Molina Estevez Franciscojavier PDF
Molina Estevez Franciscojavier PDF
Molina Estevez Franciscojavier PDF
Directores de tesis:
Tengo también que agradecer a mis amigos de Getafe por ayudarme a mantener la cordura
simplemente estando ahí y no discutiendo de ciencia (para algo en lo que os podría ganar…).
También a las personas que me han soportado más de cerca: en primer lugar mis padres, Javier y
Lourdes, y mi hermana Noelia, no hace falta decirlo pero os quiero. Y también a mis flores: Belén e
Inesita y Johana, por supuesto. A mi primera amiga: Celina y a mi Cris, Aida y Nora, vuestra amistad
es muy importante para mí. Y a mi familia Bioquímica: Loli, Paula, Lara y Quique, sin vosotros no
hubiese sido capaz ni de cerrar un supuesto práctico.
Esta es una tesis que desafía a la herencia clásica, mediante la transferencia horizontal de genes,
y el curso natural de la vida, rejuveneciendo células hasta el punto de que pierden su identidad. Así,
que tengo que agradecer todo ese legado que no sigue el dogma de la biología que he recibido de
mis abuelos y sus hermanos, y que se basa en compartir experiencias y sentimientos sin ningún
soporte físico por medio, gracias por vuestro cariño.
A Angelines,
por su ejemplo de lucha
INDEX
-/-
1.2.5.- Fanca recipients engrafted with gene corrected cells display a
healthy phenotype .............................................................................................................. 69
1.3.- INSERTIONAL REPERTOIRE OF FANCA-LV UPON SERIAL TRANSPLANTATION
-/-
IN Fanca MICE UNCOVERS SIGHTS OF HEALTHY HEMATOPOIESIS ........................................... 70
1.3.1.- High throughput analysis of LV and RV integration sites in transduced
-/-
Fanca cells ......................................................................................................................... 70
1.3.2.- Analysis of the insertional profile in hematopoietic samples from
-/-
Fanca mice transplanted with gene corrected syngeneic HSCs ........................................ 72
-/-
1.3.3.- The analysis of the insertional profile defines clusters in Fanca HSCs ............................. 73
1.3.4.- Ingenuity pathway analysis ................................................................................................. 73
1.3.5.- Clonal analyses of FANCA-LV transduced cells exhibit a healthy clonal
-/-
HSC turnover in Fanca recipients ..................................................................................... 74
-/-
1.3.6.- Clonal kinetics in Fanca mice show a polyclonal repopulation pattern of corrected
cells in contrast to the oligoclonal repopulation of EGFP-RV transduced HSCs ................. 76
scid
2.- GENERATION OF iPSC LINES FROM Prkdc SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENT MICE .............. 83
2.1.- GENERATION OF WT iPSC CLONES WITH REPROGRAMMING LENTIVIRAL VECTORS .................. 83
2.1.1.- STEMCCA reprogramming-LV .............................................................................................. 83
2.1.2.- Scid MEFs resistance to cell reprogramming....................................................................... 87
2.2.- DISECTING THE REPROGRAMMING REFRACTORY PROPERTIES OF
DNA-PKcs DEFICIENT FIBROBLASTS ............................................................................................. 88
scid
2.2.1.- Analyses of the telomere length of Prkdc MEFs .............................................................. 88
scid
2.2.2.- Reprogramming-LVs promote Prkdc cell proliferation.................................................... 89
2.2.3.- Reprogramming-LVs efficiently transduce Scid cells ........................................................... 90
2.3.- REPROGRAMMING TRANSPOSONS FACILITATE THE GENERATION OF DNA-PKcs
DEFICIENT iPSCs WITH A CHARACTERISTIC RADIOSENSITIVE PHENOTYPE .................................. 91
Scid
2.3.1.- Optimizing nucleofection in Prkdc MEFS ........................................................................ 92
2.3.2.- Reprogramming transposons efficiently generate wt and Scid iPSC colonies .................... 92
2.3.3.- Differences in the molecular events induced by STEMCCA LV and T2/OSKM
Scid
in Prkdc cells ................................................................................................................... 93
2.3.4.- Scid Tn-iPSC match pluripotency standards ........................................................................ 94
scid
2.3.5.- Prkdc iPSCs exhibit a radiosensitive phenotype characteristic of NHEJ deficient cells ... 95
VII.- DISCUSSION .............................................................................................................................................. 97
1.- PRECLINICAL EVALUATION OF FANCA-LV ON A MOUSE MODEL OF FA-A ............................................ 97
2.- IMPAIRED CELL REPROGRAMMING OF CELLS WITH DEFECTIVE NHEJ DUE TO SCID MUTATION ...... 101
VIII.- CONCLUSIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 107
1.- PRECLINICAL EVALUATION OF THE EFFICACY AND THE SAFETY OF A PGK-FANCA-Wpre*
LENTIVIRAL VECTOR (FANCA-LV) IN A MOUSE MODEL OF FANCONI ANEMIA-A ............................... 107
scid
2.- ANALYSIS OF THE INVOLVEMENT OF THE Prkdc MUTATION IN CELL REPROGRAMMING ............. 107
IX.- COROLLARY ............................................................................................................................................. 109
X.- SUPPLEMENTAL INFORMATION ............................................................................................................... 111
XI.- BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................................................................................................................... 119
I.- Abstract | Resumen
I.- ABSTRACT
Fanconi anemia (FA) and PRKDC severe combined immunodeficiency (PRKDC-SCID) are
inherited genetic diseases affecting different pathways responsible for DNA-damage signaling and
repair. Fanconi anemia and PRKDC-SCID patients do not only exhibit an exacerbated sensitivity to
DNA damaging agents, but also contain hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) with defective
proliferation and differentiation properties, resulting in bone marrow failure, in the case of FA
patients, and severe immune defects, in PRKDC-SCID patients.
Herein, we investigated the efficacy and the safety of a self-inactivating (SIN) lentiviral vector
harboring the FANCA gene (FANCA-LV) in a FA-A mouse model. The conditions for FANCA-LV
transduction were optimized to minimize the ex vivo manipulation of Fanca-/- bone marrow (BM)
HSCs, while maintaining a high transduction efficiency. Corrected cells were transplanted into
irradiated Fanca-/- recipients, which were followed in the long-term. Thereafter, BM cells from
primary recipients were serially transplanted to study the behavior of corrected HSCs capable of
extensive repopulation. In these animals, analyses of vector copy number per cell, percentage of
chimerism and sensitivity of transduced cells to inter-strand cross-linking drugs were conducted.
Our results showed the efficient transduction and phenotype correction of true HSCs with the
ability to generate a long-term engraftment of Fanca-/- recipients over serial BM transplantation.
The use of lineal amplification mediated (LAM) PCR of the insertion sites coupled with next
generation sequencing (NGS) allowed us to characterize the integrome of the hematopoietic
system in peripheral blood and BM samples corresponding to different recipients at multiple post-
transplantation periods. The overall insertional profile and clonal kinetics of gene corrected
Fanca-/- HSCs showed a healthy polyclonal hematopoiesis in the transplanted recipients.
The generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) is postulated as an unlimited source
of cells for regenerative therapies of numerous diseases. However, several syndromes still remain
to be investigated with respect to the feasibility of this approach. By the use of viral and non-viral
reprogramming vectors, we have attempted for the first time the reprogramming of Prkdcscid cells,
deficient in the protein DNA-PKcs required for NHEJ.
In order to generate iPSCs from Prkdcscid fibroblasts, cells were either transduced with a
CRE/LoxP polycistronic reprogramming LV (STEMCCA) or co-transfected with a reprogramming
Sleeping Beauty (SB) transposon (T2/OSKM) and the SB100X hyperactive transposase. In control
fibroblasts, we demonstrated the efficiency of the STEMCCA reprogramming LV to generate iPSCs.
On the other hand, we observed that the reprogramming of Prkdcscid fibroblasts was markedly
affected. However, we achieved the generation of Prkdcscid iPSCs when a more efficient
reprogramming SB transposon/transposase system was used. The characterization of cells
1
undergoing cell reprogramming with the LV showed that Prkdcscid cells developed a senescent
phenotype, with overexpression of p16/INK4a blocking the reprogramming process. The
reprogramming SB transposon did not trigger such a senescent response, and thus, permitted the
isolation of Prkdcscid iPSCs. Full description of Prkdcscid iPSCs demonstrated that these clones
conserved the parental Prkdcscid mutation and the characteristic hypersensitivity to ionizing
radiation as a consequence of their defect in NHEJ DNA repair.
Taken together, the results showed in this thesis evidence the efficiency and safety of the
FANCA-LV, supporting its use for the gene therapy of FA-A patients. Besides, we also demonstrate
the implications of the NHEJ DNA repair pathway in cell reprogramming. The use of highly
efficient reprogramming SB transposons facilitated, however, the generation of Prkdcscid iPSCs,
which will constitute a valuable tool to understand the role of NHEJ in cell differentiation, and to
test new anticancer drugs in a cell model hypersensitive to DNA damage.
2
II.- Abbreviations | Abreviaturas
II.- ABBREVIATIONS
Español English
ADNc ADN complementario cDNA Copy DNA
AF Anemia de Fanconi FA Fanconi Anemia
AP Fosfatasa alcalina Alkaline phophatase
BMT Trasplante de médula ósea Bone marrow transplantation
CAG Promotor sintético CMV-β-actina CMV-chicken β-actin synthetic promoter
CD Antígeno de diferenciación Cluster of diferentiation
CFC Célula formadora de colonias Colony forming cell
CFU Unidad formadora de colonias Colony forming unit
CFU-GM Unidad formadora de colonias Colony forming unit granulocytic and
granulocíticas y macrofágicas macrophagic
CGD Base de datos clínica del genoma Clinical genome database
CMH Célula madre hematopoyética HSC Hematopoietic stem cell
CpG Citosina-fosfoguanina Cytosine-phosphoguanine
HLA Antigeno de hiscompatibiliíad leucocitaria Histocompatibility Leukocyte Antigen
DDR Respuesta a daño en el ADN DNA-damage response
DEB Diepoxibutano Diepoxybutane
DNA-PK Proteína quinasa dependiente de ADN DNA-dependent protein kinase
DNA-PKcs Subunidad catalítica de la DNA-PK DNA-PK catalitic subunit
DSB Rotura de doble hebra Double strand breaks
EGFP Proteína verde fluorescente Green fluorescent protein
ESC Célula madre embrionaria Embryonic stem cell
FANCA Gen humano de la anemia de Fanconi-A Human Fanconi anemia-A gene
Fanca Gen de ratón de la anemia de Fanconi-A Mouse Fanconi anemia-A gene
GMP Normas de correcta fabricación Good manufacture practice standards
Gy Gray Gray
HR Recombinación homóloga Homologous recombination
ICL Entrecruzamientos de ADN Interstrand cross link
INT Retrotranscriptasa/integrasa retroviral Retroviral reverse transcriptase/integrase
iPSC Célula madre pluripotente inducida Induced pluripotent stem cell
IR Radiación ionizante Ionizing radiation
IRES Sitio de unión a ribosomas Internal ribosome entry site
LAM-PCR PCR precedida de una amplificación lineal Linear amplification-mediated PCR
-
lin Población negativa para marcadores Negative population for mature lineage
maduros de linaje markers
LIS Sitio de integracion del vector lentiviral Lentiviral vector insertion site
LTR Repeticiones terminales largas Long terminal repeats
LV Vector lentiviral Lentiviral vector
MEF Fibroblastos embrionarios de ratón Mouse embryo fibroblasts
MMC Mitomicina C Mitomycin C
MMLV Virus de la leucemia Moloney de ratón Moloney murine leukemia virus
MO Médula ósea BM Bone marrow
MOI Multiplicidad de infección Multiplicity of infection
NGS Secuenciación masiva de nueva Next-generation sequencing
generación
NHEJ Unión de extremos no homólogos Non-homologous end joining
scid scid tm1Wjl
NSG Cepa de ratones NOD.Cg-Prkdc NOD.Cg-Prkdc Il2rg /SzJ mouse
tm1Wjl
Il2rg /SzJ strain
PCR Reacción en cadena de la polimerasa Polimerase chain reaction
PGK Fosfoglicerato quinasa Phosphoglycerate kinase
Psi Señal de encapsidación retroviral Retroviral encapsidation signal
qPCR PCR cuantitativa Quantitative PCR
RIS Sitios de integración del vector retroviral Retroviral vector insertion site
RTCGD Base de datos de cánceres originados por Retrovirus and transposon tagged cancer
retrovirus y transposones genome database
3
SB Transposón sintético “Bella durmiente” “Sleeping Beauty” synthetic transposon
SCID Inmunodeficiencia combinada grave Severe combined immunodeficiency
SCID-X1 SCID ligada al cromosoma X X-chromosome linked SCID
SIN Auto-inactivante Self-inactivating
SN Sobrenadante Supernatant
SP Sangre periférica PB Peripheral blood
SRC Célula repobladora de ratones Scid Scid repopulating cell
TA Temperatura ambiente RT Room temperature
TSS Sitio de inicio de la transcripción Transcription start site
TU Unidades de transducción Transduction units
VCN Número de copias del vector Vector copy number
VIH Virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
VSV·G Glicoproteina “G” de la envuelta del virus “G” envelope glycoprotein from the
de la estomatitis vesicular vesicular stomatitis virus
wPRE Secuencia de estabilización post- Woodchuck hepatovirus post-
trascripcional del hepatovirus de marmota transcriptional regulatory element
wt Silvestre Wild-type
4
III.- Introduction | Introducción
III.- INTRODUCCIÓN
5
Auto-mantenimiento
CMH
Diferenciación
Progenitores
multi-potentes
Progenitores
comprometidos CML
PCM
Progenitores CFU-GEMM
linaje-
específicos PME PCL
CFU-GM
Células
CFU-Meg ProNK
maduras
BFU-E ProB
CFU-G ProDC ProT
CFU-M
Plaquetas Células NK
Eritrocitos Linfocitos B
Granulocitos Linfocitos T
Macrófagos
Células dendríticas
Figura 1.- Organización jerárquica del sistema hematopoyético. CMH, Célula madre hematopoyética; PCM,
Progenitor común mieloide / CFU-GEMM, Unidad formadora de colonias granulocíticas, eritroides, megacariocíticas
y macrofágicas; CML, Célula madre linfoide; PME, Progenitor megacariocítico-eritroide; CFU-GM, Unidad formadora
de colonias granulocíticas y macrofágicas; PCL, Progenitor común linfoide; CFU-Meg, Unidad formadora de colonias
megacariocíticas; BFU, Unidad formadora de ”Burst” eritroides; CFU-G, Unidad formadora de colonias
granulocíticas; CFU-M, Unidad formadora de colonias macrofágicas; Pro-DC, Precursor de células dendríticas; ProT,
Pro-linfocito T; ProB, Pro-linfocito B; ProNK, pro-linfocito citotóxico natural.
