservative coalition government with the support of the [[Danish People's Party]] which instituted less pluralistic policy, more geared towards [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]].<ref name=":1" />
A 2018 study found that increases in local ethnic diversity in Denmark caused "rightward shifts in election outcomes by shifting electoral support away from traditional "big government" left‐wing parties and towards anti‐immigrant nationalist parties."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Harmon |first1=Nikolaj A. |title=Immigration, Ethnic Diversity, and Political Outcomes: Evidence from Denmark |journal=The Scandinavian Journal of Economics |date=October 2018 |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=1043–1074 |doi=10.1111/sjoe.12239 |s2cid=54936991 |url=http://www.econ.ku.dk/nharmon/docs/harmon2013immigration.pdf }}</ref>
For decades, Danish immigration policy was built upon the belief that, with support, immigrants and their descendants would eventually reach the same levels of education as Danes. In a 2019 report, the [[Danish Immigration Service]] and the [[Ministry of Education (Denmark)|Ministry of Education]] found this to be false. The report found that, while the second-generation immigrants without a [[Western world|Western]] background do better than their parents, the same is not true for third-generation immigrants. One of the reasons given was that second-generation immigrants may marry someone from their country of origin, which may cause Danish not to be spoken at home, which would put the children at a disadvantage in school. Thereby, the process of integrating has to start from the beginning for each generation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.berlingske.dk/content/item/1329273|title=Opråb fra ministre: Problemer med integration af børn af ikkevestlige indvandrere|date=2018-12-16|website=[[Berlingske]].dk|language=da|access-date=2019-01-29|quote=Danmarks integrationspolitik har i årtier været bygget op om troen på, at med den rette hjælp vil indvandrere og deres efterkommerne generation for generation falde til. En ny undersøgelse rammer en pæl gennem den forestilling. Den fastslår, at tredjegenerationsindvandrerne ikke får bedre karakterer i folkeskolen end generationen før dem. At der ikke er flere, som færdiggør en ungdomsuddannelse. Og at der ikke er flere, som får et arbejde. Det fremgår af »Analyse af børn af efterkommere med ikke-vestlig baggrund«, som er udarbejdet af Integrationsministeriet og Undervisningsministeriet. Den kortlægger for første gang, hvordan tredjegenerationsindvandrerne klarer sig på centrale parametre. // »Vi ved fra forskningen, at børn, som taler dansk i hjemmet, klarer sig bedre i skolen. Men mange gifter sig med én, som kommer direkte fra hjemlandet. Det vil sige, at integrationen starter forfra i hver generation,« siger Merete Riisager.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uim.dk/nyheder/2018/2018-12/tredjegenerationsindvandrere-klarer-sig-ikke-bedre-end-anden-generation|title=Tredjegenerationsindvandrere klarer sig ikke bedre end anden generation – Udlændinge- og Integrationsministeriet|website=uim.dk|access-date=2019-10-19|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019094846/https://uim.dk/nyheder/2018/2018-12/tredjegenerationsindvandrere-klarer-sig-ikke-bedre-end-anden-generation|url-status=dead}}</ref>
==== Norway ====
{{Main|Immigration to Norway}}[[File:Norway migrant education.png|thumb|Educational attainment of migrants in Norway in 2018<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/09623/|title = 09623: Educational attainment of immigrants, by country background (Single country) 2004 - 2020}}</ref>]]
Apart from citizens of [[Nordic countries]], all foreigners must apply for permanent residency in order to live and work in Norway.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lovdata.no/dokument/NL/lov/2008-05-15-35|title=Lov om utlendingers adgang til riket og deres opphold her (utlendingsloven) – Lovdata|website=lovdata.no|language=no|access-date=2018-03-02}}</ref> In 2017, the Norwegian immigrant population was made up of: citizens of [[European Union|EU]] and [[European Economic Area|EEA]] countries (41.2%); citizens of Asian countries, including Turkey (32.4%); citizens of African countries (13.7%); and citizens of non-EU/EEA European, North American, South American and Oceanian countries (12.7%).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ssb.no/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef|title=Innvandrere og norskfødte med innvandrerforeldre|work=ssb.no|access-date=2018-03-02|language=nb-NO}}</ref>
In 2015, during the [[European migrant crisis]], a total of 31,145 asylum seekers, most of whom came from Afghanistan and Syria, crossed the Norwegian border.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://snl.no/asylsituasjonen_i_Norge_2015_og_2016|title=Asylsituasjonen i Norge 2015 og 2016|last=Garvik|first=Olav|date=2017|website=Store Norske Leksikon}}</ref> In 2016, the number of asylum seekers dramatically reduced by almost 90%, with 3460 asylum seekers coming to Norway. This was partly due to the stricter border control across Europe, including an agreement between the EU and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://forskning.no/innvandring-samfunn-samfunnskunnskap/2016/12/fra-30-000-til-3000-asylsokere-hva-har-skjedd|title=Fra 30 000 til 3000 asylsøkere, hva har skjedd?|last=Amundsen|first=Bård|date=23 December 2016|website=Forskning.no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/home-affairs/sites/homeaffairs/files/what-we-do/policies/european-agenda-migration/background-information/eu_turkey_statement_17032017_en.pdf|title=EU-Turkey Statement 2016}}</ref>
As of September 2019, 15 foreign residents who had travelled from Norway to Syria or Iraq to join the [[Islamic State]] have had their residence permits revoked.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://sverigesradio.se/sida/artikel.aspx?programid=83&artikel=7299474|title=Norska IS-resenärer förlorar uppehållstillstånd - Nyheter (Ekot)|last=Radio|first=Sveriges|newspaper=Sveriges Radio|date=14 September 2019|language=sv|access-date=2019-09-15}}</ref>
The [[Progress Party (Norway)|Progress Party]] has named the reduction of high levels of immigration from non-European countries one of their goals:
: "Immigration from countries outside the EEA must be strictly enforced to ensure a successful integration. It can not be accepted that fundamental Western values and human rights are set aside by cultures and attitudes that certain groups of immigrants bring with them to Norway."<ref>[http://www.frp.no/nor/mener/En-enklere-hverdag/FrP-fra-A-til-AA#id38159 The Progress Party's politics] (In Norwegian) From the official website of the Progress Party (23 November 2014)</ref>
An extreme form of opposition to immigration in Norway were [[2011 Norway attacks|the 22/7 attacks]] carried out by the terrorist [[Anders Behring Breivik]] on 22 July 2011. He killed 8 people by bombing government buildings in Oslo and massacred 69 young people at a youth summer camp held by the [[Labour Party (Norway)|Labour Party]], who were in power at the time. He blamed the party for the high level of Muslim immigration and accused it of "promoting multiculturalism."<ref>"[http://edition.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/25/norway.terror.attacks/index.html?_s=PM:WORLD Prime minister: Norway still 'an open society' despite 'the horror']" [[CNN]], 25 July 2011</ref>
==== Sweden ====
{{Main|Immigration to Sweden}}[[File:Mångfaldsbarometern 2014 cultural distances in Sweden.png|thumb|322x322px|Source: [[Gävle University College]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|title=Mångfaldsbarometern 2014|publisher=Gävle University College|date=October 2014|pages=57|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621094211/https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2016}}</ref>]]
Sweden has from the early 1970s experienced a greater share of non-Western immigration than the other Scandinavian countries, which consequently have placed multiculturalism on the political agenda for a longer period of time.<ref name=":1" />
Sweden was the first country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism in Europe. On 14 May 1975, a unanimous Swedish parliament passed an act on a new multiculturalist immigrant and ethnic minority policy put forward by the [[social democracy|social democratic]] government, that explicitly rejected the ideal ethnic homogeneity and the policy of assimilation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.dagenssamhalle.se/nyhet/dags-att-begrava-det-multikulturella-projektet-31651|title=Dags att begrava det multikulturella projektet|publisher=Dagens sahmälle|language=Swedish|date=17 February 2017|access-date=13 February 2021}}</ref> The three main principles of the new policy were equality, partnership and freedom of choice. The explicit policy aim of the freedom of choice principle was to create the opportunity for minority groups in Sweden to retain their own languages and cultures. From the mid-1970s, the goal of enabling the preservation of minorities and creating a positive attitude towards the new officially endorsed multicultural society among the majority population became incorporated into the Swedish constitution as well as cultural, educational and media policies. Despite the anti-multiculturalist protestations of the [[Sweden Democrats]], multiculturalism remains official policy in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The multicultural moment: the history of the idea and politics of multiculturalism in Sweden in comparative, transnational and biographical context, 1964–1975|last=Wickström|first=Mats|publisher=Åbo Akademi|year=2015|isbn=978-952-12-3133-9|url=http://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi-fe201501071068}}</ref>
A 2008 study which involved questionnaires sent to 5,000 people, showed that less than a quarter of the respondents (23%) wanted to live in areas characterised by cultural, ethnic and social diversity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende|title=Svenskar vill ha inhägnat boende {{!}} SvD|last=TT|work=SvD.se|access-date=2018-07-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322170850/http://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende|archive-date=22 March 2016|language=sv}}</ref>
A 2014 study published by [[Gävle University College]] showed that 38% of the population never interacted with anyone from Africa and 20% never interacted with any non-Europeans.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|title=Mångfaldsbarometern 2014|publisher=Gävle University College|date=October 2014|pages=7–8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621094211/https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2016}}</ref> The study concluded that while physical distance to the country of origin, also religion and other cultural expressions are significant for the perception of cultural familiarity. In general, peoples with [[Christianity]] as the dominant religion were perceived to be culturally closer than peoples from Muslim countries.<ref name=":0" />
A 2017 study by [[Lund University]] also found that social trust was lower among people in regions with high levels of past non-Nordic immigration than among people in regions with low levels of past immigration.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=McShane|first1=Karl|date=2017|title=Getting used to diversity? Immigration and trust in Sweden|url=https://lup.lub.lu.se/search/publication/6d33125a-0256-40b2-9c41-37a7486ddb0d|journal=Economics Bulletin|volume=37|issue=3|pages=16|access-date=2018-01-02}}</ref> The erosive effect on trust was more pronounced for immigration from culturally distant countries.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=McShane|first=Karl|date=31 August 2017|title=Getting Used to Diversity? Immigration and Trust inSweden|url=http://www.accessecon.com/Pubs/EB/2017/Volume37/EB-17-V37-I3-P171.pdf|journal=Economics Bulletin|volume=37| issue = 3|pages=12|access-date=8 April 2018}}</ref>
===Serbia===
[[File:Voivodina Hungarians national costume and dance 6.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|[[Csárdás]] traditional Hungarian folk dance in [[Doroslovo]]]]
In [[Serbia]], there are 19 officially recognised ethnic groups with a status of national minorities.<ref>Gojkovic N. [http://www.kas.de/upload/auslandshomepages/serbien/Gojkovic_en.pdf System of minorities’ protection in Serbia] [[Konrad Adenauer Foundation]]</ref> [[Vojvodina]] is an [[Autonomous administrative division|autonomous province]] of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country. It has a multiethnic and multicultural identity;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vojvodina.gov.rs/en/autonomous-province-vojvodina|title=Покрајинска влада|work=vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref> there are more than 26 [[Ethnic groups in Vojvodina|ethnic groups]] in the province,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/cms/view.php/1045.print.html|title=Autonomous Province of Vojvodina|work=vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vip.org.rs/index.aspx?tabId=62&menutabid=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227015638/http://www.vip.org.rs/index.aspx?tabId=62&menutabid=10|url-status=dead|archive-date=2008-12-27|title=Error|work=vip.org.rs}}</ref> which has six official languages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bgcentar.org.rs/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=22:podzakonska-akta&download=250:statut-autonomne-pokrajine-vojvodine&Itemid=54|title=Beogradski centar za ljudska prava |publisher= Belgrade Centre for Human Rights|date=29 March 2015|work=bgcentar.org.rs}}</ref> Largest ethnic groups in Vojvodina are [[Serbs]] (67%), [[Hungarians in Serbia|Hungarians]] (13%), [[Slovaks in Serbia|Slovaks]], [[Croats of Vojvodina|Croats]], [[Romani people in Serbia|Romani]], [[Romanians of Serbia|Romanians]], [[Montenegrins of Serbia|Montenegrins]], [[Bunjevci]], [[Bosniaks of Serbia|Bosniaks]], [[Pannonian Rusyns|Rusyns]]. The Chinese<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/story?id=83182&page=1|title=Chinese Migrants Use Serbia as Gate to Europe|website=ABC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/reportaze/aktuelno.293.html:446510-I-Kinezi-napustaju-Srbiju|title=I Kinezi napuštaju Srbiju|website=NOVOSTI}}</ref> and Arabs, are the only two significant immigrant minorities in Serbia.