Por debajo de los progenitores se encuentran las células maduras, de morfología reconocible,
figura 1. Son claramente el compartimento más numeroso y que sufre un mayor desgaste. Aquí se
engloban desde células con tal grado de especialización que han perdido orgánulos tan críticos
cómo el núcleo (p.ej., eritrocitos y plaquetas) hasta células aún por terminar de diferenciarse
(p.ej., pro linfocitos).
6
III.- Introduction | Introducción
CMH
Ratón Humano
x x
Expresa No expresa Expresa No expresa
Sca-1 B220 CD34 CD10
C-Kit Mac-1 Thy-1 (CD90) CD14
Thy-1lo Gr-1 CD49f CD15
Slam CD3, 4, 8 CD16
Ter119 CD19
Flk2 CD20
CD34 CD38
CD45RA
Figura 2.- Principales marcadores fenotípicos de las células madre hematopoyéticas (CMHs). Los marcadores
expresados por las CMH se relacionan con su condición multipotente. En ratón, los marcadores fenotípicos no
expresados son típicamente expresados por progenitores comprometidos (Flk2) y células hematopoyéticas
maduras: linfocitos B (B220), linfocitos T (CD3, CD4, CD8), monocitos (Mac-1), macrófagos (Mac-1, Gr-1),
mastocitos (CD34) y eritrocitos (Ter119). Análogamente los CDs (cluster of differentiation) ausentes en las CMH
humanas sí se expresan en células hematopoyéticas maduras o en proceso de maduración: linfocitos B (CD15,
CD19, CD20, CD38), linfocitos T (CD10, CD38, CD45RA-naïve), macrófagos (CD14, CD16) y células NK (CD16).
7
con capacidad de repoblación a corto (ST-SRC, Short Term Scid Repopulating Cells) y largo plazo
(LT-SRC, Long Term Scid Repopulating Cells) (Guenechea et al., 2001).
Aunque se asume que el cometido fundamental de las células madre adultas es dar soporte a
un tejido en concreto, este punto de vista se ha puesto en entredicho por publicaciones que
afirman que la multipotencia de las CMH supera las barreras de su propio tejido. Así, las CMHs de
tejidos adultos podrían contribuir a formar músculo esquelético (Gussoni et al., 1999; Jackson et
al., 1999), músculo cardiaco (Jackson et al., 2001), hígado (Petersen et al., 1999; Lagasse et al.,
2000; Theise et al., 2000) o tejido epitelial (Krause et al., 2001). Si bien la transdiferenciación es un
tema controvertido que pudiera ser consecuencia de fusiones celulares (Terada et al., 2002; Ying
et al., 2002; Quintana-Bustamante et al., 2012) y que, en cualquier caso, ocurre con muy baja
frecuencia o bajo circunstancias extraordinarias.
En determinadas afecciones la cantidad o calidad de estas CMHs puede verse mermada. Es
por esto que cobra importancia la búsqueda de nuevas fuentes artificiales de CMHs para poder
modelar o tratar terapéuticamente estas enfermedades. Una de las primeras fuentes alternativas
propuestas han sido las células madre embrionarias o ESCs (del inglés Embryonic Stem Cells)
(Nakano et al., 1994; Palacios et al., 1995) por su carácter totipotente. En la actualidad, el
desarrollo de las células madre pluripotentes inducidas o iPSCs (del inglés induced Pluripotent
Stem Cells), con menores implicaciones éticas y la posibilidad de ser generadas de forma
específica para cada paciente (Raya et al., 2009), ha generado nuevas expectativas en esta
búsqueda.
8
III.- Introduction | Introducción
de un modelo de ratón que nos sirve como herramienta y modelo de investigación para ésta y
otras enfermedades.
9
2.1.2.- La ruta de Fanconi
El síndrome está causado por la falta o mal funcionamiento de alguna de las proteínas AF
correspondientes a los 16 grupos de complementación descritos en AF.
Tabla 1.- Genes que pertenecen a la ruta de Fanconi.
Subtipo % Gen Locus kDa Función de la proteína Ub-D2/I* Refs.
(FA-
consortium
and
Miembro del complejo 1. Es fosforilada por ATR
FA-A 66 FANCA 16q24.3 163 Sí consortium,
en la Serina 1449. Presenta 2 NLS. 1996; Lo
Ten Foe et
al., 1996)
(Meetei et
FA-B ~2 FANCB Xp22.31 95 Miembro del complejo 1. Presenta un NLS. Sí
al., 2004)
Se localiza en el núcleo y el citoplasma. Miembro (Strathdee
FA-C 10 FANCC 9q22.3 63del complejo 1, además de otras funciones Sí et al., 1992)
independientes.
Esencial en HR actúa sobre RAD51. Interacciona (Howlett et
FA-D1 ~2 BRCA2 13q12-13 380 con FANCG, fANCD2, PALB2. Gen de No al., 2002)
susceptibilidad al cáncer.
Sustrato de monoubiquitinización por el (Timmers
complejo 1 AF y de fosforilación por ATR, y et al., 2001)
FA-D2 ~2 FANCD2 3q25.3 155.162 Sí
probablemente por ATM en respuesta a daño en
el ADN.
(de Winter
Miembro del complejo 1. Se une directamente a
FA-E ~2 FANCE 6p21-22 60 Sí et al.,
FANCD2. Presenta 2 NLS . 2000a)
(de Winter
Proteína adaptadora necesaria para el
FA-F ~2 FANCF 11p15 42 Sí et al.,
ensamblaje del complejo 1 AF. 2000b)
Se localiza en el complejo 1 y además interviene (de Winter
FANCG et al., 1998)
FA-G 9 9p13 68 en HR mediante interacción con FANCD1, Sí
XRCC9
fANCD2 y XRCC3.
Sustrato de monoubiquitinización dependiente (Dorsman
FA-I ~2 FANCI 15q25-26 140.147 de FANCD2 por el complejo 1 AF y de Sí et al., 2007)
fosforilación en respuesta a daño en el ADN.
Capacidad ATPasa dependiente de Y y helicasa 5’- (Levitus et
FANCJ al., 2005)
FA-J ~0,2 17q22-24 140 3’ DNA. Se une directamente el dominio BCRT de No
BRIP1
BRCA1. Gen de susceptibilidad al cáncer.
FANCL Miembro del complejo 1 con actividad ubiquitina (Meetei et
FA-L ~0,2 2p16.1 43 Sí al., 2003)
PHF9 ligasa.
Miembro del complejo 1 con un dominio (Meetei et
FANCM endonucleasa y actividad de translocación. al., 2005)
FA-M ~0,2 14q21.3 250 Sí
HEF Sensor de daño en el Y responsable de movilizar
el complejo complejo 1 AF al ADN.
Acompaña y localiza BRCA2. Puede unirse a las (Reid et al.,
FANCN 2006)
FA-N ~2 16p12.1 140 proteínas BRCA2 y BRCA1. Gen de susceptibilidad No
PALB2
al cáncer.
Participa en varios complejos involucrados en HR. (Vaz et al.,
FA-O ~0,2 RAD51C 17q22 43 No 2010)
Gen de susceptibilidad al cáncer.
Proteína de anclaje para las nucleasas MUS81- (Kim et al.,
EME1 y XPF-ERCC1. Participa en la resolución de 2011b)
FA-P ~0,2 SLX4 16p13.3 200 No
intermedios de HR como son las uniones de
Holliday.
ERCC4 Proteína nucleasa responsable del corte en 5’ (Bogliolo et
FA-Q NA 16p13.12 100 No al., 2013)
(XPF) durante la reparación del ADN.
NLS; Señal de localización nuclear. HR; Recombinación homóloga.* Proteínas necesarias para la activación del
complejo FANCD2/I. Ub, Ubiquitina.
10
III.- Introduction | Introducción
Los genes suelen designarse como “FANC” seguido de la letra correspondiente al grupo de
complementación, tabla 1. También se conocen proteínas asociadas a la ruta, a la espera de
encontrar su implicación en pacientes con AF que justifiquen su inclusión como proteínas AF. Las
proteínas asociadas se denominan con el prefijo FAAP (del inglés, Fanconi Anemia Associated
Protein) seguido de su peso molecular (p.ej. FAAP120). Todas estas proteínas cooperan en una
ruta de reparación del ADN que se activa durante su replicación en respuesta a modificaciones
químicas en la doble hebra de ADN, principalmente entrecruzamientos del ADN (ICLs). Estas
uniones hacen que la horquilla de replicación no pueda avanzar y quede bloqueada, activando
entonces la ruta AF. Tras producirse primero el reconocimiento de la lesión, se desencadena la
señalización oportuna y finalmente la remodelación (que implica corte de las hebras, eliminación
de la alteración, síntesis y unión de extremos). Un esquema simplificado de este proceso se
presenta en la figura 3.
L A B I M
G
MHF1/2
FAAP24
M
FAAP24
Ub
P/S
LX
4
RAD5
1
FA
RAD51
P/SLX4
FAN1
N1
Figura 3.- Vista secuencial de la ruta de Fanconi. 1.- Las proteínas del complejo 1 o core (FANCA, -B, -C, -D, -E, -F, -
G, -L, -M, MHF1/2, FAAP20, FAAP24 y FAAP100) se activan por la presencia de ICLs que impiden el avance de la
horquilla de replicación. 2.- Seguidamente, el complejo 2 (FANCD2/I) es activado mediante monoubiquitinización
por FANCL en el complejo 1. 3.- Finalmente FANCD2/I monoubiquitinizado es capaz de reclutar a las proteínas del
complejo 3 efector (FANCD1, -J, N, O, P, BRCA1, FAN1 y RAD51) que formarán focos de reparación. Tras la
reparación de la lesión, la síntesis de ADN puede seguir normalmente. ICL, Entrecruzamientos de doble hebra. Ub,
Ubiquitina.
Básicamente, los pasos son realizados por la asociación de las distintas proteínas AF en tres
complejos: complejo 1 (sensor o core) que tiene la capacidad de modificar mediante
monoubiquitinización a las proteínas del siguiente complejo 2 (el tándem FANCD2/I) que va a ser
el encargado de reclutar y activar la maquinaria de reparación formando foci de reparación, en los
que también participa el complejo 3 (efector) en el que se ensamblan proteínas de AF junto con
otras proteínas de reparación.
El fallo de un solo componente de la ruta de AF rompe la cadena de eventos necesarios para
una correcta reparación del daño. La administración de los distintos genes in vitro permite
determinar qué gen complementa el defecto en la ruta AF y así definir distintos grupos de
complementación dentro de los pacientes de AF.
11
2.1.3.- Tratamientos disponibles y futuros
Actualmente, el único tratamiento efectivo del problema hematológico de estos pacientes es
el trasplante hematopoyético a partir de un donante sano (Guardiola et al., 2000; Wagner et al.,
2007). La ausencia de un donante compatible implica un mal pronóstico en la mayoría de los
casos (MacMillan et al., 2010). La selección pre-implantacional de embriones sanos HLA
idénticos, a pesar de que en ocasiones ha ayudado a encontrar un donante adecuado, presenta
ciertos inconvenientes. Las parejas que pueden acceder a este proceso tienen que cumplir unos
requisitos muy estrictos y además el tratamiento es costoso, lento y poco eficiente (Bielorai et al.,
2004; Grewal et al., 2004; Verlinsky et al., 2004). También existen evidencias de que la
administración de andrógenos a pacientes pudiera ayudar a prevenir el fallo de MO
(Scheckenbach et al., 2012). Pero resulta un punto controvertido dada la incidencia de cáncer de
hígado que en ocasiones se ha asociado a estos fármacos (Velazquez and Alter, 2004).
En determinados casos se han observado pacientes en los que se han detectado nuevas
mutaciones espontáneas que han revertido la mutación original en algún progenitor de la MO.
Aunque la frecuencia de esta reversión es baja, la ventaja proliferativa de estos progenitores
impulsa la selección y amplificación del clon generado (Gross et al., 2002). Los pacientes que han
sufrido una reversión de la mutación en el sistema hematopoyético, se denominan pacientes
mosaico. La existencia de hasta un 15% de pacientes AF mosaico (Casado et al., 2007) sustenta la
idea de que la corrección “artificial” del defecto génico en un pequeño número de CMHs podría
extenderse a toda la hematopoyesis generada por las CMHs corregidas. Por ello, el trasplante
autólogo de CMHs corregidas mediante técnicas de terapia génica podría suponer una alternativa
terapéutica novedosa para pacientes con AF (Liu et al., 1999; Gush et al., 2000; Kelly et al., 2007).
Aunque la corrección fenotípica de células de pacientes mediante el empleo de técnicas de
transferencia génica ha demostrado ser efectiva in vitro (Casado et al., 2007; Jacome et al., 2009;
Gonzalez-Murillo et al., 2010), los primeros ensayos clínicos de terapia génica no tuvieron éxito,
pues los progenitores corregidos no pudieron establecer un nivel de injerto significativo (Liu et al.,
1997; Liu et al., 1999). Este problema también se ha visto reflejado en los intentos fallidos para
reconstituir ratones inmunodeficientes NSG con células corregidas de pacientes de AF (Cohen-
Haguenauer et al., 2006; Muller et al., 2012). Sólo recientemente se ha publicado la
reconstitución de ratones NSG a partir de progenitores CD34+ de donantes sanos en los que se
había interferido post-transcripcionalmente la expresión de proteínas AF (Baños et al., 2011;
Ceccaldi et al., 2012).
Actualmente, se cree que mediante protocolos optimizados de terapia génica se podría
resolver eficazmente el problema hematológico en pacientes de AF (Tolar et al., 2011; Tolar et al.,
2012). Nuestro laboratorio consiguió recientemente la denominación de medicamento huérfano
para un vector lentiviral (LV) denominado SIN-LV PGK FANCA wPREmut (EU/3/10/822),
desarrollado para paliar los problemas hematológicos de pacientes de AF del grupo de
complementación A (Gonzalez-Murillo et al., 2010). Además, ya se han autorizado dos ensayos
clínicos en fase I/II: el primero para la colecta de células CD34+ de pacientes AF (“FANCOSTEM”,
EudraCT: 2011-006197-88) y el segundo para su posterior corrección genética e inoculación en el
momento del fallo de MO (“FANCOLEN-1”EudraCT: 2011-006100-12).
12
III.- Introduction | Introducción
investigación en la AF.
Tabla 2.- Modelos animales de anemia de Fanconi.
Gen Mutación Fenotipo Cepa Referencia
Fanca Reemplazo Ex4-Ex7 por neo. Apariencia normal, sin anomalías Mezcla 129/Ola y (Cheng et al.,
2000)
hematológicas importantes. C57BL/6
Reemplazo del Ex37 por Sin anemia, reducción en CFU-GM a edad 129/S4 y C57BL/6 (Noll et al., 2002)
El gen FANCA está mutado en cerca del 80% de los pacientes de AF españoles (Casado et al.,
2007) por lo que el modelo deficiente de este gen es una herramienta muy valiosa para entender
13
la enfermedad y sugerir tratamientos para estos pacientes. Además, estos modelos de ratón han
servido de plataforma para la investigación básica y preclínica para la AF (Gush et al., 2000; Rio et
al., 2002; Navarro et al., 2006).
El modelo Fanca-/- presenta un fenotipo atenuado en comparación con el observado en los
pacientes, si bien estos ratones presentan hipogonadismo en los machos y fertilidad reducida en
las hembras. Los individuos jóvenes presentan unos recuentos hematológicos de plaquetas
anómalos y volumen corpuscular alto en sus eritrocitos.
A diferencia de los pacientes, las alteraciones descritas no desembocan en una anemia
aplásica y tampoco presentan alteraciones óseas al nacimiento. Centrándonos en el
compartimento de CMH, el modelo es más robusto: estos ratones tienen menos progenitores (lin-
o CFCs) y además éstos son más sensibles al estrés producido por el cultivo ex vivo (Rio et al.,
2002). Además, al igual que los pacientes, las células Fanca-/- presentan una elevada sensibilidad a
agentes entrecruzantes del ADN como DEB o MMC (Cheng et al., 2000; Rio et al., 2002). El
fenotipo de estos ratones puede ser rescatado por la expresión del ADNc del gen humano FANCA
por lo que este modelo de ratón supone una herramienta fundamental para ensayar posibles
protocolos de terapia génica (Rio et al., 2002).
14
III.- Introduction | Introducción
herencia autosómica recesiva. El segundo paciente, presentaba un fenotipo similar con ausencia
de células T y B, agravado por presentar además serias anomalías neurológicas que resultaron
fatales durante sus primeros años de vida, tabla 3. En este caso, la mutación también fue
identificada de manera heterozigota en sus progenitores (Woodbine et al., 2013).
La DNA-PKcs es necesaria para la reparación de DSB en todos los tejidos, por lo que estos
individuos son notablemente más sensibles al acodicionamiento por IR. Incluso se ven afectadas
las CMHs. Éstas presentan defectos en el automantenimiento y ocupación del nicho, lo cual se ha
demostrado en experimentos de repoblación competitiva (Qing et al., 2012).
CMHs.
Neurogénesis Embriogénesis y Un paciente descrito presentaba microcefalia y defectos en (Woodbine et al.,
2013)
maduración la generación de surcos neurales.
neural.
La DNA-PKcs se asocia con Ku70 y Ku80 para formar la holoproteína DNA-PK, figura 4. Esta
proteína reconoce y se une con una elevada afinidad a extremos libres de ADN (West et al., 1998),
figura 4. La DNA-PKcs puede encontrarse formando un complejo con ARTEMIS (proteína con
actividad nucleasa) y unirse a Ku acoplado a un extremo seccionado de ADN (Ma et al., 2002). Tras
el ensamblaje, un desplazamiento interno de Ku pone en contacto la DNA-PKcs con el extremo de
ADN, en este entorno se activa la capacidad serina/treonina quinasa de la DNA-PK (Yoo and
Dynan, 1999; Hammarsten et al., 2000), esquematizado en la figura 4.
La activación de la actividad catalítica del dominio quinasa es un mecanismo directo para la
transducción de señales y en este caso permite a la DNA-PK fosforilarse rápidamente a sí misma y
también a ARTEMIS (Yoo and Dynan, 1999; Hammarsten et al., 2000; Ma et al., 2002). La
15
autofosforilación de la DNA-PK fuerza cambios estructurales que regulan su interacción con otras
proteínas de la vía NHEJ (Goodarzi et al., 2006; Jovanovic and Dynan, 2006; Uematsu et al., 2007).
Estos cambios conformacionales despiertan la actividad endonucleasa 5’ y 3’ de ARTEMIS que
actúa sobre los extremos protuberantes, lo que permite digerir un amplio abanico de sustratos ya
sean de una sola cadena, de cadena doble u horquillas (Ma et al., 2005; Niewolik et al., 2006).
Además de participar en la respuesta a ADN dañado (DDR, del inglés DNA Damage Response), la
DNA-PK participa en los procesos de reordenamiento V (D)J y cambio de isotipo. Sin estos dos
procesos no se puede generar una inmunidad completa en vertebrados superiores, por lo que se
produce una inmunodeficiencia combinada grave. No acaba aquí el trabajo de la DNA-PK, ya que
también previene la mutagénesis transcripcional de ARN ribosómicos y ARN mensajeros, al inhibir
la ARN polimerasa I y III cuando estas se encuentran transcribiendo genes afectados por DSB
(Kuhn et al., 1995; Pankotai et al., 2012), ver tabla 3.
Figura 4. Participación de la DNA-PKcs en la ruta de NHEJ. El dímero Ku70/Ku80 (Ku) reconoce con alta afinidad los
extremos libres de las lesiones de ADN de doble hebra y recluta a la subunidad catalítica (DNA-PKcs) con la que
ensambla el complejo DNA-PK. Éste, unido a un extremo de ADN, es capaz de autofosforilarse y a su vez recluta y
modifica otros componentes necesarios para el funcionamiento de la ruta de NHEJ. Entre estos se encuentran
XRCC4, Cernnunos (XLF), ligasa IV (Lig IV), PNKP o la nucleasa Artemis. Éstos se encargarán de recuperar la
integridad de la hebra de ADN en un proceso que puede llevar asociado tanto la pérdida de los nucleótidos
adyacentes al extremo de la lesión como la inclusión aleatoria de nuevas bases en el punto de unión.
16
III.- Introduction | Introducción
17
3.1.- TRANSFERENCIA DE GENES TERAPÉUTICOS
El primer ensayo clínico de transferencia génica tuvo lugar en 1989 para tratar pacientes con
melanoma mediante la infusión de linfocitos obtenidos de infiltrados del tumor marcados
genéticamente (Kasid et al., 1990; Rosenberg et al., 1990). En algo más de dos décadas, más de
1.800 ensayos repartidos en 31 países han consolidado esta práctica, figura 5 derecha. Destaca el
gran número de ensayos dedicados a combatir el cáncer y en segundo lugar el tratamiento de
enfermedades monogénicas (Edelstein et al., 2007; Ginn et al., 2013), figura 5 izquierda. El
desarrollo de la terapia génica y su aplicación en la clínica ha sido lento y con momentos difíciles.
En los años 90, los primeros estudios clínicos tuvieron resultados discretos o insuficientes (Blaese
et al., 1995; Dunbar et al., 1995; Kohn et al., 1995; Bonini et al., 1997). Se buscó entonces mejorar
la eficacia y potencia de los vectores.
Figura 5.- Ensayos clínicos de terapia génica aprobados en el mundo. Izquierda: Distribución de los ensayos de
terapia génica aprobados en fases clínicas en función de su diana terapéutica. Derecha: Evolución anual del registro
de ensayos clínicos según su año de aprobación (barras) junto con la curva de crecimiento del registro (área gris),
adaptado de Ginn 2013 (Ginn et al., 2013).
18
III.- Introduction | Introducción
plataformas más seguras, por lo que las preferencias actuales en cuanto a vectores, figura 6,
podrían cambiar en los próximos años. Empleando el esqueleto del lentivirus VIH tipo 1, se han
diseñado vectores lentivirales autoinactivantes (SIN-LV) (Akkina et al., 1996; Naldini et al., 1996;
Reiser et al., 1996), que tras más de una década de investigación están siendo empleados con
éxito en protocolos clínicos de terapia génica (Cartier et al., 2009; Cavazzana-Calvo et al., 2010;
Biffi et al., 2011; Cartier et al., 2012; Scaramuzza et al., 2012). Otros sistemas no-virales más
seguros y que se encuentran a punto de incorporarse en ensayos clínicos son los transposones
(Williams, 2008; Hackett et al., 2010; Ivics and Izsvak, 2011).
100%
Vectores <2% 161
90% Desconocido 64
Virus Herpes Simplex 60
Lentivirus 62
80% Poxvirus 67
Virus Adeno-associados 99
70% Lipofeccion 112
Vaccinia virus 119
60%
50%
ADN desnudo/plásmidos 346
40%
30%
Retrovirus 375
20%
10%
Adenovirus 437
0%
Figura 6. Distribución de los ensayos de terapia génica aprobados en función del vector de transferencia génica
empleado. Junto a cada grupo se recoge el número de ensayos recogidos en todo el mundo en 2013 (Ginn et al.,
2013). <2% agrupa a todos los vectores con una representación inferior a dicho corte.
Por último cabe destacar cómo la modificación genética dirigida, con una eficacia aún
modesta en la actualidad, podría ser empleada en ensayos clínicos de manera inminente tras
demostrar su eficacia en el control de las infecciones de VIH mediante la modificación dirigida del
receptor CXCR5 (Perez et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2012).
19
el diseño de vectores de transferencia génica: Alfaretrovirus (Suerth et al., 2010; Suerth et al.,
2012), Gammaretrovirus (Mann et al., 1983; Rosenberg et al., 1990), Lentivirus (Akkina et al.,
1996; Naldini et al., 1996; Reiser et al., 1996) y Espumavirus (Hirata et al., 1996; Russell and
Miller, 1996).
Lentivirus y Gammaretrovirus son patógenos celulares que a lo largo de la evolución se han
especializado en infectar cierto tipo de células, aunque su tropismo puede ser redirigido gracias al
pseudotipado que consiste en la sustitución de la envuelta natural por otra de diferente origen.
Los lentivirus son un vehículo excepcional para introducir genes de interés dentro de las células
diana (von Schwedler et al., 1994; Gallay et al., 1995, Akkina, 1996 #24; Naldini et al., 1996; Reiser
et al., 1996). Son virus pequeños con envuelta lipídica que poseen un genoma compuesto por dos
copias ARN de cadena positiva, con ~10 kb, que se encapsidan con proteínas capaces de
“retrotranscribir” e integrar dicho genoma en la célula infectada (Coffin et al., 1997). Presentan
ciertas ventajas con respecto a los retrovirus de clase C, tabla 4. Sin embargo, los
Gammaretrovirus fueron los elegidos para construir los vectores gamaretrovirales (ɣ-RV ) de los
primeros protocolos exitosos de terapia génica (Cavazzana-Calvo et al., 1999) y que aún se utilizan
en algunos ensayos clínicos (Edelstein et al., 2007).
1
ARN+
ADNdh
2 INT
3
7
4 6
Figura 7. Ciclo genérico de un retrovirus. Comprende las fases de 1) adsorción, que es la interacción específica
entre componentes expuestos del virus y proteínas de superficie de la célula diana; 2) internalización, proceso por
el cual el virus se introduce dentro de la célula por endocitosis activa y es liberado desde las vesículas; 3) retro-
+
transcripción del genoma (ARN ) por una enzima transcriptasa inversa capaz de generar un ADN circular de doble
hebra; 4) integración mediada por la maquinaria del virus; 5) los lentivirus poseen una fase de lítica prolongada en
la que permanecen latentes, integrados en el genoma huésped pero sin actividad; 6) la expresión durante la fase
lisogénica sirve para la replicación y 7) encapsidación: el ARNm sirve a la vez de molde para las proteínas víricas y
+
como genoma a encapsidar. ARN , genoma vírico ARN, ADNdh, genoma vírico retrotranscrito a ADN de doble hebra;
INT, proteína retrotrancriptasa e integrasa.
20
III.- Introduction | Introducción
núcleo, sino que también lo insertan de manera estable en el genoma de la célula tratada (von
Schwedler et al., 1994; Gallay et al., 1995, Akkina, 1996 #24; Naldini et al., 1996; Reiser et al.,
1996).