[[Radio Television of Vojvodina]] broadcasts program in ten local languages. The project by the [[Government of Vojvodina|Government of AP Vojvodina]] titled "Promotion of Multiculturalism and Tolerance in Vojvodina", whose primary goal is to foster the cultural diversity and develop the atmosphere of interethnic tolerance among the citizens of Vojvodina, has been successfully implemented since 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puma.vojvodina.gov.rs/etext.php?ID_mat=1373&PHPSESSID=fs04q4o2f89iff2agkt8ld4rq0|title=Promotion of Multiculturalism and Tolerance|date=26 July 2015|work=puma.vojvodina.gov.rs}}</ref> Serbia is continually working on improving its relationship and inclusion of minorities in its effort to gain full accession to the European Union. Serbia has initiated talks through Stabilisation and Association Agreement on 7 November 2007.
===United Kingdom===
{{Main|Immigration to the United Kingdom}}
Multicultural policies<ref name="Wotherspoon1995">{{cite book|author=Terry Wotherspoon|title=Multicultural education in a changing global economy: Canada and the Netherlands|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PcKGBd4itKYC&pg=PA1|year=1995|publisher=Waxmann Verlag|isbn=978-3-89325-331-9|page=1}}</ref> were adopted by local administrations from the 1970s and 1980s onwards. In 1997, the newly elected [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour]] government committed to a multiculturalist approach at a national level,<ref name="Hadjetian2008">{{cite book|author=Sylvia Hadjetian|title=Multiculturalism and Magic Realism? Between Fiction and Reality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GBaE1n0juzsC&pg=PA31|date=April 2008|publisher=GRIN Verlag|isbn=978-3-638-93283-7|page=31}}</ref> but after 2001, there was something of a [[Criticism of multiculturalism#United Kingdom|backlash]], led by centre-left commentators such as [[David Goodhart]] and [[Trevor Phillips]]. The Government then embraced a policy of [[community cohesion]] instead. In 2011, [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[David Cameron]] said in a speech that "state multiculturalism has failed".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12371994 |title=State multiculturalism has failed, says David Cameron |newspaper=[[BBC News Online]] |date=5 February 2011}}</ref> Critics argue that analyses which view society as 'too diverse' for social democracy and cohesion have "performative" effects that legitimate racism towards those classed as immigrants.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Erel |first1=Umut |last2=Murji |first2=Karim |last3=Nahaboo |first3=Zaki |title=Understanding the contemporary race–migration nexus |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |date=2016-05-13 |volume=39 |issue=8 |page=1353 |doi=10.1080/01419870.2016.1161808 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lentin |first1=Alana |last2=Titley |first2=Gavan |title=The Crisis of Multiculturalism: Racism in a Neoliberal Age |date=2011 |publisher=Zed Books |location=London; New York |isbn=978-1848135819 }}</ref>
===Russian Federation===
==Asia==
===India===
[[File:Farewell Ritual - Durga Idol Immersion Ceremony - Baja Kadamtala Ghat - Kolkata 2012-10-24 1458.JPG|thumb|The [[Durga Puja]] celebrated in [[Kolkata]]]]
[[File:Delhi Jama Masjid.jpg|thumb|[[Jama Masjid, Delhi]], one of the largest mosques in India]]
According to the [[1961 Census of India]], there are 1652 indigenous languages in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/aug2002/indianmothertongues1961aug2002.html |title=Language in India |access-date=2012-01-29}}</ref> The [[culture of India]] has been shaped by its [[History of India|long history]], [[Geography of India|unique geography]] and [[Demographics of India|diverse demography]]. [[Languages of India|India's languages]], [[Religion in India|religions]], [[Dance in India|dance]], music, architecture and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse [[Subculture|sub-cultures]] spread all over the [[Indian subcontinent]] and traditions that are several millennia old.<ref>{{cite book |last = Mohammada
|first = Malika |title = The foundations of the composite culture in India |publisher = Aakar Books, 2007 |isbn = 9788189833183|year = 2007 }}</ref> The previously prevalent [[Indian caste system]] describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of [[endogamy|endogamous]] hereditary groups, often termed ''[[jāti]]s'' or [[caste]]s.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46404/Caste India – Caste]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.</ref>
Religiously, [[Hindus]] form the majority, followed by Muslims. The statistics are: [[Hindu]] (79.8%), [[Muslim]] (14.2%), [[Christians|Christian]] (2.3%), [[Sikh]] (1.7%), [[Buddhist]] (0.7%), [[Jain]] (0.4%), [[Irreligion|Unaffiliated]] (0.23%), [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], [[Jew]]s, [[Zoroastrians]], and others (0.65%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/ |title=Indian Census |publisher=Censusindia.gov.in |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511035603/http://censusindia.gov.in/ |archive-date=11 May 2008 }}</ref> Linguistically, the two main language families in India are [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] (a branch of [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]) and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]. In India's northeast, people speaking [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] group of languages such as [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (Meitei-lon) recognized by the Indian constitution and [[Austroasiatic languages]] are commonly found. India (officially) follows a three-language policy. [[Hindi]] (spoken in the form of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]]) is the official federal language, [[Indian English|English]] has the federal status of associate/subsidiary official language and each state has its own state official language (in the Hindi ''[[sprachraum]]'', this reduces to bilingualism). Further, India does not have any national language.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/Hindi-not-a-national-language-Court/article16839525.ece|title=Hindi, not a national language: Court|newspaper=The Hindu|date=25 January 2010|access-date=22 October 2017|via=thehindu.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court - Times of India|website=indiatimes.com|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> [[The Republic of India]]'s state boundaries are largely drawn based on linguistic groups; this decision led to the preservation and continuation of local ethno-linguistic sub-cultures, except for the Hindi ''sprachraum'' which is itself divided into many states. Thus, most states differ from one another in language, culture, [[Indian cuisine|cuisine]], [[Clothing in India|clothing]], [[Indian literature|literary style]], [[architecture of India|architecture]], [[music of India|music]] and festivities.