La propiedad de los ɣ-RVs para utilizar promotores potentes e inespecíficos, unido a su
capacidad para integrarse de manera estable, ha hecho de estos vectores una herramienta para
buscar oncogenes gracias a su potencial para transactivar genes anexos a su integración (Akagi et
al., 2004).
Tabla 4. Diferencias entre vectores ɣ-retrovirales y lentivirales.
Comparación Vectores ɣ-retrovirales (RV) Vectores lentivirales (LV)
Varios: género gammaretroviridae, clase “C”. VIH clase 1
Origen Destaca el virus de leucemia Moloney de ratón
(MMLV).
Tropismo original Según cepa, siempre células en división. Leucocitos T4 humanos.
La retro-transcripción forma círculos La retro transcripción forma círculos ADNdh
Pre-integración
episomales ADNdh en el citoplasma. de 1 o 2 LTRs unidos a INT.
Confinado en el citoplasma. Se integra durante La integrasa (INT) transporta el ADN
Acceso al genoma
la mitosis. activamente al núcleo y lo integra.
Preferencia por las proximidades de los TSS y Preferencia por regiones RefSeq activas.
Perfil de integración
regiones CpG.
Las LTRs pueden actuar como promotor o Puede interrumpir secuencias codificantes
Riesgos insercionales enhancer de genes aledaños, transactivando y/o de regulación post-transcripcional de
proto-oncogenes. genes supresores de tumores.
Sufre fenómenos de silenciamiento, Sufre silenciamiento y variegación. Aún no
Estabilidad
variegación y extinción. se ha podido caracterizar la extinción.
Migración a diseños SIN. Mejora de la estabilidad de los lentisomas
no integrativos.
Mejoras en desarrollo
Secuencias de aislamiento. Secuencias de aislamiento.
Secuencias UCOE anti-silenciamiento. Secuencias UCOE anti-silenciamiento.
Los mecanismos que se postulan para explicar la mutagénesis insercional de estos vectores
son mayoritariamente dos: en el caso de los RVs se debe fundamentalmente a la transactivación
de proto-oncogenes cercanos a la integración (Li et al., 2002; Modlich et al., 2005; Modlich et al.,
2008) y en el caso de los LV adquiere una mayor relevancia la disrupción de genes supresores de
tumores (Heckl et al., 2012).
Gracias a los avances de la genética y la genómica disponemos de herramientas, como la
LAM-PCR (Linear Amplification-Mediated PCR) o la nrLM-PCR (non restrictive Ligation Mediated
PCR), para el estudio de los patrones de integración de RVs y LVs (Mueller and Wold, 1989;
Schmidt et al., 2001; Schmidt et al., 2007; Gabriel et al., 2009; Paruzynski et al., 2010). Estas
técnicas han permitido conocer que el estado de la célula afecta a este perfil de integración, ya
que las integraciones tienden a acumularse en regiones activamente transcritas (Cattoglio et al.,
2010a). Aunque los RV tienen una alta preferencia por integrarse en regiones promotoras y
reguladoras en torno al inicio de transcripción (TSS) de los genes (Cattoglio et al., 2007;
Deichmann et al., 2011), los LVs se integran a lo largo de las unidades transcripcionales accesibles
pero sin verse especialmente atraídos por regiones promotoras (Cattoglio et al., 2010a; Cattoglio
et al., 2010b), tabla 4.
21
terapia génica, basados en el ɣ-retrovirus MMLV, tardó en llegar. De hecho, la primera publicación
sobre la transformación en ratones de un clon leucémico por una integración cerca de Evi1 (Li et
al., 2002) se realizó tan sólo un día después de que se publicara el primer informe de seguimiento,
de más de 2 años, del ensayo clínico SCID-X1 en Francia (Hacein-Bey-Abina et al., 2002). Un año
más tarde se detectó el primer clon leucémico en los pacientes, por transactivación del proto-
oncogén LMO2 (Hacein-Bey-Abina et al., 2003). Estos acontecimientos (ESGCT, 2006; Howe et al.,
2008) forzaron a los investigadores en el campo de la terapia génica a buscar modelos más
sensibles para mejorar la predicción de riesgos genotóxicos que permitieran diseñar terapias más
seguras (Baum et al., 2003). Esto supone un desafío porque las leucemias inducidas por
mutagénesis insercional que surgen en modelos de terapia génica en ratón son muy poco
frecuentes.
22
III.- Introduction | Introducción
severidad de las mismas, que pueden ser trasplantadas, amplificadas y secuenciadas para conocer
la naturaleza de las integraciones que contribuyen a la transformación. Los resultados apoyan
claramente el empleo de vectores SIN-LV y también el uso de promotores débiles, pero sobre
todo señalan el uso de esqueletos ɣ-RV como mayor factor de riesgo (Montini et al., 2006;
Montini et al., 2009).
23
aberrantes (Almarza et al., 2011; Cesana et al., 2012; Moiani et al., 2012).
Los tiempos prolongados de manipulación ex vivo merman la capacidad de injerto a largo
plazo de las células modificadas genéticamente y pueden contribuir a expandir clones con alguna
ventaja proliferativa (Maetzig et al., 2011). También la formulación de los medios para la
propagación de progenitores ex vivo pueden afectar en gran medida a la selección y amplificación
de clones malignos (Maetzig et al., 2011).
24
III.- Introduction | Introducción
5’ Ψ cPPT
Δ18 U3 R U5
SD SA PGK FANCA wPRE* Δ18 U3 R U5
3’
Figura 8.- Vista esquemática del vector FANCA-LV integrado en el genoma de la célula huésped. El diseño y los
componentes se detallan en el texto.
LTR en 5’ (Long Terminal Repeat) que consiste en la secuencia Δ18U3-R-U5 que se compone
por la secuencia terminal repetida (R) flanqueada por la secuencia terminal única en 3’ (U3) que
fue mutada (Δ18U3) y la secuencia terminal única en 5’ (U5). La secuencia repetida “R” de la LTR
en 3’ reconoce a la secuencia R de la LTR en 5’, cerrando un bucle de ARN en el vector y
promoviendo la circularización del ADN retrotranscrito.
Ψ (Psi) o señal de empaquetamiento. Es una secuencia con una estructura secundaria
característica que forma 4 bucles (SL1, SL2, SL3, SL4) necesarios para la interacción con las
proteínas que median la correcta incorporación del ARN vírico a la cápsida. La señal Ψ en el HIV-1
se extiende abarcando varias secuencias:
* SD (Splice Donor) o donador de splicing. La presencia de señales de procesamiento post-
transcripcional mejora los títulos al reducir la degradación del ARN.
* PBS (Primer Binding Site) que incluye secuencias donde se une el ARN transferente que sirve
de cebador para la retrotranscripción del HIV-1. El vector conserva 151 nt del PBS porque incluyen
parte de la secuencia Ψ: SL1, SL2 y SL3.
* ga: gen Gag delecionado. Las secuencias que codifican para proteínas víricas han sido
eliminadas deliberadamente y forman parte de los genes facilitados en trans durante la
producción, esta secuencia residual no codificante responde a la necesidad de mantener el brazo
SL4: una estructura secundaria necesaria para la encapsidación del vector.
RRE (Rev Response Element) o elemento de respuesta a la proteína Rev. También se conserva
en el vector por ser necesaria para la producción del mismo.
SA (Splice Aceptor) o receptor de splicing. Hace pareja con el SD anterior que mejora los
títulos al reducir la degradación del ARN.
cPPT (Central Polypurine Tract) o tracto central de polipurinas, que se incluye también
atendiendo a cuestiones estructurales del vector.
hPGK, secuencia promotora del gen humano PGK (Phosphoglycerate Kinase). Es un promotor
interno fisiológico que dirige la expresión ubicua y moderada de los genes de interés que se
coloquen en 5’.
hFANCA, cDNA que codifica para la versión normal de la proteína humana de la anemia de
Fanconi del grupo de complementación A expresada por el gen FANCA localizado en el
25
cromosoma 16 en el brazo largo 16q24.3. La secuencia del cDNA FANCA supone un total de 4.376
bp.
wPREMUT (Woodchuck Hepatitis Virus [WHV] post-trascriptional regulatory element) es una
secuencia original del virus de la hepatitis de la marmota que tiene la capacidad de estabilizar los
ARNm aumentando la cantidad de proteína generada por transcrito. La secuencia original codifica
la proteína X, relacionada con hepatocarcinomas. Esta versión mutada ha eliminado 4 posibles
sitios crípticos de expresión de dicha proteína.
LTR en 3’, igual que la LTR en 3’ se forma cuando la retrotranscripción se extiende usando
como cebador el extremo 3’ libre de la secuencia repetida R y forma la secuencia Δ18U3-R-U5 que
va a ser sustrato de la integrasa (INT) que va a insertar el vector en el genoma de la célula diana.
26
III.- Introduction | Introducción
27
partir de fibroblastos de ratón. Estos factores son Klf4, Oct3/4 (Pou5f1), Sox2 y el proto-oncogén
c-Myc, figura 9.
Sox2
Klf4
Oct3/4
c-Myc
Fibroblastos
Colonia de células iPS
Figura 9.- Representación de la reprogramación celular propuesta por S. Yamanaka. El proceso se inicia por la
transducción simultánea de fibroblastos con un juego de vectores retrovirales portando los genes Klf4, Sox2, Oct3/4
y c-Myc, siendo este último prescindible. La expresión ectópica produce cambios transcripcionales que propician la
aparición de colonias con morfología de células ES.
Un acierto de su experimento fue el empleo de RVs para forzar la expresión ectópica de los
genes de forma temporal, ya que los esqueletos retrovirales eran reconocidos por la maquinaria
celular y silenciados conforme las células se “reprogramaban”. De esta manera, los factores
disparaban un estado estacionario pluripotente que se mantenía en las iPSCs por la reactivación
de la maquinaria endógena propia (Sridharan et al., 2009). Un gran número de publicaciones
confirmaron estos resultados en ratón y humano empleando los mismos factores o
combinaciones solapantes (LIN28 y NANOG sustituyendo a Klf4 y c-Myc parecen mejorar la
generación de iPSCs humanas) (Okita et al., 2007; Takahashi et al., 2007; Wernig et al., 2007; Yu et
al., 2007).
28
III.- Introduction | Introducción
individualizada, al poseer unas características de ESCs pero sin la carga ética de estas. Las iPSCs
pueden ser generadas de manera específica para cada paciente y tienen un comportamiento
similar, si no igual, al de las ESCs del organismo del que provienen. Esto las convierte en unas
magníficas candidatas como fuente ilimitada de células para tratamientos clínicos, añadiendo las
ventajas del trasplante autólogo a la mejoría que pudieran producir las células derivadas de
ESCs/iPSCs. También, son una excelente fuente de células para comprobar nuevos fármacos de
manera individualizada y así poder estudiar variaciones en el metabolismo y toxicidad tras el
tratamiento con los mismos (Nsair and MacLellan, 2011).
29
30
IV.- Objectives | Objetivos
IV.- OBJETIVOS
En la presente memoria nos hemos planteado dos grandes objetivos, cada uno de los cuales
engloba tres objetivos parciales que se muestran a continuación:
31
32
IV.- Objectives | Objetivos
V.- OBJECTIVES
In this thesis, we aimed to focus on two main goals, each of them included the three partial
objectives listed below:
1.- To evaluate the in vivo efficiency and safety of a gene therapy approach aiming the
Fanca deficient cells transduced with a PGK FANCA wPRE* lentiviral vector (FANCA-LV) devised
for the treatment of Fanconi anemia A patients.
To test the efficacy and toxicity of the ex vivo transduction of Fanca-/- hematopoietic stem
and progenitor cells using the FANCA-LV.
To evaluate the in vivo the genotoxic risk, associated to the gene therapy of Fanca-/- mice
using the FANCA-LV.
2.- To analyze the implications of NHEJ in the reprogramming of adult cells to generate
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS).
To test the ability of Prkdcscid embryonic fibroblasts to generate iPS cells after delivery of
the reprogramming factors using viral and non-viral vectors.
33
34
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
1.- ANIMALES
Todos los animales fueron mantenidos y tratados conforme con la legislación nacional y
europea (RD 1201/2005 del Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentación para la protección y el
uso de animales de experimentación científica; Ley 32/2007, para el cuidado de los animales en su
explotación, transporte, experimentación y sacrificio; Convención Europea ETS 123 para el uso y la
protección de mamíferos vertebrados empleados en experimentación y otros usos científicos).
Atendiendo siempre a las recomendaciones de la SECAL (Sociedad Española para las Ciencias del
Animal de Laboratorio), así como las de su equivalente europeo FELASA (Nicklas et al., 2002;
Voipio et al., 2008).
Los ratones fueron estabulados en las instalaciones propias del centro (número de
acreditación 28079-21A) en condiciones ambientales controladas: temperatura constante de
20±2°C, humedad relativa de 55±10% y ciclos de 12 h de luz/oscuridad. Los animales gozaron de
acceso ilimitado a agua de bebida esterilizada y filtrada (mediante tratamiento con luz ultravioleta
y filtros Ø=50 µm), así como a comida (UAR D04).
35
Il2rgtm1Wjl/SzJ, referidos por las siglas NSG, procedentes de los laboratorios Jackson
(www.JAX.org). La colonia fue mantenida mediante cruces en homogozigosis y los ratones fueron
criados en armarios aisladores bajo condiciones de esterilidad.
36
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
quirúrgicamente los huesos largos de las extremidades posteriores (fémur y fíbula). Los huesos
limpios, desprovistos de músculos y tendones, se mantuvieron en PBS (Dulbeccos' phosphate
saline buffered. SIGMA). En condiciones estériles, perfundimos los huesos con 1 ml por ratón de
medio IMDM (Iscove’s modified Dulbeccos’ medium + Glutamaxtm –I. Gibco) y disgregamos la MO
empleando jeringuillas estériles desechables de polipropileno de 1 ml (Icoplus 3®, Novico Medica)
provistas de agujas de 25 G de diámetro (BD Microlance 3, 25 G 5/8”, BD). Antes de continuar se
contó el número de células en una cámara Neubauer diluyendo las células 1:40 en la solución de
Türk.
Punción de MO: La punción de MO permite evaluar el quimerismo de la MO en experimentos
de trasplante sin necesidad de sacrificar a los ratones. Primero los animales fueron anestesiados
inyectando vía intraperitoneal 125 mg/Kg de ketamina (Ketolar, Pfizer-Parke Davis)
conjuntamente con 10 mg/Kg D-metadomidina (Dexdomitor, Laboratorios Esteve Veterinaria).
Una vez que la pérdida del reflejo plantar hizo evidente la acción de la sedación, se aspiró la MO
mediante una punción supra-rotuliana atravesando la epífisis del fémur. Para esta operación se
emplearon jeringuillas estériles de 1 ml con agujas de 25 G. El contenido de la MO se
homogeneizó con ayuda de la jeringuilla en 0,2 ml de PBS estéril. A partir de este punto las
suspensiones de MO se procesaron igual que la MO perfundida. Seguidamente, el punto de
incisión se esterilizó con povidona yodada (Betadine, Meda Farma) y permitimos que los ratones
se recuperaran de la anestesia sobre mantas térmicas tras administrarles 50 mg/Kg de atipamezol
(Antisedan Laboratorios Esteve Veterinaria). Una vez recuperada su movilidad normal, los
animales se devolvieron a sus jaulas donde terminaron de recuperarse de la operación.
Extracción de órganos hematopoyéticos extramedulares: En los experimentos de trasplante
de células hematopoyéticas, llegados a término, extrajimos no sólo la MO sino también otros
tejidos capaces de desarrollar hematopoyesis extramedular. En los ratones, estos son
principalmente el bazo y el timo (Morrison et al., 1995). Todos los órganos fueron sometidos a
una evaluación macroscópica. Además, bazo y timo se homogeneizaron en PBS, haciéndolos pasar
por una aguja de 18 G (18 G x 11/2”; 1,2 x 40 mm. Teruno) y luego a través de agujas de 25 G. Esta
suspensión celular se empleó para caracterizar los órganos por citometría de flujo y también para
extraer ARN/ADN de alícuotas congeladas a -80°C.
37
Trasplante de progenitores hematopoyéticos: El trasplante de células hematopoyéticas en
individuos irradiados con dosis letales tiene un efecto radio-protector gracias a que los
progenitores pueden formar parte estructural y funcional de los tejidos hematopoyéticos dañados
(Ford et al., 1956). Se trasplantaron células lin- transducidas o MO total de receptores primarios
inyectándolas en la vena lateral de la cola de ratonas Fanca-/- previamente acondicionadas
mediante 2 dosis de 5 Gy espaciadas 24 h entre sí. Las irradiaciones se llevaron a cabo en
instalaciones propias del CIEMAT con un equipo de rayos-X MG324 (Philips) irradiando a una tasa
de 1,07 Gy/min. Para ajustar la dosis de células, primero se determinó la celularidad de las
suspensiones procedentes de los cultivos de lin- o de los homogeneizados de MO. Cada receptor
fue inoculado vía vena lateral de la cola con un volumen de 200 µl, empleando jeringuillas
provistas de agujas de 25 G de diámetro.
38
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
una concentración de 50.000 células/ml y fueron rutinariamente pasadas cada 3-7 días en función
de su tasa proliferativa.
El cultivo de células previo a la transducción con RVs: pre-estimulación, se hizo cultivando
previamente las células en las mismas condiciones descritas en el párrafo anterior durante 48 h.
Cultivos clonogénicos: Para la evaluación del contenido y/o el estado de los progenitores
hematopoyéticos in vitro, se establecieron cultivos clonogénicos en medio semisólido rico en
citoquinas específicas para el crecimiento de progenitores CFU-GM. Para establecer los estod
cultivos clonogénicos sembramos 1.000 y 3.000 células lin- o 10.000 y 30.000 células de MO total.
Resuspendimos las células en 1 ml de metilcelulosa conteniendo citoquinas para progenitores de
ratón (Methocult® GF 3534. STEMCELL Technologies) y depositamos 1 ml por placa de 35 mm de
diámetro (Nunclon™ Δ Surface. NUNC). Empleamos la concentración celular más baja para
establecer el contenido basal de progenitores y varias placas con la concentración más alta para
evaluar la sensibilidad a agentes tóxicos, como por ejemplo MMC. Una semana después se
empleó un microscopio invertido para contar el número de colonias. En los experimentos de
marcaje genético con proteínas fluorescentes también se pudo determinar de esta manera la
eficacia de transducción sobre progenitores hematopoyéticos.
39
(Express Plus 0,1 µm. Millipore). Los cultivos se mantuvieron en estufas calefactadas a 37°C con
una presión de C02 constante del 5% (Series 8000 WJ CO2 incubator, Termo Scientific).
40
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
colonias redondeadas y refringentes de bordes bien definidos. Se vigiló diariamente que los
cultivos no perdieran su morfología característica embrionaria. Los cultivos se pasaron mediante
una tripsinización suave (0,25% Trypsin-EDTA 1X. Gibco) seguida de una dilución 1:10-1:20 de las
células homogenizadas. Las ESCs/iPSCs proliferan activamente por lo que fueron subcultivadas
cada 2-3 días.
Cultivos de líneas embrionarias sin estromas de soporte: Como paso previo a análisis por
citometría, extracción de ADN/ARN o inyección en ratones NSG, las células se crecieron en
ausencia de un cocultivo de soporte durante al menos 2 pases consecutivos con la finalidad de
aumentar la pureza de ESC/iPSCs y evitar la contaminación con células adultas. Se emplearon
placas multipocillo para cultivos celulares M6, pretratadas a TA durante 30 min con una solución
0,1% (w/v) de gelatina (EIA Grade Reagent, Gelatine. BIO-RAD) filtrada por una membrana con un
tamaño de poro de 0,1 µm (MILLEX VV, PVDF membrane. Millipore Express). El medio mES
empleado para el mantenimiento de estos cultivos en gelatina fue previamente acondicionado
durante 24 h sobre un cultivo confluente con fibroblastos de soporte irradiados: se
acondicionaron 8 ml por placa de 100 mm (Cell culture dish 100 mm x 20 mm style. Corning). Las
líneas de ESC/iPSCs fueron amplificadas mediante digestión suave con tripsina (Trypsin 0.25%
EDTA 1X, SIGMA), inactivada con FBS al 10% y las células diluidas en medio fresco se sembraron
sobre placas estériles nuevas, pretratadas con gelatina.
3.- VECTORES
41
partir de su secuencia original (real o putativa) en formato FASTA (.doc) o GeneBank (.gb)
visualizamos las posibles combinaciones de enzimas de restricción informativas en el software
VectorNTI. Las digestiones elegidas se realizaron a partir de 1-4 µl del ADN de la mini en un
volumen de 20 µl, siguiendo las recomendaciones del fabricante. Todas las enzimas y sus
tampones de digestión las obtuvimos de New England Biolabs. Tras 1 h de digestión a la
temperatura óptima de cada enzima, los fragmentos de restricción se resolvieron en geles de
agarosa al 0,8-1,0% (AGAROSE D1, LOW EEOO. Conda).
42
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
placas de 100 mm con las 293T y 8 ml de medio. Las placas fueron devueltas a las estufas a 37°C
donde se incubaron durante 8 h. Pasado este tiempo, el medio fue aspirado y sustituido por
medio fresco.
Recogida de sobrenadantes infectivos: Tras 24 h de incubación, el SN de los cultivos
transfectados se recogió y se repuso para volver a recoger el SN 48 h tras la transfección. Los
restos celulares se eliminaron filtrando el medio a través de membranas con un tamaño de poro
de 0,45 µm (Millipore). El SN repartido en tubos de 30 ml (Beckman Coulter) fue entonces
centrifugado 2 h a 18.000 g en una ultracentrífuga refrigerada a 4°C Avanti J-30I (Beckman
Coulter), en un rotor JS-24 (Beckman Coulter). Tras la ultra-centrifugación, se desechó el SN y el
sedimento fue resuspendido en 300 µl de PBS estéril. El SN concentrado se repartió en alícuotas
de 50-100 µl en tubos de 1,5 ml que fueron almacenadas a -80°C. Se reservó parte del virus para
su titulación.
Títulación de los vectores por PCR cuantitativa: Aún en ausencia de genes marcadores es
posible calcular el título mediante la amplificación por PCR de secuencias específicas como las
LTRs, la señal de encapsidación del lentivirus (Psi), o secuencias específicas del transgén. Es
necesario primero homogeneizar y aislar el ADN de cada pocillo por separado. Para ello
empleamos un kit comercial DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen). Empleamos curvas de dilución
de células y de plásmido para extrapolar el número de “copias por célula” (VCN, vector copy
number) mediante técnicas de PCR que amplifican tanto secuencias específicas del plásmido
como secuencias endógenas de las células que sirven de control de carga:
43
3.2.3.- Vectores γ-retrovirales
Empleamos ɣ-RVs de segunda generación pseudotipados con la proteína fusogénica de la
envuelta del virus de la estomatitis vesicular (VSV·G). El vector pSF91 LTRSFFV EGFP wPRE, referido
como EGFP-RV, figura 10, fue diseñado a partir de la secuencia del retrovirus Moloney de la
leucemia de ratón (MMLV) y nos fue cedido por el doctor C. Baum del Instituto de Hematología
Experimental, Universidad Médica de Hannover. (Hannover, Alemania).
5’ Ψ
SF91LTR R U5 eGFP wPRE SF91LTR R U5
SD SA 3’
Figura 10.- Esquema del vector EGFP-RV una vez integrado. Junto con la retrotranscripción ARN-> ADNdh se da la
duplicación de las repeticiones terminales largas (LTR) que tras la integración quedarán en los extremos del vector.
SF91LTR, secuencia promotora/enhancer silvestre de la LTR del virus SFFV; R, secuencia repetida de LTR del virus
SFFV; U5; secuencia única de la LTR 5’; SD, secuencia donante de splicing; ψ, Psi: señal de encapsiación; SA,
secuencia aceptora de splicing; eGFP, ADNc de la proteína verde fluorescente; wPRE, secuencia mejorada de
estabilización post-transcripcional del virus WHV.
Los RVs de segunda generación se produjeron y concentraron con el mismo protocolo que se
detalla más adelante para los vectores lentivirales.
5’ Ψ cPPT
Δ18 U3 R U5
SD SA PGK FANCA wPRE* Δ18 U3 R U5
3’
Figura 11.- Esquema del vector FANCA-LV una vez integrado. Junto con la retrotrasncripción ARN-> ADNdh se da la
duplicación de las repeticiones terminales largas (LTR) que tras la integración quedarán en los extremos del vector.
Δ18U3|R|U5, LTR inactivada del virus VIH-1; SD, secuencia donante de splicing; ψ, Psi: señal de encapsidación;
cPPT, tracto central de polipurinas; SA, secuencia aceptora de splicing; PGK, promotor de las fosfoglicerato quinasa
humana; hFANCA, cDNA del gen humano FANCA; wPRE*, secuencia mejorada de estabilización post-transcripcional
del virus WHV.
Una vez definidas las condiciones experimentales óptimas, decidimos emplear un lote del
vector producido bajo condiciones pre-GMP similar al que se empleará en el ensayo clínico
44
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
FANCOLEN-1, producido por el grupo de la doctora Anne Galy, directora de la Unidad INSERM
U951. Genethon (Evry, Francia).
MUT
Tabla 5.- Producción del SIN-LV hPGK FANCA wPRE de tercera generación.
Plásmido bp ADN µg/p100 mm
Envuelta HDM-VSV·G 5.824 3,15 µg
Empaquetador (gag/pol) 8.895 5,85 µg
Vectores SIN-LV STEMCCA: Empleados para reprogramar fibroblastos hacia iPSCs. Son vectores
policistrónicos que codifican los genes de reprogramación en un solo mensajero bajo el promotor
EF1α. Los vectores STEMCCA cMyc y STEMCCA RedLight solo difieren en la sustitución de la
secuencia de c-Myc por el marcador flurorescente mCherry, figura 12.
Los SNs fueron producidos y concentrados como se ha descrito empleando las cantidades
descritas en la tabla 6. Los plásmidos de expresión STEMCCA cMyc y STEMCCA RedLight,
figura 12, así como el plásmido auxiliar HDM-Tat1b, tabla 6, fueron obtenidos del doctor Gustavo
Mostoslavsky del Centro de Medicina Regenerativa (CReM) de la Universidad de Boston (Boston,
EEUU).
Figura 12.- Esquema de los vectores STEMCCA integrados. Junto con la retrotranscripción ARN-> ADNdh se da la
duplicación de las repeticiones terminales largas (LTR) que tras la integración quedarán en los extremos del vector.
Arriba, STEMCCA cMyc. Abajo, STEMCCA RedLight. Δ18U3 | R |LoxP| U5, LTR inactivada del virus VIH-1 incluyendo
las señales para la recombinación en presencia de Cre; SD, secuencia donante de splicing; ψ, Psi: señal de
encapsidación; cPPT, tracto central de polipurinas; SA, secuencia aceptora de splicing; EF1α, promotor ubícuo del
factor de elongación-1; wPRE*, secuencia mejorada de estabilización post-transcripcional del virus WHV.
45
3.3.-VECTORES NO VIRALES
3.3.1.- Transposones
Los transposones son elementos móviles que pueden integrarse y escindirse del genoma que
los acoge. A partir de secuencias fósiles del T1c/Mariner se han desarrollado transposones
recombinantes Sleeping Beauty que pueden funcionar en mamíferos superiores (Ivics et al.,
1997). También se ha optimizado la transposasa (SB100X), permitiendo una eficacia de
transposición muy alta (Mates et al., 2009).