India has encountered [[Religious violence in India|religiously motivated violence]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Nussbaum |first=Martha |title=The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India's Future |year=2009 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-04156-1 |page=1}}</ref> such as the [[Moplah Riots]], the [[Bombay riots]], the [[1984 anti-Sikh riots]], the 1990 [[Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus]], the [[2002 Gujarat riots]], the [[2008 Mumbai attacks]], the [[2012 Assam violence]], the [[2013 Muzaffarnagar riots]], and the [[2020 Delhi riots]]. This has resulted from traditionally disadvantaged communities in public employment such as the policing of the same locality, apprehension of owners in giving properties for sale or rent<ref>{{cite web |url=http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/sachar_comm.pdf |title=Sachar Committee Report |publisher=(Cabinet Secretariat, Govt. of India) |pages=9–25 |date=Nov 2006 |access-date=2012-08-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021182551/http://minorityaffairs.gov.in/sites/upload_files/moma/files/pdfs/sachar_comm.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2012 }}</ref> and of society in accepting inter-marriages.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111966 |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160516223255/http://paa2011.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=111966 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-05-16 |title=Exploring the Concept of Mixed Marriages in Indian and selected states: First time evidences from large scale survey |first1=Deepti |last1=Singh |first2=Srinivas |last2=Goli |year=2011 |work=Princeton University }}</ref>
==== Cultural minorities in India ====
The Indian constitution requires the various state-run institutions to provide quotas for minorities, which give these cultural minorities equal opportunities, as well as a forum through which they can actively participate in the institutions of the dominant culture.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal|last=Pande|first=Rohini|date=September 2003|title=Can Mandated Political Representation Increase Policy Influence for Disadvantaged Minorities? Theory and Evidence from India|journal=The American Economic Review|volume=93|issue=4|pages=1132–1151|jstor=3132282|doi=10.1257/000282803769206232}}</ref> Indian polity after the 1990s has been marked by a shift from secular principles to a landscape that is dominated by pro-Hindu propaganda; the BJP has used this rhetoric by reconstructing Hinduism and bartering it under the guise of Indian nationalism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Datta|first=Rekha|date=Summer 1999|title=Hindu Nationalism or Pregmatic Party Politics? A Study of India's Hindu Party|journal=International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society|volume=12|issue=4|pages=573–588|jstor=20019991|doi=10.1023/A:1025938125870|s2cid=141252957}}</ref> However, the rise of pro-Hindu ideology, commonly known as Hindutva, has impinged on the rights of cultural minorities.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clarke|first=Sathianathan|date=April 2002|title=Hindutva, Religious and Ethnocultural Minorities, and Indian-Christian Theology|journal=The Harvard Theological Review|volume=95|issue=2|pages=197–226|doi=10.1017/S0017816002000123|jstor=4150720|s2cid=162722809}}</ref> This can be seen in the large scale violence against cultural minorities, the vote-bank politics used by the Indian National Congress, and the promotion of issues faced by the larger religious communities over those faced by the backward groups in religious minorities.<ref>{{Cite book|title=At Home with Democracy|last=Sheth|first=D.L.|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2018|isbn=978-981-10-6412-8}}</ref>
==== Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Castes (OBC) ====
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes are constitutionally recognized terms in India and constitute approximately 25% of the Indian population. Moreover more than 40 percent of India's population belongs to the Other Backward Castes as per the National Sample Survey Office or the NSSO which is a government organization for conducting surveys in India. So the total size of the lower castes in India is estimated to be around 70 percent of the country's population whereas the upper caste make up around 18 percent of the population. It has also been noted that a person of the upper caste generally tends to be fairer in skin whereas the lower caste tend to be darker. These groups have been provided with reservations that constitutionally guarantee them representation in governmental institutions, a mandate suggested by the Mandal Commission.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Basavaraju|first=C.|date=Summer 2009|journal=Journal of the Indian Law Institute|volume=51|issue=2|pages=267–274|jstor=43953443|title=Reservation Under the Constitution of India: Issues and Perspectives}}</ref> The Indian constitution also provides SC's and ST's with protective measures that ensure equality, which is the main issue faced by members of both communities. However, while scheduled castes have turned into important political communities that the state concerns itself about, scheduled tribes continue to be politically marginalized.<ref name=":03" />
===Indonesia===
{{further|Bhinneka Tunggal Ika|Demographics of Indonesia|Ethnic groups in Indonesia|Culture of Indonesia}}
[[Cultural pluralism|Pluralism]], [[Unity in diversity|diversity]] and multiculturalism is a daily fact of life in [[Indonesia]]. There are over [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|1,300 ethnic groups]] in Indonesia.<ref>Kuoni – Far East, A world of difference. p. 88. Published 1999 by Kuoni Travel & JPM Publications</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/news/2015/11/18/127/mengulik-data-suku-di-indonesia.html|title=Mengulik Data Suku di Indonesia|publisher=[[Statistics Indonesia|Badan Pusat Statistik]]|access-date=12 February 2020|date=18 November 2015}}</ref> 95% of those are of [[Native Indonesians|Native Indonesian]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title= Pribumi |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia of Modern Asia |publisher= Macmillan Reference USA |url= http://www.bookrags.com/research/pribumi-ema-05/ |access-date= 2006-10-05 }}</ref> The [[Javanese people|Javanese]] are the largest ethnic group in Indonesia who make up nearly 42% of the total population.<ref name="ISAS">{{cite book |last1=Suryadinata |first1=Leo |last2=Arifin |first2=Evi Nurvidya |last3=Ananta |first3=Aris |title=Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape |date=2003 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-981-230-212-0 }}{{page needed|date=March 2021}}</ref> The [[Sundanese people|Sundanese]], [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malay]], and [[Madurese people|Madurese]] are the next largest groups in the country.<ref name="ISAS" /> There are also more than [[Languages of Indonesia|700 living languages spoken in Indonesia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=indonesia |title=Ethnologue report for Indonesia |publisher=Ethnologue.com |access-date=2010-12-10}}</ref> and although predominantly [[Islam in Indonesia|Muslim]] the country also has large [[Christianity in Indonesia|Christian]] and [[Hinduism in Indonesia|Hindu]] populations.
Indonesia's national motto, ''[[Bhinneka Tunggal Ika]]'' ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one") enshrined in [[Pancasila (politics)|Pancasila]] the national ideology, articulates the diversity that shapes the country.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Geography of Indonesia | publisher=Indonesia.go.id | url=http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/geography-indonesia | access-date=4 August 2014 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103201331/http://www.indonesia.go.id/en/indonesia-glance/geography-indonesia | archive-date=3 January 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref> The government nurtures and promotes the diversity of Indonesian local culture; adopting a pluralist approach.
Due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government [[transmigration program]]s or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions. The Javanese for example, moved from their traditional homeland in Java to the other parts of the archipelago. The expansion of the Javanese and their influence throughout Indonesia has raised the issue of [[Javanization]], although [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], [[Malay Indonesian|Malay]], Madurese, [[Bugis]] and Makassar people, as a result of their ''merantau'' (migrating) culture are also quite widely distributed throughout the Indonesian archipelago, while [[Chinese Indonesian]]s can be found in most urban areas. Because of [[urbanization]], major Indonesian cities such as [[Greater Jakarta]], [[Surabaya]], [[Bandung]], [[Palembang]], [[Medan]] and [[Makassar]] have attracted large numbers of Indonesians from various ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds. Jakarta in particular has almost all Indonesian ethnic groups represented.
However, this transmigration program and close interactions between people of different cultural backgrounds caused socio-cultural problems, as the inter-ethnics interactions have not always been conducted harmoniously. After the [[Post-Suharto era|fall of Suharto]] in 1998 into the 2000s, numbers of inter-ethnic and inter-religious clashes erupted in Indonesia. Like the clashes between native [[Dayak people|Dayak]] tribes against [[Madurese people|Madurese]] transmigrants in [[Kalimantan]] during [[Sambas riots]] in 1999<ref name="hrw">{{cite web|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=28 February 2001|title=Indonesia: The Violence in Central Kalimantan (Borneo)|url=https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/borneo0228.htm|access-date=2008-08-13}}</ref> and the [[Sampit conflict]] in 2001.<ref name="flashpoint">{{cite news|publisher=BBC|date=28 June 2004|access-date=2008-08-13|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3811219.stm|title=Indonesia flashpoints: Kalimantan}}</ref> There were also clashes between Muslims and Christians, such as [[Poso riots|violence erupted in Poso]] between 1998 and into 2000,<ref name="BBC flashpoints">{{cite news| work = BBC News| date = 28 June 2004| title = Indonesia flashpoints: Sulawesi| url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3812737.stm| access-date = 13 October 2012}}</ref> and [[Maluku sectarian conflict|violences in Maluku]] between 1999 and into 2002.<ref name="timedirty">{{cite news|last=Elegant|first=Simon|title=Indonesia's Dirty Little Holy War|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187655,00.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100423064855/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,187655,00.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=23 April 2010|access-date=31 March 2011|newspaper=Time|date=17 December 2001}}</ref> Nevertheless, Indonesia today still struggles and has managed to maintain unity and inter-cultural harmony, through a national adherence of pro-pluralism policy of Pancasila; promoted and enforced by the government and its people.