Se ha empleado un transposón T2/OSKM que codifica un casete reprogramador bajo la
dirección del promotor artificial CAG, dentro de las repeticiones directas e invertidas del
transposón T2, figura 13.
Figura 13.- Esquema del transposón de reprogramación T2/OSKM. El diagrama muestra la configuración del
transposón T2/OSKM una vez integrado por la transposasa Sleeping Beauty hiperactiva (SB100x). A ambos lados la
repetición directa (DR) y la repetición invertida (IR) flanquean el casete de reprogramación. CAGgs, Promotor
ubicuo sintético; Oct4, Sox2, Klf4 (Pouf5) y c-Myc son ADNc de los genes de reprogramación; 2A, son secuencias
auto-proteolíticas que separan los factores entre sí.
46
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
resuspendimos en medio sin suero (StemSpan + 0,5% PenStrep) conteniendo 100 ng/ml de factor
de células madre de ratón (mSCF) y 100 ng/ml de interleuquina-11 humana (hIL11) (ambos, de
Preprotech) a una concentración de 106 células/ml. A continuación las células fueron
transducidas.
Transducción de progenitores lin-: Para la transducción de células hematopoyéticas se
emplearon SNs producidos en el laboratorio SIN-LV hPGK-FANCA-wPREMU. Estos SNs fueron
pseudotipados con la envuelta VSV·G y se concentraron para conseguir un stock de 2x108 TU/ml
producidos en condiciones pre-GMP por la empresa Genethon (París, Francia).
Para una infección típica, con una MOI=20, 0,5 ml de células (a 1x107 células lin-/ml) se
mezclaron con 0,5 ml de SN SIN-LV PGK FANCA wPREMUT (con un título de 2x108 TU/ml). A la
suspensión se le añadió protamina sulfato (SIGMA) a una concentración final de 8 µg/ml. La
mezcla se depositó en placas M6 tratadas para cultivos celulares (Falcon) que previamente habían
sido tapizadas a 4°C con 5 µg/cm2 de Retronectina® (Takara). La infección se dejó toda la noche
(16 h) en un incubador a 37°C.
Como control genotóxico se empleó el γ-RV SF91 GFP wPREMUT, pseudotipado con la envuelta
VSV·G. La infección con el vector γ-RV se realizó sobre lin- pre-estimuladas durante un periodo de
48 h porque los vectores γ-RV infectan células cuando estas están ciclando activamente. Las
células se sometieron a 2 ciclos de infección concatenados de 8 y 16 h. Debido a que los títulos
obtenidos eran menores, para equiparar la MOI se realizaron precargas centrifugando 0,5 – 1,0 ml
de SN a 1.400 g durante 1 h 30 min a 4°C sobre placas con retronectina. Sobre las placas
precargadas se añadió la mezcla del γ-RV con las células y se dejó incubar igual que LVs.
Como control negativo de la infección (mock), un grupo de células lin- se sometió a
condiciones de cultivo y transducción idénticas al grupo problema sustituyendo el SN infectivo por
un volumen igual de PBS.
Una vez finalizada la transducción, las células se lavaron, se resuspendieron en PBS y fueron
contadas. Luego, fueron resuspendidas para su inoculación y también sembradas en medios de
cultivo líquido y semisólido.
47
experimentos juntamos las suspensiones de las MOs de varios ratones en una misma mezcla, con
una aportación idéntica de cada receptor primario. Cada receptora recibió 200 µl de la mezcla,
conteniendo 107 células, inyectadas en la vena lateral de la cola.
Tabla 7.- Anticuerpos usados para el análisis de sangres por citometría de flujo.
Epítopo Alias Presente en Fluoróforo* Compañía Clon
CD3ε CD3 TCR, linfocitos T FitC BD Pharmingen 145-2C11
PE BD Pharmingen 145-2C11
CD45.R/B220 B220 BCR, linfocitos B PE BD Pharmingen RA3-6B2
Ly6-G Gr-1 Gr-1, monocitos FitC BD Pharmingen RB6-8C5
CD11b CD11b Mac-1, macrofagos y monocitos FitC BioLegend M1/70
PE BD Pharmingen M1/70
Ly5 A-E (Sca 1) Sca-1 Sca-1, CMH y linfocitos pro-B PE BD Pharmingen E13-161.7
CD117 C-kit C-kit, CMH PE BD Pharmingen 2B8
CD4 CD4 CD4, linfocitos T auxiliadores FitC BD Pharmingen H129.19
CD8a CD8 CD8, linfocitos T citotóxicos PE BD Pharmingen 53-6.7
48
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
Se añadieron 4 µl del ADN eluido sobre una mezcla de PCR Taqman (Universal PCR Master
Mix. Roche) con cebadores y sonda específicos según el caso. Se emplearon los cebadores para ψ
(Psi) y Titina para determinar el número de copias, tabla 8.
Las muestras fueron amplificadas en un termociclador de PCR a tiempo real Rotor Gene. Para
poder extrapolar el número de copias empleamos una curva de un plásmido que incluye la señal
lentiviral Psi y el gen Titina. Para determinar el porcentaje de quimerismo, empleamos una sonda
y cebadores para las secuencias específicas del cromosoma masculino de ratón (SrY) y otros
específicos contra el gen de la β Actina de ratón (BAct), tabla 8. Para extrapolar los valores se
incluyeron varios puntos de una curva de ADN genómico de células de MO de ratones macho,
extraída en las mismas condiciones que nuestras muestras.
49
4.3.2.- Análisis a término
La MO de los receptores primarios y secundarios a término, 6 meses tras haber recibido el
trasplante de células modificadas, fue extraída y procesada. Además de determinar el número de
copias con el mismo protocolo que se ha detallado para leucocitos de sangre periférica, en estas
muestras evaluamos la actividad biológica del vector y parámetros predictivos de genotoxicidad
como su patrón de integraciones.
Recuento de unidades formadoras de colonias y actividad biológica del SIN-LV PGK FANCA
wPREMUT: Establecimos cultivos clonogénicos en metilcelulosa cómo se explica en el punto V.2.1.
De esta manera, pudimos valorar el contenido basal de los progenitores hematopoyéticos para
formar colonias CFU-GM sembrando 1.000 células lin- o 10.000 células de MO total.
La sensibilidad frente a agentes entrecruzantes del ADN, como la mitomicina (MMC), es una
cualidad diagnóstica que comparten las células de pacientes humanos (Jacome et al., 2009;
Gonzalez-Murillo et al., 2010) y del ratón Fanca-/- (Cheng et al., 2000; Rio et al., 2002). Para
comprobar la eficacia del vector SIN-LV PGK FANCA wPREMUT, se añadieron cantidades crecientes
de MMC sobre cultivos de 1 ml de metilcelulosa mezclada con 3.000 células lin- o 30.000 células
procedentes de la MO total de los ratones trasplantados. Un día después de haber sembrado las
células, añadimos sobre las placas 50 µl de diluciones crecientes de MMC (Mitomicin C from
Streptomyces caespitosus. SIGMA) hasta alcanzar una concentración final de 10, 30, 50 y 100 nM.
Las células se mantuvieron una semana en las estufas con una temperatura constante de 37°C y
una concentración de CO2 del 5%. El número de colonias CFU-GM fue determinado 7 días después
de su siembra.
50
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
51
Para comprobar que la técnica había tenido éxito, la suspensión de ADN conteniendo las
integraciones amplificadas se resolvió en geles de TBE con agarosa al 2% teñidos con bromuro de
etidio. Empleamos también geles comerciales Spreadex (Elchrom Scientific) para comparar los
patrones oligo o policlonales de las distintas muestras. Estos geles se han empleado para
evidenciar algunos comportamientos clonales, pero debido al gran número de integraciones que
se detectan en nuestros experimentos, resulta más fiable recurrir a la secuenciación masiva.
Mega PCR y secuenciación masiva de integraciones: Empleamos una PCR para fusionar
nuestras secuencias de la LAM-PCR con los oligos de identificación y amplificación necesarios para
la secuenciación masiva. Estos oligonucleótidos son ADNs lineales, un extremo del cebador
reconoce la LTR o el casete mientras que el resto sobresale. La pareja de oligonucleótidos
contiene un “Megalinker” común a todas las muestras de células modificadas con LVs o γ-RV y un
“Megaprimer” que incluye una secuencia específica identificatoria (barcode) de 10 nt. Con estos
oligonucleótidos podríamos marcar hasta 410 muestras y secuenciarlas simultáneamente.
Partimos de 20 ng del producto de la LAM-PCR de cada muestra y los mezclamos con su
Megalinker y su Megaprimer para someterlos a 12 ciclos de amplificación en los que los
oligonucleótidos quedan perfectamente fundidos con las secuencias problema. Este producto de
PCR fue de nuevo purificado y resuelto en geles de agarosa al 2% para comprobar su integridad
antes de ser enviado a la empresa GATC (GATC-Biotech AC. Konstanz, Alemania), donde fue
sometido a secuenciación en un pirosecuenciador Roche 454.
La secuenciación masiva o pirosecuenciación permite la secuenciación conjunta de muchas
muestras, ahorrando tiempo y reactivos.
Análisis bioinformático de las integraciones: Para estos análisis contamos con la
colaboración del laboratorio del doctor Manfred Schmidt. Los análisis a partir de las secuencias
crudas se llevaron a cabo en el Centro Alemán de Investigación del Cáncer (DKFZ, Heidelberg,
Alemania). Para ello, se emplearon programas propios, desarrollados en el laboratorio del Dr. M.
Schmidt, funcionando en el entorno de red Galaxy (http://galaxyproject.org/) instalado en
equipos de dicho centro. Básicamente, el trabajo del programa consistió en listar las secuencias
que tenían unos estándares de calidad y un tamaño suficiente. Posteriormente, se seleccionaron
sólo aquellas lecturas que estaban acorde con el esquema esperado: LTR, Megaprimer, una
secuencia variable desconocida, casete de amplificación y Megalinker. Las secuencias que superan
esta criba con éxito son incluidas en una base de datos de integraciones como “lecturas” (o
“reads”, en inglés). Estas fueron identificadas según sus secuencias identificativas (barcode) y
alineadas en el genoma de ratón (mm10, Genome Reference Consortium GRCm38). Como
resultado el programa devolvió una base de datos de integraciones separadas según su origen en
el que tenía en cuenta el número de lecturas de cada una de ellas. Estas bases de datos fueron
almacenadas como hojas de cálculo Excel (Microsoft Office 2010).
52
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
DNeasy Blood and Tissue Kit (Qiagen). Como la mutación Scid genera una nueva diana para Alu I
en el exón 85 del gen Prkdc, amplificamos el locus mediante una PCR con oligonucleótidos
específicos para las secuencias colindantes, tabla 10.
Tabla 10: Cebadores para la determinación del genotipo y número de copias en ADNg.
Amplicón bp Oligonucleótidos Secuencia 5' 3'
MH531 TGTGTGCCCGTCTGTTGTGT
HIV-LTR 142
MH532 GAGTCCTGCGTCGAGAGAGC
oIMR0803 GGAAAAGAATTGGTATCCAC
Locus Scid 78
oIMR0804 AGTTATAACAGCTGGGTTGGC
T2Onc2left CAGTTGAAGTCGGAAGTTTA
IR/DR en 5’ 139
IRDLR2 GACTTGTGTCATGCACAAAGTAGATGTCC
BAct-F ACGGCCAGGTCATCACTATTG
B-Actina 131
BAct-R ACTATGGCCTCAGGAGTTTTGTCA
Empleamos 4 µl de cada muestra junto con los cebadores y 10 µl de una mezcla de PCR 2X
TaqMan (Universal PCR Master Mix. Roche). Seguidamente sometimos el producto de PCR a una
digestión diagnóstica para genotipar los fibroblastos: del producto de la PCR, 4 µl fueron digeridos
con Alu I (New England Biolabs). Los fragmentos digeridos y 4 µl del producto de PCR sin digerir se
resolvieron en un gel de agarosa al 3% en TBE (solución compuesta por 0,45 mM de Tris, 0,45 mM
de ácido bórico, 10 mM de EDTA a pH=8), aplicando un voltaje constante de 100 V. También
empleamos la misma aproximación para genotipar iPSCs generadas a partir de estos fibroblastos.
53
estromas de soporte en placas M6 donde pudieran generar de nuevo colonias de iPSCs. Entre 7 y
10 días después de la irradiación, cuando las colonias de iPSC tenían un tamaño adecuado, las
placas se fijaron con PFA al 4% (Proanalysis Formaldehyde Solution min 37%, 10% methanol.
Merck) durante 2 min y las placas se tiñeron empleando un kit comercial (Alakaline Phosphatase
Detection Kit, Millipore). Las colonias AP positivas con una morfología característica de ES/iPS se
contaron bajo el microscopio invertido (40x).
Longitud telomérica: La longitud de los telómeros se puede determinar a partir de la
hibridación con sondas fluorescentes específicas in situ (FISH). Partimos de un lisado celular
enriquecido en metafases mediante la incubación de las células con colchicina (KaryoMAX
colcemid, Gibco) antes de la fijación y extensión sobre un portaobjetos. Las muestras fueron
fijadas en PBS con formaldehído al 4% durante 2 min. Los portaobjetos fijados fueron sumergidos
5 min en PBS en tres lavados sucesivos, digeridos 10 min en una solución de 0,2% (w/v) de
pepsina (Pepsin from porcine gastric mucosa, SIGMA), con 0,063% de ácido clorhídrico (HCl).