[[Chinese Indonesians]] are the largest foreign-origin minority that has resided in Indonesia for generations. Despite centuries of acculturation with native Indonesians, because of their disproportionate influence on Indonesian economy, and alleged question of national loyalty, Chinese Indonesians have suffered [[Discrimination against Chinese Indonesians|discrimination]].<ref name=":7">{{Cite web|date=2016-11-25|title=Jakarta's violent identity crisis: behind the vilification of Chinese-Indonesians|url=http://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/25/jakarta-chinese-indonesians-governor-ahok|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213050845/https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2016/nov/25/jakarta-chinese-indonesians-governor-ahok%23comments|archive-date=13 February 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref> The [[Suharto]] ''Orde Baru'' or New Order adopted a forced [[Cultural assimilation|assimilation]] policy; which indicated that Chinese cultural elements were unacceptable.{{sfn|Tan|2008|p=24}} Chinese Indonesians were forced to adopt [[Chinese Indonesian surname|Indonesian-sounding names]], and the use of Chinese culture and language was banned.<ref name=":7" /> The violence targeting Chinese Indonesians erupted during [[Fall of Suharto#Riots of 13–14 May|riots in 1998.]] As the looting and destruction took place, a number of Chinese Indonesians, as well as looters, were killed. The Chinese Indonesians were treated as the scapegoat of [[1997 Asian Financial Crisis]], a result of ongoing discrimination and segregation policies enforced during Suharto's New Order regime. Soon after the fourth Indonesian President, [[Abdurrahman Wahid]] came into power in 1999, he quickly abolished some of the discriminatory laws in efforts to promote acceptance and to improve inter-racial relationships, such as abolishing the ban on Chinese culture; allowing Chinese traditions to be practised freely. Two years later President [[Megawati Sukarnoputri]] declared that the [[Chinese New Year]] (''{{lang|id|Imlek}}'') would be marked as a [[Public holidays in Indonesia|national holiday]] from 2003.{{sfn|Setiono|2003|p=1099}} Tense incidents however have included attacks on Chinese temples<ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-08-10|title=In Indonesia, Chinese Deity Is Covered in Sheet After Muslims Protest|language=en-US|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/world/asia/indonesia-chinese-statue-islam-muslims-protest-guan-yu.html|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and Indonesian politician [[Basuki Tjahaja Purnama]] being given a 2 year prison sentence for [[blasphemy]] due to comments he made to his supporters on September 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2016-11-26|title=In Indonesia, Fears Rise Among Ethnic Chinese Amid Blasphemy Probe|language=en-US|work=[[Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213045340/https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601|archive-date=13 February 2022|issn=0099-9660|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=2017-08-11|title=30m Chinese idol covered in sheet after Muslim protest|language=en-AU|work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]]|url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-08-11/chinese-statue-covered-up-in-indonesian-city/8796404}}</ref>
===Japan===
{{main|Ethnic issues in Japan}}
[[File:One Ainu man and bear.JPG|thumb|An [[Ainu people|Ainu]] man, circa 1930]]
Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected any need to recognize ethnic differences in Japan, even as such claims have been rejected by such ethnic minorities as the [[Ainu people|Ainu]] and [[Ryukyuan people]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Abe fine with 'homogeneous' remark|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2007/02/27/national/abe-fine-with-homogeneous-remark/#.U9KWz4BdWwE|work=The Japan Times|date=27 February 2007|access-date=2014-07-25}}</ref> In 2005, former Japanese Prime Minister [[Taro Aso]] described Japan as a "one civilization, one language, one culture and one race" nation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2005/10/18/national/aso-says-japan-is-nation-of-one-race/#.U9KXSIBdWwE |title=Aso says Japan is nation of 'one race' |work=The Japan Times |date=18 October 2005 |access-date=2014-07-25}}</ref> However, there are "International Society" NPOs funded by local governments throughout Japan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tokyo-international.org/ |title=International Societies in Japan |publisher=Tokyo-international.org |access-date=2010-12-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120226025402/http://www.tokyo-international.org/ |archive-date=26 February 2012 }}</ref>
According to [[Harvard University]] professor [[Theodore Bestor]], Japan does look very homogeneous from a distant perspective, but in fact there are a number of very significant minority groups – ethnically different minority groups – in Japan today, such as the already mentioned [[Ainu people|Ainu]] and [[Ryukyuan people]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/at/contemp_japan/cjp_society_02.html |title=Contemporary Japan: Japanese Society |publisher=Asian Topics, [[Columbia University]] |access-date=2013-11-14}}</ref>
===Kazakhstan===
{{See also|1951 anti-Chechen pogrom in Eastern Kazakhstan}}
According to local media, Kazakhstan is among the most multicultural countries in Eurasia, with sizeable populations of ethnic Kazakhs, Russians, Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uighurs, Tatars, Germans and more.<ref name="historykz">{{cite web|last1=Marmontova|first1=T.V.|title=Interethnic relations in the Republic of Kazakhstan in the light of multicultural theories|url=http://e-history.kz/en/contents/view/2125|publisher=e-history.kz}}</ref> Kazakhstan was one of a few countries in post-Soviet territories that avoided interethnic clashes and conflicts in the period of USSR’s final crisis and its eventual breakup.<ref name="DND">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan –The Heaven of interfaith and interethnic harmony|url=http://www.dnd.com.pk/kazakhstan-heaven-interfaith-interethnic-harmony/84030|publisher=Dispatch News Desk}}</ref> In 1995, Kazakhstan created the [[Assembly of People of Kazakhstan]], an advisory body designed to represent the country's ethnic minorities.<ref name="Daly">{{cite web|title=Kazakhstan's unique Assembly of People maintains ethnic harmony|url=http://www.upi.com/Top_News/Analysis/Outside-View/2015/05/04/Opinion-Kazakhstans-unique-Assembly-of-People-maintains-ethnic-harmony/5051430316093/|publisher=UPI}}</ref> However, recent ethnic clashes and discrimination have been reported for groups such as Christians,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Michel|first=Casey|date=July 14, 2017|title=The Reality of Religious Freedom in Kazakhstan|url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/07/the-reality-of-religious-freedom-in-kazakhstan/|website=[[The Diplomat]]|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=May 12, 2021|title=2020 Report on International Religious Freedom: Kazakhstan|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/|website=[[United States Department of State]]|language=en-US}}</ref> ultraconservative Muslims,<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 4, 2018|title=Kazakhstan Targets Beards, Pants In Fight Against 'Destructive Religious Movements'|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-targets-islamist-beards-pants-destructive-movements/29017566.html|website=[[RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty]]|language=en}}</ref> ethnic [[Dungans]],<ref>{{Citation|last=[[Human Rights Watch]]|title=Kazakhstan: Events of 2020|date=2020-12-03|url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/kazakhstan|language=en|access-date=2022-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Felix Corley|date=April 15, 2021|title=KAZAKHSTAN: Targeting ethnic Dungan Koran teachers|url=https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2652|website=[[Forum 18]]|language=en-gb}}</ref> [[Chechens]], [[Tajiks]],<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 10, 2020|title=Dungan Incident Just Kazakhstan's Latest Interethnic Violence|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/dungan-incident-just-kazakhstan-s-latest-interethnic-violence/30427037.html|website=[[RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty]]|language=en}}</ref> and [[LGBT rights in Kazakhstan|LGBT people]].<ref>{{Cite news|date=August 21, 2015|title=For Kazakhstan's LGBT Community, A Struggle For Recognition And Rights|language=en|work=[[NPR]]|url=http://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2015/08/21/433450186/for-kazakhstans-lgbt-community-a-struggle-for-recognition-and-rights}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=July 23, 2015|title=A Climate of Fear for LGBT People in Kazakhstan|url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/23/thats-when-i-realized-i-was-nobody/climate-fear-lgbt-people-kazakhstan|website=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref>
=== Malaysia ===
{{Main|Ketuanan Melayu|Bumiputera (Malaysia)|Demographics of Malaysia|Culture of Malaysia}}
[[Malaysia]] is a multiethnic country, with [[Malay (ethnic group)|Malays]] making up the majority, close to 58% of the population. About 25% of the population are [[Chinese Malaysian|Malaysians of Chinese descent]]. [[Indian Malaysian|Malaysians of Indian descent]] comprise about 7% of the population. The remaining 10% comprises:
* Native [[East Malaysia]]ns, namely [[Bajau]], [[Bruneian Malay people|Bruneian]], [[Bidayuh]], [[Dusun]], [[Iban people|Iban]], [[Kadazan]], [[Kedayan]], [[Melanau]], [[Orang Ulu]], [[Sarawakian Malay]]s, etc.
* Other native tribes of [[Peninsular Malaysia]], such as the [[Orang Asli]] and Siamese people, and
* Non-native tribes of Peninsular Malaysia such as the [[Chettiar]]s, the [[Peranakan]] and the Portuguese.
The [[Malaysian New Economic Policy]] or NEP serves as a form of racial equalization.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6237328.stm Malaysia fury at EU envoy remarks], BBC News</ref> It promotes structural changes in various aspects of life from education to economic to social integration. Established after the [[13 May Incident|13 May racial riots]] of 1969, it sought to address the significant imbalance in the economic sphere where the minority [[Malaysian Chinese|Chinese]] population had substantial control over commercial activity in the country.
The [[Malay Peninsula]] has a long history of international trade contacts, influencing its ethnic and religious composition. Predominantly [[Malays (ethnic group)|Malays]] before the 18th century, the ethnic composition changed dramatically when the British introduced new industries, and imported Chinese and Indian labor. Several regions in the then [[British Malaya]] such as [[Penang]], [[Malacca]] and [[Singapore]] became Chinese dominated. Until the riots 1969, co-existence between the three ethnicities (and other minor groups) was largely peaceful, although the three main racial groups for the most part lived in separate communities – the Malays in the villages, the Chinese in the urban areas, and the Indians in the towns and plantation. More Malays however have moved into the cities since the 1970s, and the proportion of the non-Malays have been decreasing continually, especially the Chinese, due in large part to lower birth-rate and emigration as a result of [[institutionalized discrimination]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Treena Becker|date=2016-08-16|title=Racism drove me from Malaysia. Love brought me to America|url=http://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/16/racism-stories-malaysia-love-immigration-america|url-status=live|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220213012238/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2016/aug/16/racism-stories-malaysia-love-immigration-america|archive-date=13 February 2022|website=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=13 February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://english.cpiasia.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1804:honey-i-shrunk-the-chinese-&catid=198:helen-ang&Itemid=156 |title=Honey, I shrunk the Chinese! |publisher=CPI |date=9 December 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120525132129/http://english.cpiasia.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1804:honey-i-shrunk-the-chinese-&catid=198:helen-ang&Itemid=156 |archive-date=25 May 2012 }}</ref>
Preceding independence of the [[Federation of Malaya]], a [[social contract (Malaysia)|social contract]] was negotiated as the basis of a new society. The contract as reflected in the [[Constitution of Malaysia|1957 Malayan Constitution and the 1963 Malaysian Constitution]] states that the immigrant groups are granted citizenship, and Malays' special rights are guaranteed. This is often referred to the [[Bumiputra]] policy.
These [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist]] policies have come under pressure from racialist Malay parties, who oppose perceived subversion of Malay rights. The issue is sometimes related to the controversial [[status of religious freedom in Malaysia]].
===Singapore===
[[File:Woodlands Town Park East, Singapore, looking north towards Marsiling Rise.jpg|thumb|right|High density public housing in Singapore, which are a common sight in the country, consists of different ethnic groups living together.]]
{{Main|Immigration to Singapore}}
Due to historical immigration trends, [[Singapore]] has a Chinese majority population with significant minority populations of [[Malay people|Malays]] and Indians (predominantly [[Tamil people|Tamils]]). Other prominent smaller groups include [[Peranakans]], [[Eurasians in Singapore|Eurasians]] and [[Ethnic groups of Europe|Europeans]]. Besides [[English language|English]], Singapore recognizes three other languages—[[Malay language|Malay]], [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]. English was established as the medium of instruction in schools during the 1960s and 1970s and is the language of trade and government while the other three languages are taught as second languages ("mother tongues"). Besides being a [[Multilingualism|multilingual]] country, Singapore also acknowledges festivals celebrated by the three main ethnic communities.
Under the [[Raffles Plan of Singapore]], the city was divided into ethnic enclaves such as [[Geylang]], [[Chinatown, Singapore|Chinatown]], and [[Little India, Singapore|Little India]]. Housing in Singapore is governed by the Ethnic Integration Policy, which ensures an even ethnic distribution throughout Singapore.<ref>(n.d.) In [[Housing and Development Board|Housing Development Boards of Singapore website]]. Retrieved: 18 November 2010 from [http://www.hdb.gov.sg/fi10/fi10296p.nsf/PressReleases/C515273FA068DD58482576DD00169155?OpenDocument ''Policy Changes To Support An Inclusive And Cohesive Home''].</ref> A similar policy exists in politics as all [[Group Representation Constituency|Group Representation Constituencies]] are required to field at least one candidate from an ethnic minority.<ref>Goh, Parliamentary Elections (Amendment) Bill, cols. 180–183; {{citation|author=Edwin Lee|title=Singapore: The Unexpected Nation|location=Singapore|publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies|year=2008|page=499|isbn=978-981-230-796-5}}.</ref>
Today, such ethnic enclaves has mostly been eliminated, due to the comtemporary Singapore's government policy to encourage further ethnic integration between the different [[Demographics of Singapore|races of Singapore]]. A prominent example is its public housing system. Unlike other countries, public housing is not ostracised by a wide majority of the population and its government, and acts as a necessary and vital measure to provide immaculate and safe housing surrounded by [[Amenity|public amenities]] at affordable prices, especially during its rapid development and industrialisation in the early years of independence.<ref name="LKS">{{cite book |title=Lim Kim San: a builder of Singapore |date=2009 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9812309280}}</ref> It is also meant to foster [[Group cohesiveness|social cohesion]] between the [[social class]]es and races of Singapore, and prevent neglected areas or districts and [[ethnic enclaves]] from developing – known as the Ethnic Integration Policy (EIP).<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethnic Integration Policy and SPR Quota - Housing & Development Board (HDB)|url=http://www.hdb.gov.sg/cs/infoweb/residential/buying-a-flat/resale/ethnic-integration-policy-and-spr-quota|website=Housing and Development Board (HDB)|access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref> As such, it is considered a unique part of Singaporean culture, being commonly associated with the country.<ref name="SGCUL">{{cite web |url=https://theculturetrip.com/asia/singapore/articles/11-things-you-should-know-about-singaporean-culture/ |title=11 Things You Should Know About Singaporean Culture |last=Kaur |first=Tarra |website=theculturetrip.com |publisher=Culture Trip |access-date=11 June 2022}}</ref>
===South Korea===
{{Main|Immigration to South Korea}}
[[South Korea]] remains a relatively homogenous country ethnically, linguistically, and culturally.<ref>"[http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/koreas_ethnic_nationalism_is_a_source_of_both_pride_and_prejudice_according_to_giwook_shin_20060802/ Korea's ethnic nationalism is a source of both pride and prejudice, according to Gi-Wook Shin] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720053258/http://aparc.stanford.edu/news/koreas_ethnic_nationalism_is_a_source_of_both_pride_and_prejudice_according_to_giwook_shin_20060802 |date=20 July 2011 }}". The Korea Herald. 2 August 2006.</ref> Foreigners, expatriates, and immigrants are often rejected by the mainstream South Korean society and face discrimination.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/19991013000846/http://www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/CMTS/MonoPaper3-13.html The Life Instability of Intermarried Japanese Women in Korea]" (1999), Eung-Ryul Kim (Korea University and University of Southern California, The Center for Multiethnic and Transnational Studies)</ref>
Han Geon-Soo 2007 notes the increased use of the word "multiculturalism" in South Korea: "As the increase of foreign migrants in [South] Korea transforms a single-ethnic homogeneous [South] Korean society into multiethnic and multicultural one, [the South] Korean government and the civil society pay close attention to multiculturalism as an alternative value to their policy and social movement." He argued, however, that "the current discourses and concerns on multiculturalism in [South] Korea" lacked "the constructive and analytical concepts for transforming a society".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Geon-Soo |title=Multicultural Korea: Celebration or Challenge of Multiethnic Shift in Contemporary Korea? |journal=Korea Journal |date=December 2007 |volume=47 |issue=4 |pages=32–31 |doi=10.25024/KJ.2007.47.4.32 |s2cid=151038291 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
The same year, Stephen Castles of the International Migration Institute argued:
:"Korea no longer has to decide whether it wants to become a multicultural society. It made that decision years ago – perhaps unconsciously – when it decided to be a full participant in the emerging global economy. It confirmed that decision when it decided to actively recruit foreign migrants to meet the economic and demographic needs of a fast-growing society. Korea is faced by a different decision today: what type of multicultural society does it want to be?"<ref>Stephen Castles, [http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SC%20paper%20on%20MC%20soc%20for%20GHFR%20Korea%202007.pdf "Will Labour Migration lead to a Multicultural Society in Korea?", Global Human Resources Forum 2007 / International Migration Institute] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725111757/http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/SC%20paper%20on%20MC%20soc%20for%20GHFR%20Korea%202007.pdf |date=25 July 2011 }}</ref>
The ''[[Korea Times]]'' suggested in 2009 that South Korea was likely to become a multicultural society.<ref>[https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2010/10/123_57884.html "Multiculturalism Likely to Prevail in Korea"], Lee Hyo-sik, ''Korea Times'', 24 December 2009</ref> In 2010, an opinion editorial written by Peter Underwood for the ''[[JoongAng Ilbo]]'' stated: "Media in [South] Korea is abuzz with the new era of multiculturalism. With more than one million foreigners in [South] Korea, 2 percent of the population comes from other cultures." He further opined:
:"If you stay too long, Koreans become uncomfortable with you. [...] Having a two percent foreign population unquestionably causes ripples, but having one million temporary foreign residents does not make Korea a multicultural society. [...] In many ways, this homogeneity is one of Korea’s greatest strengths. Shared values create harmony. Sacrifice for the nation is a given. Difficult and painful political and economic initiatives are endured without discussion or debate. It is easy to anticipate the needs and behavior of others. It is the cornerstone that has helped Korea survive adversity. But there is a downside, too. [...] Koreans are immersed in their culture and are thus blind to its characteristics and quirks. Examples of group think are everywhere. Because Koreans share values and views, they support decisions even when they are obviously bad. Multiculturalism will introduce contrasting views and challenge existing assumptions. While it will undermine the homogeneity, it will enrich Koreans with a better understanding of themselves."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Underwood |first=Peter |date=26 August 2010 |url=http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925120 |title=Multiculturalism in Korea |work=JoongAng Ilbo |location=South Korea |publisher=JoongAng Ilbo |access-date=2 September 2010 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100902022520/http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2925120 |archive-date=2 September 2010 }}</ref>
In 2010, results from the Korean Identity Survey suggested that government programs promoting multicultralism had seen some success with over 60% of Koreans supporting the idea a multicultural society.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Palmer |first1=James |last2=Park |first2=Ga-Yong |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/07/16/south-koreans-learn-to-love-the-other-multiculturalism/ |title=South Koreans Learn to Love the Other: How to manufacture multiculturalism |access-date=3 December 2019 |newspaper=Foreign Policy |date=26 July 2018}}</ref> However, the same poll in 2015 showed that support of a multicultural society had dropped to 49.7% suggesting a possible return to ethnic exclusivism.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Denney |first=Steven |url=https://sinonk.com/2016/10/28/south-korean-identity-the-return-of-ethnic-exclusivism/ |title=South Korean Identity: The Return of Ethnic Exclusivism |access-date=4 December 2019 |journal=Sino-NK |date=28 October 2016}}</ref>
=== Turkey ===
{{Main|Immigration to Turkey}}
[[Turkey]] is a country that borders both Europe and Asia, therefore placing it as the multicultural intersection for Eurasia – thus including people of Armenian, Jewish, Kurds, Arabs, Turks, and Persian descent. This cultural influence mainly stems from the [[Culture of Iran|Iranian culture]], which spread through multiple ways but mainly during the early modern period where Iranian and Ottoman contact flourished and the influence of the [[Kurds]], an Iranian ethnic group, on Turkish culture. However, it also entails influence from Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim influence.<ref name="auto2">{{cite journal |last1=Rauf |first1=Imam Feisal Abdul |title=MULTICULTURALISMS: Western, Muslim and Future |journal=CrossCurrents |date=2005 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=100–105 |jstor=24461190 }}</ref> In recent years there has been an increase of diversity acceptance in Turkey, mainly because there was fear of losing values of the non-existent [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kaya |first=Ayhan |chapter=Multiculturalism and Minorities in Turkey |date=2013 |title=Challenging Multiculturalism |pages=297–316 |series=European Models of Diversity |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-6457-3 |jstor=10.3366/j.ctt20q22fw.20 }}</ref> However, just after the turn of the century, Turkey has embraced its multicultural location and has even began to influence other countries. With Turkey having roots of Islam they have been provided a path for Islam to be accepted into neighboring countries in Europe.<ref name="auto2"/>
== Africa ==
===Cameroon===
Officially known as the Republic of Cameroon, [[Cameroon]] is found in [[central Africa]] consisting of a diverse geographical and cultural area that makes it one of the most diverse countries known today. Ranging from mountains, deserts, and rainforests, to coast-lands and savanna grasslands, its diverse geography makes a large diverse population possible. This diverse geography resembles Africa as a whole and due to this, many people commonly label Cameroon as "Africa in Miniature".<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/|title=The World Factbook – Central Intelligence Agency|website=cia.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{cite journal |last1=Mbenda |first1=Huguette Gaelle Ngassa |last2=Awasthi |first2=Gauri |last3=Singh |first3=Poonam K |last4=Gouado |first4=Inocent |last5=Das |first5=Aparup |title=Does malaria epidemiology project Cameroon as 'Africa in miniature'? |journal=Journal of Biosciences |date=September 2014 |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=727–738 |doi=10.1007/s12038-014-9451-y |pmid=25116627 |s2cid=17219470 }}</ref>
==== Demographics and official languages ====