Después, las muestras se lavaron con PBS y se fijaron con una solución de PFA al 4% y se lavaron 3
veces antes de deshidratarlas en soluciones crecientes de etanol al 70%, 90% y 100%. A
continuación, las preparaciones se dejaron secar al aire entre 5 y 20 min. Luego se añadieron las
sondas específicas contra el centrómero (FITC, Eurogentec) y el telómero (Cy3-PNA- (CCCTAA)4) y
las muestras se desnaturalizaron incubandolas 3 min a 80°C. Tras permitir que las muestras
renaturalizaran durante 2 h a TA, se lavaron con T-PBS (PBS con 0,1% de Tween20) y se volvieron
a deshidratar como antes. Una vez secas, las muestras se montaron con Moviol/DAPI (Dako) y se
fotografiaron en un microscopio de fluorescencia a 200x. Las imágenes capturadas fueron
estudiadas empleando el software TFL-TELO.
54
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
vectores SIN-LV STEMCCA Myc o STEMCCA RedLight pseudotipados con la envuelta VSV·G. El
medio DMEM se suplementó con 8 ng/ml de protamina sulfato (SIGMA). Además de emplear una
relación vector/célula alta, con MOIs cercanas a 100, se emplearon volúmenes pequeños,
menores a 0,5 ml de volumen final, para aumentar la concentración de virus y células, y así
favorecer la interacción entre ambos. Tras 8 h de incubación se añadió medio pMEF completo
hasta 2 ml y las placas se mantuvieron en la estufa toda la noche a 37°C. A la mañana siguiente, el
medio con restos de SN fue aspirado y reemplazado por medio fresco. El tercer o cuarto día desde
la infección, antes de que los cultivos llegaran a confluencia, estos se pasaron sobre una nueva
placa, a razón de 1x105 células por pocillo con 2 ml de medio mES.
55
5.3.1.- Transposones para la generación de iPSC
Los transposones como el Sleeping Beauty (SB) en combinación con transposasas hiperactivas
son herramientas no virales con eficacias de transferencia muy alta. El plásmido T2/OSKM
contiene un transposón de reprogramación diseñado en el laboratorio del doctor Zoltan Ivics en el
Centro de Biología Celular Max Delbrück en Berlin, Alemania. El transposón incorpora un
promotor artificial CAGgs que fue construido fusionando la secuencia promotor/enhancer del
citomegalovirus (CMV-I/E) en 3’ con el promotor de la Beta-actina del pollo (Ac) previamente
modificado (AG) (Niwa et al., 1991). El resultado es un promotor potente y ubicuo capaz de liderar
la expresión de genes en cualquier tejido y estadio de diferenciación (Okabe et al., 1997). Tras el
promotor encontramos un gen policistrónico artificial (OSKM) que expresa un ARNm que incluye
los factores Oct3/4 (Pouf 5) y Sox2 unidos por una secuencia 2A. Este hecho hace que todos los
factores alcancen los mismos niveles de expresión, al menos teóricamente. Cerrando el diseño
hay otro tándem IR/DR que es necesario para la formación de la estructura pre-integracional.
Protocolo de transfección: Para introducir los transposones en las células empleamos un tipo
especial de transfección llamado nucleofección, patentado por AMAXA. Para cada nucleofección
se partió de 2x106 MEFs a pase 2. Siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante, las células fueron
sometidas al programa T20 en un equipo de nucleofección (Nucleofector 1. Amaxa). Se utilizó un
ratio 1/10 entre el plásmido que codifica la transposasa SB100X y el transposon T2/CAGgs OSKM.
Por cubeta, añadimos 4,2 µg del plásmido T2/CAGgs OKSM junto con 0,42 µg del plásmido
SB100X, en la solución del kit MEF2 (Amaxa® MEF2 Nucleofector® Kit. Lonza). Una vez finalizado el
programa de electroporación, los fibroblastos fueron resuspendidos en medio pMEF y se
cultivaron normalmente en placas de 100 mm de diámetro pre-tratadas con 8 ml de una solución
de gelatina al 0,1%, filtrada por 0,1 µm. Al día siguiente y 4 días después, se evaluó la viabilidad de
las células electroporadas y se pudieron analizar los primeros parámetros de citometría de flujo
gracias a la disponibilidad de material. A los 4 días, aspiramos el medio de las células y lo
sustituimos por medio mES completo. Siete días después de la nucleofección las células se
sembraron sobre estromas de soporte irradiados para evaluar la formación de colonias con
morfología ES/iPS.
56
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
5.4.3.- Inmunohistoquímica
El estudio sobre colonias de ESC/iPSCs fijadas manteniendo su morfología y estructura
original también es importante para la caracterización de estas células.
Para los ensayos inmunohistoquímicos, las células se cultivaron sobre estromas de soporte
irradiados con recambio diario de medio mES durante al menos 5 días para permitir que las
57
colonias alcanzaran un tamaño suficiente. Las células se crecieron en placas multipocillos M6 o
sobre portaobjetos multi-cámara (4 chamber polystyrene culture slides, BD Falcon). Fijamos las
colonias a TA en una solución de PFA al 4%. Tras eliminar los restos de PFA con lavados en PBS, las
células fueron almacenadas a 4°C en oscuridad hasta su tinción.
Fosfatasa alcalina: Para la determinación de colonias ESC e iPSC positivas para la expresión de
fosfatasa alcalina (AP), se cultivaron colonias de ESC/iPSC en placas multipocillo M6 sobre un
estroma de soporte irradiado. Se fijaron durante 2 min con una solución de PFA al 4% y después
se lavaron varias veces empleando TBS-T (20 mM de Tris HCl a pH=7,8; 140 mM de NaCl y
Tween-20 al 0,1%). Siguiendo las instrucciones del kit (Alkaline Phosphatase Detection Kit.
Chemicon), tras aspirar el último lavado, se incubó cada pocillo con 1 ml de una mezcla de agua,
naftol y fastred®, los dos últimos suministrados en el kit. Las colonias con morfología ESC positivas
para la AP fueron analizadas empleando un microscopio invertido (OLYMPUS 1X70). Las placas
fueron fotografiadas con una cámara (LEICA IM50) utilizando un objetivo de aumento 40x.
Factores de transcripción y marcadores de superficie: Las preparaciones fijadas fueron
previamente atemperadas y lavadas 3 veces en PBS. Las células fueron permeabilizadas durante
15 min en una solución de BSA-T-PBS conteniendo tritón X-100 al 0,2%. Se lavaron los restos de
tritón y se bloqueó durante 30 min en la solución de bloqueo: BSA-T-PBS. A continuación, el
bloqueo fue sustituido por los anticuerpos diluidos en BSA-T-PBS. Rutinariamente, se ensayaron
anticuerpos contra SSEA-1, Nanog y Oct3/4, tabla 11. Tras incubar los anticuerpos toda la noche a
4°C en oscuridad, las muestras se lavaron con BSA-T-PBS y los portaobjetos fueron entonces
montados empleando una mezcla Moviol + DAPI. Las colonias fueron estudiadas a 200x aumentos
en un microscopio de fluorescencia (ApoTome. Zeiss).
58
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
59
5.4.6.- Inducción de teratomas
Tras la contribución a la generación de embriones, la capacidad de formar teratomas es una
clara evidencia de que una iPSC es capaz de diferenciarse en cualquier tejido con independencia
de la capa germinativa de la que proceda (Takahashi and Yamanaka, 2006; Takahashi et al., 2007).
Las ESC/iPSCs se amplificaron sobre placas tratadas con gelatina 0,1% (EIA Grade Ragent, gelatina.
BIO-RAD) en ausencia de cocultivo de soporte (ver apartado V.2.2.3). El día de la inoculación las
células se resuspendieron, se contaron en la cámara Neubauer y se centrifugaron (10 min, 335 g,
TA). Un total de 106 células ESC o iPSC resuspendidas en PBS estéril, a una concentración de 5x106
células/ml, fueron inyectadas sub-epidérmicamente en el flanco de ratones NSG. Cada ratón fue
inoculado con 200 µl de la suspensión celular empleando jeringuillas estériles desechables
provistas de agujas de 25 G. Los ratones NSG así inoculados, fueron examinados semanalmente
para evaluar la aparición de bultos sospechosos en el flanco inyectado. Cuando las masas fueron
evidentes (entre 5 y 8 semanas), los animales se sometieron a eutanasia y posterior autopsia. Los
teratomas fueron enviados a un laboratorio externo de anatomía patológica que determinó su
identidad histológica: ANAPATH (Anapath Diagnóstico Anatomo-Patológico Veterinario;
www.anapath.es).
60
V.- Materials and methods | Materiales y métodos
asocia con una respuesta de la célula frente a diversos tipos de daño y otros marcadores como
P16/INK4a con senescencia celular. Para poder sacar el máximo rendimiento a las muestras,
sometimos las células a un protocolo de extracción con TRIzol® (Invitrogen) que nos permitió
recuperar las proteínas y el ARN simultáneamente.
PCR de expresión: A partir del ARN total se sintetizó el ADNc como se ha explicado
anteriormente.
Empleamos una dilución 1:10 de los ADNc para amplificar por PCR los transcritos de Tp53,
P21/Cip1/Waf1, P15/Ink4b, P16/Ink4a, Pcna y c-Myc. Para ello se diseñaron cebadores específicos
con ayuda del software ProbeFinder (versión 2.47. Roche). Para la amplificación por PCR, se
emplearon los oligonucleótidos de la tabla 13.
Tabla 13.- Cebadores para el estudio de la expresión de genes de senescencia y proliferación.
Amplicón bp Oligo Secuencia 5' 3'
PCNA_L CTAGCCATGGGCGTGAAC
Pcna 114
PCNA_R GAATACTAGTGCTAAGGTGTCTGCAT
tp53_L ATGCCCATGCTACAGAGGAG
tp53 74
tp53_R AGACTGGCCCTTCTTGGTCT
p21_L AACATCTCAGGGCCGAAA
p21/CIP1 62
p21_R TGCGCTTGGAGTGATAGAAA
4a p16_L TGGGTAGAGCCACCCTTCT
p16/INK 96
p16_R AAAAGGAAAAAGCAAAGACGAA
4b p15_L AATAACTTCCTACGAATTTTCTGC
p15/INK 64
p15_R CCCTTGGCTTCAAGGTGAG
RTmMyc F TAACTCGAGGAGGAGCTGGA
c-Myc 114
RTmMyc R GCCAAGGTTGTGAGGTTAGG
61
62
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
VI.- RESULTS
1.- ANALYSIS OF THE SAFETY AND EFFICIENCY OF A LENTIVIRAL VECTOR FOR THE GENE
THERAPY OF FA-A PATIENTS
Gene therapy protocols capable of efficiently restore the FANCA gene in hematopoietic stem
cells (HSC) would be of utmost benefit for a high proportion of FA patients since more than 60%
of them harbor mutations affecting the FANCA gene. However, prior to step into clinical settings,
safety and efficacy tests are needed. In vivo studies constitute one of the best approaches to cope
with the long time-span needed to analyze the effects induced because of the retroviral
integration in HSCs. Thus, herein, we have investigated the use of a therapeutic FANCA-LV in a
mouse model of FA-A.
14-16 h
Overnight
transduction
For optimization of gene therapy protocols based on the transduction and transplant of lin-
from a FA strain: FVB FancaΔE4-E7:LacZ-NEO (henceforward called Fanca-/-), we used VSV·G
pseudotyped vectors produced and concentrated in-house, table 14. The sequences of the
vectors, SIN-LV PGK FANCA wPRE* (FANCA-LV) (Gonzalez-Murillo et al., 2010) and control γ-RV
SFFV eGFP wPRE* (EGFP-RV) (Modlich et al., 2006), tested herein are described in Materials and
Methods (section V.3.2.3 and V.3.2.4). Transient co-transfection of HEK293T was used to
ensemble the vector particles. VSV·G packaged LVs were harvested and concentrated 100 fold in
volume by ultracentrifugation. Titers of concentrated batches were determined in HT1080 cells by
flow cytometry or qPCR analyses one week after transduction.
Once all cell manipulations were optimized, the same experimental settings were applied to a
batch of FANCA-LV from Genethon (Evry, France), produced under pre-GMP conditions. Titers
63
from the batches assayed are shown in table 14.
As shown in table 14, the LVs produced in house or by Genethon had similar good titers,
which allowed us to transduce lin- Fanca-/- BM cells at MOIs of 20 and above.
Primary BM lin- cells were obtained from young adult (10-14 weeks old) Fanca-/- male mice.
The marrow cell suspensions were processed for lin- purification in a QuadroMACS magnetic
separator. Purity of lineage depleted cells was evaluated by flow cytometry, see table 14. The
average purity was always above 70% of lin- cells. Following purification, Fanca-/- lin- were mock
transduced or incubated with the therapeutic LV.
After overnight transduction on Retronectin® coated plates, cells were washed and split for
either in vitro or in vivo analyses, figure 14. For transduction experiments with RVs, cells were
cultured with cytokines to allow 48 h pre-stimulation prior to genetic modification. As shown in
figure 15, we scored a similar numbers of colony forming cells (CFCs) in transduced wt or Fanca-/-,
regardless of the MOI.
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
MOI: n/a n/a <10 20 <10 20 50 >100
origin: wt Fanca-/-
– -/-
Figure 15. Transduction impact on the CFU-GMs viability. Lin BM cells from Fanca donors were subjected to
-/-
transduction using the different MOIs of either FANCA-LV or EGFP-RV. CFU-GM scores are relative to mock Fanca
-
lin BM cell cultures set in each experiment, mean and standard errors are shown.
Mitomycin C (MMC) sensitivity of CFCs was evaluated after transduction with FANCA-LV or
with EGFP-RV. FANCA-LV transduced cells evidenced normalization of FA hypersensitivity at all
64
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
tested doses, as reflected by the number of CFCs scored after 7 days in culture in presence of
MMC, figure 16.