Before Cameroon’s independence, it was under British and French colonial rule from 1916-1961.<ref name=":13"/> Upon gaining [[sovereignty]], a major colonial influence was evident, having both English and French become the national language to roughly 25,000,000 Cameroonian residents.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=esa.un.org|access-date=2018-07-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919061238/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{cite conference |last1=Asanga Fon |first1=Nguh Nwei |title=Can Bilingualism Survive in Cameroon? |pages=260–275 |conference=The Future of Humanities, Education and Creative Industries |date=October 2017 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338146687 }}</ref> Apart from these two major languages, a new language consisting of a mixture of French, English, and [[Cameroonian Pidgin English|Pidgin]] known as [[Camfranglais|Frananglais]] gained popularity among Cameroonian residents.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=https://newuh.blog/2012/12/13/cameroon-africa-in-miniature-in-what-sense/|title=Cameroon: Africa in Miniature – In what Sense?|date=13 December 2012|work=KINGSLEY SHETEH'S BLOG|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en-US}}</ref>
==== Indigenous languages ====
Although these three languages are the most common in Cameroon, there are still approximately 273 [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] languages being spoken throughout the country, making it not only culturally diverse but linguistically as well.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CM|title=Cameroon|website=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> Among those who speak these indigenous languages are people from [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], Sudanic, [[Baka people (Cameroon and Gabon)|Baka]], [[Wodaabe]] (or [[Mbororo]]) and even primitive hunter-gatherer groups known as [[Pygmy peoples|Pygmies]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Cameroon|title=Cameroon {{!}} Culture, History, & People|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en}}</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iwgia.org/en/cameroon|title=Cameroon|website=iwgia.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref>
==== Indigenous peoples' rights ====
Although native to Cameroonian land, they faced constant discrimination much like other indigenous groups around the world. The United Nations General Assembly ([[United Nations General Assembly|UNGA]]) adopted the United Nations' Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples ([[UNDRIP]]) in 2007. What this allowed was the protection of land and resource rights and prevented others from [[wiktionary:Exploitation|exploiting]] or violating them.<ref>{{cite document |last1=Samuel |first1=Nguiffo |last2=Amougou |first2=Victor Amougou |last3=Schwartz |first3=Brendan |last4=Cotula |first4=Lorenzo |title=Indigenous peoples' land rights in Cameroon: progress to date and possible futures |date=December 2017 |publisher=International Institute for Environment and Development |url=https://pubs.iied.org/17448IIED |jstor=resrep16706 }}</ref> In 2016, a group of indigenous Baka and Bagyeli groups united to form Gbabandi. Gbabandi allowed these indigenous groups to have a form of representation and a declared list of requirements that people of Cameroon had to abide by. Among these requirements were guaranteed land rights, peoples' consent to the usage of their sacred land, traditional chiefs and the ability to participate in "local, regional, and national levels" of political and economic matters. As a result, this established a sense of justice and acknowledgment among indigenous groups in Cameroon and posed for future battles for indigenous peoples' rights.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/rights-land-natural-resources/news-article/2017/declaration-land-rights-gbabandi-platform-cameroon|title=Declaration on land rights from the Gbabandi Platform, Cameroon {{!}} Forest Peoples Programme|website=forestpeoples.org|language=en|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref>
===Mauritius===
Multiculturalism has been a characteristic feature of the island of [[Mauritius]].<ref name="LionnetShi2005">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NJKgGEb2jpsC&pg=PA203|title=Minor transnationalism|author1=Françoise Lionnet|author2=Shumei Shi|date=16 February 2005|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0-8223-3490-3|page=203|access-date=29 January 2012}}</ref> This is mainly because of colonization that has been present from, the English, the French, and the Dutch.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng Tseung-Wong |first1=Caroline |last2=Verkuyten |first2=Maykel |title=Multiculturalism, Mauritian Style: Cultural Diversity, Belonging, and a Secular State |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |date=May 2015 |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=679–701 |doi=10.1177/0002764214566498 |s2cid=144906729 }}</ref> However, the Mauritian society includes people from many different ethnic and religious groups: Hindu, Muslim and [[Indo-Mauritian]]s, [[Mauritian Creole people|Mauritian Creoles]] (of African and [[Malagasy people|Malagasy]] descent), Buddhist and Roman Catholic [[Sino-Mauritian]]s and [[Franco-Mauritian]]s (descendants of the original [[French people|French]] colonists).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infomauritius.com/|title=Some facts about Mauritius|publisher=Infomauritius.com|access-date=2010-12-10|archive-date=21 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821215852/http://www.infomauritius.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Mauritius has embraced intertwining of cultures from the origin of the country, and has coined the term fruit-salad, which is a much more appealing term in comparison to melting-pot showing that they were not forced to these cultures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=Eddy S. |last2=Bloemraad |first2=Irene |title=A SWOT Analysis of Multiculturalism in Canada, Europe, Mauritius, and South Korea |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |date=May 2015 |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=619–636 |doi=10.1177/0002764214566500 |s2cid=147514771 }}</ref>
=== South Africa ===
{{Main|Immigration to South Africa}}
[[South Africa]] is the fifth-most populous country and one of the most developed countries in Africa.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-10-most-populated-countries-in-africa.html|title=The 10 Most Populated Countries in Africa|work=WorldAtlas|access-date=2018-07-26|language=en}}</ref> South Africa also officially recognises 11 languages including English, making it third behind Bolivia and India in most official languages.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf|title=Census 2011 Census in Brief|date=13 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513171240/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf|archive-date=2015-05-13|url-status=dead|access-date=2018-07-26}}</ref> The three most common languages are Zulu, Xhosa, and Afrikaans. Though South Africa's cultural traditions may decline as it becomes more and more Westernised, it is still known for its diverse culture.
== Oceania ==
===Australia===
{{Main|Multiculturalism in Australia}}
The next country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism after Canada was Australia, a country with similar immigration situations and similar policies, for example the formation of the [[Special Broadcasting Service]].<ref name="immi.gov.au">{{cite web |url=http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/research/_pdf/poa-2008.pdf |title=IMMI.gov.au |access-date=2010-12-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081209074027/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/research/_pdf/poa-2008.pdf |archive-date=9 December 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The [[Australian Government]] retains multiculturalism in policy and as a defining aspect of Australia today.<ref name="Reference"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="policy"/><ref>{{cite web|title=A Team to Build a Stronger Australia|url=http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106010039/http://www.liberal.org.au/latest-news/2013/09/16/hon-tony-abbott-mp-press-release-team-build-stronger-australia|archive-date=6 November 2013}}</ref>
[[File:Chinatown Sydney.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|[[Chinatown, Sydney|Sydney's Chinatown]]]]
The [[White Australia Policy]] was dismantled after World War II by various changes to [[Immigration to Australia|immigration policy]], although the official policy of multiculturalism was not formally introduced until 1972.<ref name="GalliganRavenhill1997">{{cite book|author1=Brian Galligan|author2=John Ravenhill|title=New developments in Australian politics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DFUm9uiS5akC&pg=PA13|date=15 June 1997|publisher=Macmillan Education AU|isbn=978-0-7329-4304-2|page=13}}</ref> The election of [[Howard government|John Howard's Liberal-National Coalition]] government in 1996 was a major watershed for Australian multiculturalism. [[John Howard|Howard]] had long been a critic of multiculturalism, releasing his [[One Australia policy]] in the late 1980s.<ref name="Cornelius2004">{{cite book|author=Wayne A. Cornelius|title=Controlling immigration: a global perspective|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i0d10wbGkWEC&pg=PA143|year=2004|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-0-8047-4490-4|page=143}}</ref> ''[[A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services]]'', first published in 1999, was a publication of the [[Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau]] designed to offer guidance to police and emergency services personnel on how religious affiliation can affect their contact with the public.<ref>{{cite web|title=Document Details|work=Abstract Database|publisher=US National Criminal Justice Reference Service|url=http://www.ncjrs.gov/App/abstractdb/AbstractDBDetails.aspx?id=183016|access-date=28 April 2010}}</ref><ref name="dunn">{{Cite journal|last=Dunn|first=Andy|title=Two-Way Tolerance|journal=Police Journal Online|volume=81|issue=6|date=June 2000|url=http://www.policejournalsa.org.au/0006/17a.html|access-date=27 April 2010|archive-date=28 September 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090928055931/http://policejournalsa.org.au/0006/17a.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Chilana|first=Rajwant Singh|title=International bibliography of Sikh studies|publisher=Springer|year=2005|page=444|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wEX-98eVyBcC&pg=PA444|isbn=978-1-4020-3043-7}}</ref> The first edition covered [[Buddhist]], [[Hindu]], [[Islamic]], [[Jewish]] and [[Sikh]] faiths, with participation of representatives of the various religions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police|publisher=National Police Ethnic Advisory Bureau |edition=1st |year=1999 |url=http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious/religious.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030316104007/http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious/religious.pdf|archive-date=16 March 2003}}</ref> The second edition, published in 2002, added [[Christianity|Christian]], [[Aboriginal Australians|Aboriginal]] and [[Torres Strait Islander]] religions and the [[Baháʼí Faith]] to the list of religions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police|publisher=Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau |edition=2nd |year=2002 |url=http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious2/religious_guide.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050619070219/http://www.apmab.gov.au/guide/religious2/religious_guide.pdf|archive-date=19 June 2005}}</ref>
Contact between people of different cultures in Australia has been characterised by tolerance and engagement, but have also occasionally resulted in conflict and rifts.<ref>{{Cite journal |url = http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Racism,_Ethnicity_and_Hate_Crime.pdf |last1 = White |first1 = Rob |last2 = Perrone |first2 = Santina |year = 2001 |title = Racism, Ethnicity and Hate Crime |journal = Communal/Plural |volume = 9 |issue = 2 |pages = 161–81 |access-date = 2012-08-18 |doi = 10.1080/13207870120081479 |url-status = dead |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100705040633/http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/Racism,_Ethnicity_and_Hate_Crime.pdf |archive-date = 5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title = Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech in Australia |chapter = The Volatility of Racism in Australia |pages = 20–33 |editor1= Katharine Gelber |editor2=Adrienne Stone |isbn = 9781862876538 |publisher = Federation Press |year=2007 |chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Y3oYYweMrF8C&q=%22volatility+of+racism+in+australia%22&pg=PA20 |author = Ann Curthoys |author-link=Ann Curthoys }}</ref> Australia's diverse migrant communities have brought with them food, lifestyle and cultural practices, many of which have been absorbed into mainstream Australian culture.<ref name="Reference"/><ref name="ReferenceA"/>
Members of a multicultural community who are not of [[Anglo-Australian]] background or not [[cultural assimilation|"assimilated"]] are often referred to in policy discourse as [[culturally and linguistically diverse]] (CALD), introduced in 1996 to replace non-English speaking background (NESB).<ref>{{cite document |last1=Sawrikar |first1=Pooja |last2=Katz |first2=Ilan |year=2009 |title=How useful is the term 'culturally and linguistically diverse' (CALD) in Australian research and policy discourse? |hdl=10707/20945 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=What is CALD? - Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (2020 Edition) | website=EthnoLink | date=19 February 2019 | url=https://www.ethnolink.com.au/cald-culturally-and-linguistically-diverse/ | access-date=30 August 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jeon |first1=Yun-Hee |last2=Chenoweth |first2=Lynn |title=Working With a Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) Group of Nurses |journal=Collegian |date=January 2007 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=16–22 |doi=10.1016/s1322-7696(08)60543-0 |pmid=17294682 |hdl=10453/5895 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
=== New Zealand ===
[[New Zealand]] is a [[Sovereign state|sovereign]] Oceanic country that adopted its multicultural policies post World War II. The country used to have immigration policies similar to Australia's [[White Australia Policy]], and The United States [[Immigration Act of 1924]],<ref>Socidad Peruana de Medicina Intensiva (SOPEMI) (2000). ''Trends in international migration: continuous reporting system on migration''. [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]]. pp. 276–278.</ref> but it would later follow suit with Australia and Canada in the 1970s and adopt similar multicultural policies. The relaxation of migration led to an influx of new migration to New Zealand in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/history-of-immigration|title=History of immigration – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|website=teara.govt.nz|language=en|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref><ref>Phillips, Jock (11 August 2015). "History of immigration". Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 2 June 2017.</ref> This led to an increase of Asian and Pacific islander peoples on the island, and ultimately a more diverse European population.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/the-new-zealanders/page-13|title=13. – The New Zealanders – Te Ara Encyclopedia of New Zealand|last=Taonga|first=New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage Te Manatu|website=teara.govt.nz|language=en|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref> In 1985 the Law Commission Act was passed which required the New Zealand Law Commission to review laws while taking into account both the indigenous [[Māori people|Māori]] of New Zealand and New Zealand's multicultural character.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.queensu.ca/mcp/immigrant-minorities/evidence/new-zealand|title=New Zealand {{!}} Multiculturalism Policies in Contemporary Democracies|website=queensu.ca|language=en|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref> In 1987 New Zealand officially recognized the indigenous Māori language as a national language.<ref>"Waitangi Tribunal claim – Māori Language Week". Ministry for Culture and Heritage. July 2010. Retrieved 19 January 2011.</ref> The revitalization in the Māori language led to its immersion in schools and television broadcast.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11670518|title=John Drinnan: 'Maori' will remain in the name Maori Television|last=@Zagzigger2|first=John Drinnan John Drinnan is the Media writer for the New Zealand Herald jdrinnan@xtra co nz|date=7 July 2016|work=NZ Herald|access-date=2018-07-16|language=en-NZ|issn=1170-0777}}</ref>
In 2001 the New Zealand government opened an Office of Ethnic Affairs to advise its local governments on the advancement of ethnic diversity and affairs of its multicultural communities.<ref name="auto"/> [[List of dual place names in New Zealand|Many landmarks]] on the island have both their Māori and English names officially recognized. Māori makes up 3.7% of the population's speaking language.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stats.govt.nz/topics/language?url=/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/languages.aspx|title=Language {{!}} Stats NZ|website=stats.govt.nz|language=en-NZ|access-date=2018-07-16}}</ref> A 2013 census of New Zealand's population showed that 74% of the population identifies ethnically as European, while the latter 15% majority identify as Māori. The remainder identify as Asian, Arab, African, Pacific Islander and Latin American.
=== Papua New Guinea ===
[[Papua New Guinea]] is one of the most multicultural countries in the world.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fearon |first1=James D. |title=Ethnic and Cultural Diversity by Country |journal=Journal of Economic Growth |date=1 June 2003 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=195–222 |doi=10.1023/A:1024419522867 |s2cid=152680631 }}</ref> This [[Oceania]]n country is home to over eight million people<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|title=World Population Prospects - Population Division - United Nations|website=esa.un.org|access-date=2018-07-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919061238/https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> that are divided into hundreds of different indigenous ethnic groups and cultures with over 820 different indigenous languages.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG|title=Papua New Guinea|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-07-06|language=en}}</ref> A majority of the indigenous groups are [[Papuan people|Papuans]] who have ancestors that lived in New Guinea over ten thousand years ago. The latter majority are [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] whose ancestors arrived less than four thousand years ago. The island's population is also made up of many [[expatriate]] citizens from China, Australia, Indonesia, Europe and the Philippines. In 1975 the island population was found to be made up of 40,000 of these diverse expatriate citizens.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Papua-New-Guinea|title=Papua New Guinea {{!}} Culture, History, & People|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=2018-07-11|language=en}}</ref> Despite the large amount of culturally diverse locations on the island, the [[Kuk Early Agricultural Site]] is the only [[UNESCO]] World heritage location.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/PG|title=Papua New Guinea |work= UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2018-07-28}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Portal|Society}}
{{div col|colwidth=28em}}
* [[Acceptance]]
* [[Cosmopolitanism]]
* [[Cross-cultural]]
* [[Cross-cultural communication]]
* [[Cultural assimilation]]
* [[Cultural competence]]
* [[Cultural conflict]]
* [[Cultural homogenization]]
* [[Diversity (politics)]]
* [[Ethnic penalty]]
* [[Ethnocentrism]]
* [[Ethnocultural empathy]]
* [[Ethnopluralism]]
* [[Europeanism]]
* [[Global Centre for Pluralism]] (Canada)
* [[Hybridity]]
* [[Immigration and crime]]
* [[Intercultural competence]]
* [[Intercultural relations]]
* [[Leitkultur]]
* [[List of countries ranked by ethnic and cultural diversity level]]
* [[Miscegenation]]
* ''[[Multiculturalism without Culture]]'' (book)
* [[Sociology of race and ethnic relations]]
* [[Multicultural art]]
* [[Multicultural education]]
* [[Multikulti]]
* [[Multinational state]]
* [[National personal autonomy]]
* [[Parallel society]]
* [[Pluriculturalism]]
* [[Plurinationalism]]
* [[Polyculturalism]]
* [[Polyethnicity]]
* [[Rainbow Nation]]
* [[Racial integration]]
* [[Syncretism]]
* [[The Society for the Study of the Multi-Ethnic Literature of the United States]]
* [[Transculturation]]
* ''[[Unrooted Childhoods]]'' (book)
*[[Unity in diversity]]
* [[Xenocentrism]]
{{div col end}}
== References ==
<!-- === Citations === -->
{{Reflist}}
== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Brian Barry|author=Barry Brian|title=Culture and Equality: An Egalitarian Critique of Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=COkp0MUhV-4C&pg=PP1|date=30 October 2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-01001-7}}
* {{cite book|author=Baumann, Gerd|title=The Multicultural Riddle: Rethinking National, Ethnic, and Religious Identities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzJqENtElDAC&pg=PP1|date=22 March 1999|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-92213-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Bennett, David|title=Multicultural States: Rethinking Difference and Identity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PhRagnCkF0C&pg=PP1|date=10 November 1998|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-415-12159-0}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Gad Barzilai|author=Barzilai, Gad|title=Communities And Law: Politics And Cultures of Legal Identities|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mHWXPvD3TGcC&pg=PP1|date=9 February 2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|isbn=978-0-472-03079-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Caravantes, Ernesto|title=From melting pot to witch's cauldron: how multiculturalism failed America|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fF9TI8BsOdAC&pg=PP1|date=30 June 2010|publisher=Government Institutes|isbn=978-0-7618-5056-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Eriksen, Jens-Martin and Stjernfelt, Frederik|title=The democratic contradictions of multiculturalism|url=http://www.telospress.com/teloscasteriksen-and-stjernfelts-the-democratic-contradictions-of-multiculturalism/|year=2012|publisher=Telos Press|isbn=978-0914386469}}
* {{cite book|author=Fillion, Réal Robert|title=Multicultural dynamics and the ends of history: exploring Kant, Hegel, and Marx|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eh9JrJH1HiwC&pg=PP1|year=2008|publisher=University of Ottawa Press|isbn=978-0-7766-0670-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Fortier, Anne-Marie|title=Multicultural Horizons: Diversity and the Limits of the Civil Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3ReWEWKXwrsC&pg=PP1|date=2 April 2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-39608-0}}
* {{cite book|author=Goldber, David Theo|title=Multiculturalism: A Critical Reader|year=1994|publisher=Blackwell Publishers|isbn=978-0-631-18912-1}}
* {{cite book|author1=Gordon, Avery|author2=Newfield, Christopher|name-list-style=amp|title=Mapping Multiculturalism|year=1996|publisher=University of Minnesota Press|isbn=978-0-8166-2547-5}}
* {{cite book|author=Gottfried, Paul|title=Multiculturalism and the Politics of Guilt: Toward a Secular Theocracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AkDOtBZHm5UC&pg=PP1|date=January 2004|publisher=University of Missouri Press|isbn=978-0-8262-1520-8|author-link=Paul Gottfried}}
* Icart, Jean-Claude (2007). [https://web.archive.org/web/20090319070206/http://www3.nfb.ca/duneculturealautre/theme_article.php?id=2006&pubid=18197 "Racism in Canada"] in ''Across Cultures'' Montreal: National Film Board of Canada.
* {{cite book|author1=International Progress Organization|author2-link=UNESCO|author2=UNESCO|name-list-style=amp|title=Cultural self-comprehension of nations|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YI_nZjqwPIYC&pg=PP1|year=1978|publisher=International Progress Organization|isbn=978-3-7711-0311-8}}
* {{cite book|author=Hesse, Barnor|title=Un/settled Multiculturalisms: Diasporas, Entanglements, "transruptions"|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KiWYDGkcipQC&pg=PP1|year=2000|publisher=Zed Books|isbn=978-1-85649-560-8}}
* {{cite book|author-link=Will Kymlicka|author=Kymlicka, Will|title=Multicultural Citizenship: A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w5Kaqqy-W78C&pg=PP1|date=1 June 1995|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-152097-6}})
* Kymlicka, Will (8 December 2005). ''Multiculturalism in Asia''. Oxford University Press. ({{ISBN|019927763X}})
* Ley, David "multiculturalism" in Gregory, Derek (ed.) (2009) ''The Dictionary of Human Geography'' (5th ed.) Blackwell Publishers.
* {{cite book|author1=Mendola, Louis |author2=Alio, Jacqueline |title=The Peoples of Sicily: A Multicultural Legacy|year=2013|publisher=Trinacria|isbn=978-0-615-79694-9}}
* {{cite book|author-link1=Tariq Modood|author1=Modood, Tariq|author2=Werbner, Phina|name-list-style=amp|title=The Politics of Multiculturalism in the New Europe: Racism, Identity, and Community|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YqRPR6RA-x0C&pg=PP1|date=15 October 1997|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn=978-1-85649-422-9}}
* {{cite book|author=Okin, Susan Moller|title=Is Multiculturalism Bad for Women?|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oOCjHMn_SbUC&pg=PP1|date=9 August 1999|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-4099-1}}
* {{cite book|author=Parekh, Bhikhu C.|title=Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and Political Theory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ajx-AoUIW6wC&pg=PP1|year=2002|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-00995-0}}
* {{Cite journal | last= Putnam | first = Robert D. | author-link = Robert D. Putnam | title = ''E Pluribus Unum'': Diversity and community in the twenty-first century | id = [[Johan Skytte Prize in Political Science|The 2006 Johan Skytte Prize Lecture]] | journal = [[Scandinavian Political Studies]] | volume = 30 | issue = 2 | pages = 137–174 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-9477.2007.00176.x | date = June 2007 }}
* {{cite book | last = Russon | first = John | author-link = John Russon | title = Human experience philosophy, neurosis, and the elements of everyday life | publisher = State University of New York Press | location = Albany | year = 2003 | isbn = 9780791486757 }}
* {{cite news | last = Sailer | first = Steve | author-link = Steve Sailer | title = Fragmented future | url = http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ | work = [[The American Conservative]] | publisher = Jon Basil Utley | date = 15 January 2007 | access-date = 19 November 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110604174328/http://www.amconmag.com/article/2007/jan/15/00007/ | archive-date = 4 June 2011 | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book|author=Taylor, Charles|title=Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EnebqvkFiCwC&pg=PP1|date=20 December 2011|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-1-4008-2140-2|author-link=Charles Taylor (philosopher)|edition=Expanded Paperback}}.
* {{cite book|author=Tremblay, Arjun|title=Diversity in Decline: The rise of the political right and the Fate of Multiculturalism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hoV-uwEACAAJ|year=2019|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|isbn= 978-3-030-02299-0}}
* {{Cite journal | last = Žižek | first = Slavoj | author-link = Slavoj Žižek | title = Multiculturalism, or, the cultural logic of multinational capitalism | journal = [[New Left Review]] | volume = I | issue = 225 | pages = 28–51 | date = September–October 1997 | url = http://newleftreview.org/I/225/slavoj-zizek-multiculturalism-or-the-cultural-logic-of-multinational-capitalism }}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://theriskyshift.com/2012/09/multiculturalism-modern-discourse Multiculturalism In Modern Discourse]
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/multicul/ Multiculturalism] – ''[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]''
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/multiculturalism/ Multiculturalism] – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
* [http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/politics/language-culture/language-culture-general/true-canadians.html Multiculturalism in Canada debated] – CBC video archives (14 September 2004 – 42:35 min)
* [http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/c-18.7/FullText.html Canadian Multiculturalism Act]
{{-}}
{{Multiculturalism}}
{{Culture}}
{{Discrimination}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Multiculturalism| ]]
[[Category:Cultural politics]]
[[Category:Identity politics]]
[[Category:Politics and race]]
[[Category:Social theories]]
[[Category:Sociology of culture]]
[[Category:Human resource management]]
[[Category:Pluralism (philosophy)]]
[[Category:Social movements]]' |
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379 => 'https://www.cengage.com/search/productOverview.do?N=197&Ntk=P_EPI&Ntt=508676737550071330333596981793254059&Ntx=mode%2Bmatchallpartial',
380 => 'https://www.chronicle.com/blogs/percolator/robert-putnam-says-his-research-was-twisted/30357',
381 => 'https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/argentina/',
382 => 'https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/bolivia/',
383 => 'https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cameroon/',
384 => 'https://www.cultura.gob.ar/dia-internacional-de-los-pueblos-indigenas_6292/#:~:text=Ellos%20son:%20Atacama,%20Chan%C3%A9,,Tehuelche,%20Tili%C3%A1n,%20Toba%20(Qom',
385 => 'https://www.dagenssamhalle.se/nyhet/dags-att-begrava-det-multikulturella-projektet-31651',
386 => 'https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immsuptable2d_5.xls',
387 => 'https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/publications/immigration-statistics/yearbook/2013/LPR/immsuptable2d.xls',
388 => 'https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21709291-why-canada-still-ease-openness-last-liberals',
389 => 'https://www.ethnolink.com.au/cald-culturally-and-linguistically-diverse/',
390 => 'https://www.ethnologue.com/country/CM',
391 => 'https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PG',
392 => 'https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/rights-land-natural-resources/news-article/2017/declaration-land-rights-gbabandi-platform-cameroon',
393 => 'https://www.forum18.org/archive.php?article_id=2652',
394 => 'https://www.helsinginuutiset.fi/paikalliset/1440569',
395 => 'https://www.hig.se/download/18.4db66897149b264e1ba4df24/1417115797086/mangfald.pdf',
396 => 'https://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/asia/borneo0228.htm',
397 => 'https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/07/23/thats-when-i-realized-i-was-nobody/climate-fear-lgbt-people-kazakhstan',
398 => 'https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/kazakhstan',
399 => 'https://www.investigacionyciencia.es/revistas/investigacion-y-ciencia/matemticas-del-planeta-tierra-585/el-impacto-del-mestizaje-en-mxico-11442',
400 => 'https://www.iwgia.org/en/bolivia',
401 => 'https://www.iwgia.org/en/cameroon',
402 => 'https://www.justarrived.lu/en/practical-information/population-in-luxembourg/',
403 => 'https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/biz/2010/10/123_57884.html',
404 => 'https://www.novosti.rs/vesti/naslovna/reportaze/aktuelno.293.html:446510-I-Kinezi-napustaju-Srbiju',
405 => 'https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12802663',
406 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/13/education/13texas.html',
407 => 'https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/10/world/asia/indonesia-chinese-statue-islam-muslims-protest-guan-yu.html',
408 => 'https://www.nzherald.co.nz/business/news/article.cfm?c_id=3&objectid=11670518',
409 => 'https://www.panoramio.com/photo_explorer#view=photo&position=55&with_photo_id=7648128&order=date_desc&user=671534',
410 => 'https://www.queensu.ca/mcp/immigrant-minorities/evidence/new-zealand',
411 => 'https://www.redalyc.org/jatsRepo/279/27956721004/html/index.html',
412 => 'https://www.research.manchester.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/blackness-indigeneity-multiculturalism-and-genomics-in-brazil-colombia-and-mexico(e5608414-9f57-4047-b858-2b7131c3c424).html',
413 => 'https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Murat-Akan/publication/26260531_Laicite_and_multiculturalism_The_Stasi_Report_in_context/links/5e7c8990a6fdcc139c0486a1/Laicite-and-multiculturalism-The-Stasi-Report-in-context.pdf',
414 => 'https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338146687',
415 => 'https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-sarkozy-multiculturalism-idUSTRE71A4UP20110211',
416 => 'https://www.rferl.org/a/dungan-incident-just-kazakhstan-s-latest-interethnic-violence/30427037.html',
417 => 'https://www.rferl.org/a/kazakhstan-targets-islamist-beards-pants-destructive-movements/29017566.html',
418 => 'https://www.slideshare.net/jenny78/venezuela-sociedad-multietnica-y-pluricultural',
419 => 'https://www.ssb.no/befolkning/statistikker/innvbef',
420 => 'https://www.ssb.no/en/statbank/table/09623/',
421 => 'https://www.state.gov/reports/2020-report-on-international-religious-freedom/kazakhstan/',
422 => 'https://www.stats.govt.nz/topics/language?url=/Census/2013-census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/languages.aspx',
423 => 'https://www.svd.se/svenskar-vill-ha-inhagnat-boende',
424 => 'https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/mar/22/multiculturalism-blame-culture-segregation',
425 => 'https://www.uuttahelsinkia.fi/fi/esikaupungit/rakentaminen/vuosaari',
426 => 'https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2015/12/14/angela-merkel-multiculturalism-is-a-sham/',
427 => 'https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/03/17/AR2010031700560.html',
428 => 'https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q190656#identifiers',
429 => 'https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-10-most-populated-countries-in-africa.html',
430 => 'https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB124753078523935615',
431 => 'https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-indonesia-fears-rise-among-ethnic-chinese-amid-blasphemy-probe-1480161601'
] |