100 100
% CFU-GM Survival
% CFU-GM Survival 10 10
1 1
0,1 0,1
0 1 10 100 0 1 10 100
MMC [nM] MMC [nM]
wt fresh wt fresh
Fanca fresh Fanca fresh
Fanca EGFP-RV MOI <10 Fanca FANCA-LV MOI <10
Fanca EGFP-RV MOI=20 Fanca FANCA-LV MOI=20
Fanca FANCA-LV MOI=50
Fanca FANCA-LV MOI >100
-/-
Figure 16. Effect of FANCA-LV or EGFP-RV transduction on the sensitivity of Fanca CFU-GMs to mitomycin C.
Cells transduced with either EGFP-RV or FANCA-LV were plated on methylcellulose plates and challenged with
increasing doses of MMC. Panels show the CFU-GM survival curves for either EGFP-RV (left) or FANCA-LV (right).
65
Primary recipients Secondary recipients
100 100
80 80
Survival (%)
Survival (%)
60 60
40 40 MOI=20 EGFP-RV
20 20 MOI=20 FANCA-LV
0 0 MOI=50 FANCA-LV
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
dpt dpt
Figure 17.- Kapplan-Meiers surviving charts of mice corresponding to FANCA-LV and EGFP-RV cohorts. Both
primary (left) and secondary (right) recipients survival curves are plotted. Survival curves are interrupted at end-
point analyses when full characterization of the hematopoietic tissues was conducted. dpt, days post
transplantation.
The functionality of the engrafted HSCs, giving rise to circulating mature blood cells, was
documented by detection of donor Y-chromosome sequences in PB over time, figure 18.
Furthermore, persistence of gene-corrected HSC in the BM could be confirmed in total marrow
samples taken at end-point analysis. The contribution of donor cells to the recipients’
hematopoiesis was determined using qPCR on genomic DNA isolated from blood and marrow
samples.
FANCA-LV EGFP-RV
** **
Donor quimerism (%)
100 ** * 100 **
* **
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 20
0 0
1ry recipients 2ry recipients 1ry recipients 2ry recipients
Figure 18.- Contribution of male-donor cells in PB and BM samples from primary and secondary recipients. DNA
was isolated from PB sampled at 1, 3 and 6 months post-transplant and BM at end-analysis. Subsequently, donor
chimerism was determined by qPCR through specific amplification of Y-chromosome and mGADPH on the samples
from FANCA-LV (left) and EGFP-RV (right) cohorts. Bars and wiskers represent mean and standard errors,
respectively. * p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01, T-test.
In general, good engraftment levels close to 80% were observed in primary recipients. The
initial engraftments determined in secondary recipients were also high, although a progressive
decrease of chimerism was observed in all animals, figure 18.
Besides, hematological counts reflected essentially normal values of red blood cells (RBC) and
white blood cell (WBC) from first month analyses. The different blood populations identified by
the cell counter resemble more variation in cell numbers and distribution of lymphocytes and
granulocytes in the animals reconstituted from RV-modified HSC while a healthy steady
hematopoiesis over time was documented in the FANCA-LV cohorts, either primary or secondary
recipients, figure 19.
66
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
Figure 19.- Hematological counts from FANCA-LV and EGFP-RV recipients after gene therapy. Blood samples
harvested at 1, 3 and 6 months after cell infusion of FANCA-LV and EGFP-RV treated cells. (Left chart) RBC followed
from 1 mpt onwards in primary and secondary recipients. (Right chart) Leukocyte counts in PB from 1 mpt onwards
in primary and secondary recipients. RBC, red blood cells; WBC, white blood cells; mpt, months post-transplant;
GRA, granulocytes and monocytes; LYM, lymphoid cells; MID, medium and intermediate sized circulating cells. Bars
and whiskers represent mean and standard errors, respectively.
1.2.2.- Absence of adverse effects of FANCA-LV transduced Fanca-/- HSCs after serial
transplantation
We evaluated the basal content of hematopoietic progenitors in total BM samples from
transplanted mice to know whether the vector integration could have induced any improvement
(due to the FANCA complementation) or on the contrary any deleterious effect (due to vector-
associated toxicity) on the compartment of hematopoietic progenitor cells. We found that CFCs
present in BM from adult Fanca-/- animals were significantly decreased with respect to same age
wt controls. The correction of these cells with the FANCA-LV significantly increased progenitors’
content to normal values, figure 20.
CFU-GMs per 104 BM cells
80
60 *
40
20
0
wt Fanca 1ry 2ry
Fresh Recipients’
BM BM
-/-
Figure 20- Content in hematopoietic progenitors in Fanca recipients treated by gene therapy. Equal numbers of
-/-
total BM cells from fresh Fanca mice (white bar), fresh wt control mice (blue bar) or FANCA-LV recipients, either
primary (lilac bar) or secondary (purple bar), were seeded into methylcellulose plates to assess CFU-GMs content.
Bars and whiskers represent mean and standard errors, respectively. * p ≤ 0.05, T-test.
67
We therefore confirmed the absence of FANCA-LV vector replication, as expected from a 3rd
generation SIN-LV.
Figure 21.- Detection of replication competent lentivirus (RCLs). PB lymphocytes were transduced at the indicated
multiplicities of infection (MOI), and SNs were collected at 0, 7, 14 and 17 days post transduction (dpt) and
processed for ELISA detection of HIV p24 proteins, evidencing the absence of replication competent lentivirus
(RCL). * SN collected after first cell-wash.
1.2.3.- Sustained detection of the FANCA-LV in primary and secondary Fanca-/- recipients
Persistence of the LV-corrected Fanca-/- cells upon serial transplantation was studied routinely
in recipients’ PB samples and BM at end-point analyses. These samples were also tested to
confirm the absence of vector clearance due to intrinsic toxicity, figure 22.
FANCA-LV copies per cell
-/-
Figure 22.- Detection of FANCA-LV in Fanca recipients’ PB and BM cells. Blood samples were harvested at 1,
3 and 6 months post-transplant and BM extracted at end-point analyses. The number of proviral copies per cell
was determined by qPCR on gDNA by comparison of FANCA-LV and endogenous Gapdh gene.
The VCN determined in separate experiments, in which we used the pre-GMP batch and the
same MOI, evidenced that despite small inter-experiment variations between them, the VCN was
maintained over time in absence of gross increases or decreases of the vector signal.
68
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
thymus
muscle
kidney
spleen
ovary
brain
liver
skin
BM
PB
BM Brain Gonads
Figure 23.- Biodistribution of FANCA-LV in different tissues from mice treated by gene therapy. FANCA-LV specific
sequences were amplified by qPCR. (Left) Hematopoietic and non-hematopoietic organs of several secondary
recipients belonging to 3 different BM pools from experiment L5 were harvested and processed at end-point
analyses. (Right) In a separate experiment wt male and female mice were infused with FANCA-LV modified cells and
the presence of the vector was tested 1 mpt. Ranges under the detection limit are grey shadowed.
1.2.5.- Fanca-/- recipients engrafted with gene corrected cells display a healthy phenotype
BM samples from primary and secondary recipients subjected to the gene therapy protocol were
tested in vitro to confirm reversion of FA phenotype. We harvested Fanca-/- BM after long- term
engraftment, in primary and secondary recipients and challenged with MMC.
Same numbers of BM cells were seeded on methylcellulose plates where MMC was added.
The survival curves of CFCs were scored one week after adding the DNA cross-linking agent, figure
24.
Remarkably, correction of FA CFCs hypersensitivity to ICLs was evident in both primary and
secondary recipients long-term after transplantation of the FANCA-LV corrected cells. These
results demonstrated the functionality of the vector to restore FA deficiencies permanently and
also the unaltered properties of the FANCA-LV corrected HSCs, which can engraft recipients’ BM
to produce healthy hematopoiesis.
% CFCs survival
BM wt
10 10 BM Fanca + FANCA-LV
BM Fanca + EGFP-RV
1 1
1 10 100 1 10 100
MMC (nM) MMC (nM)
Figure 24.- Therapeutic MMC protection in long-term engrafted FANCA-LV corrected cells. After long-term
engraftment, total BM homogenates from (left panel) primary and (right panel) secondary recipients fostering
gene modified cells were harvested and CFCs cultures seeded into methylcellulose plates with increasing doses of
MMC. Sensitivity was calculated plotting the surviving fraction of CFCs and the MMC dose applied. Mean and
standard errors are shown.
Taken together, the infusion of FANCA-LV corrected lin- BM cells protected Fanca-/- recipients
from myeloablative conditioning, promoting a healthy hematopoiesis concurring with a sustained
69
detection of gene modified cells in PB and BM of the recipient mice. Besides, based on the p24
analyses, we can conclude that FANCA-LV is unable to generate RCLs. Moreover, the permanent
labeling of FANCA-LV transduced cells did not have a toxic effect on content of progenitors within
the recipients’ BM. While the integrated LV provirus was observed in hematopoietic tissues such
as PB, BM and spleen, no significant signals from the LV were detected in non-hematopoietic
tissues. Thus, these results demonstrate that the genetic correction of Fanca-/- HSCs with the
FANCA-LV confers a stable phenotype reversion of these cells in vivo without any significant
toxicity.
Five independent experiments of serial long-term transplantation with pre-GMP FANCA-LV and one EGFP-RV
transduced cells were included in these analyses. Serial BMT was performed either individually, by using a mouse to
mouse BMT approach, by pooling equal number of primary BM cells, or by combining both types of procedures in
separate secondary recipients.
1.3.1.- High throughput analysis of LV and RV integration sites in transduced Fanca-/- cells
Genomic DNA samples were isolated from PB cells obtained at periodic intervals after BMT
and also from BM collected at the sacrifice of the recipients, see table 15.
LAM-PCR allows the amplification of short DNA sequences flanking the vector LTRs. The
identity of these PCR products depends solely on the sequence targeted by the vector, while the
length of LAM-PCR products depend on the loci and the distance to nearest restriction motifs
corresponding to the enzymes used to link a specific cassette for the nested exponential
amplification. Thus, different integrations processed with the same protocol should produce
different bands in the electrophoresis gels, as observed in the LAM-PCR products from recipients
with similar engraftment levels, figure 25.
The electrophoretic resolution of EGFP-RV samples displayed an oligoclonal restricted pattern
in which few bands were present in each sample. Besides, most bands were repeatedly noticed in
primary and secondary recipients from the same experiment, figure 25.
70
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
EGFP-RV FANCA-LV
R1 primary recipients R1 secondary recipients L4 primary recipients L4 secondary recipients
Figure 25: LAM-PCR products showing the clonal repertoire of hematopoietic samples from recipients
-/- -
transplanted with Fanca lin BM cells transduced with EGFP-RV or FANCA-LV. Spreadex agarose electrophoresis
gels were used to resolve LAM-PCR products. EGFP-RV transplanted mice (left) showed a limited clonal content in
both primary and secondary recipients while FANCA-LV samples (right) exhibit a highly polyclonal smear
distribution. Green arrow, inner control band of Mse I LAM-PCR.
Figure 26.- Step-wise automatic pre-processing of LAM-PCR reads. Raw sequences from the pyrosequencer need
to match quality control (QC) in size and reliability. Only quality validated sequences are kept for the next step, in
which the “megaprimer” used to tag and prime sequencing of the DNAs is identified within the DNA sequence, as
well as the LTR sequences used to prime the linear PCR reaction. Sequences positively tagged according to their
origin by their “barcode” were searched for genomic DNAs (sequences between the linker primer and the LTR
primer) which were aligned in the mouse genome data base to retrieve their location. Only unequivocally genome
annotated sequences were considered. The final dataset included biological relevant data such as position and
orientation of each discrete insertion and relevant genomic features nearby, such as RefSeq genes, CpG islands and
promoters.
Parallel sequencing of all samples yielded over 250,000 raw sequences, which were trimmed
and filtrated to allow alignment on the mouse genome. Each sequence successfully sequenced
and mapped (“read”) was thus annotated and listed for further analyses. Reads in the same
chromosome, orientation and position (± 4 bp) were considered the same lentiviral insertion site
(LIS). We kept the record of coincident LIS to allow clonal analyses. Concordantly with
71
electrophoresis, from the RV treated mice we retrieved a mean of 10 mappable retroviral
insertion sites (RIS) per sample, while LV treated samples yielded an average of 97 different LIS
per sample.
1.3.2.- Analysis of the insertional profile in hematopoietic samples from Fanca-/- mice
transplanted with gene corrected syngeneic HSCs
We described chromosomal distribution of the validated LIS/RIS in the transplanted animals.
Fewer than 15% of the LIS were found within a 10 Kb window from the transcription start sites
(TSS) described in the mouse genome, table 16. Similarly, only a small fraction of the validated LIS
was located in the vicinity (± 10 Kb) of known CpG islands, table 16.
RIS distribution, however, was enriched around TSS, as deduced by the fact that more than
15% of RIS were located within 10 Kb from TSS. However, a limited number of RIS were validated.
This was consistent with the oligoclonal pattern of repopulation seen by electrophoretic
resolution of the ɣ-RV LAM-PCR products.
-/-
Table 16.- LIS/RIS distribution in the Fanca BMT model.
Validated IS ± 10 Kb TSS ± 10 Kb CpG
Pre-GMP FANCA-LV # LIS # LIS % # LIS %
ry
1 recipients 7513 1056 14.06 1104 14.95
ry
2 recipients 1369 170 12.42 180 13.15
EGFP-RV # RIS # RIS % # RIS %
ry
1 recipients 118 19 16.10 18 15.25
ry
2 recipients 62 7 11.29 8 12.90
The chromosomal distribution of the LIS retrieved from either primary or secondary recipient
samples accommodated to a random profile generated in silico from a 10,000 random mappable
ISs. Remarkably, no gross differences due to long-term engraftment and selection could be noted
in the validated LIS, figure 27.
50 50 Random
FANCA-LV Random EGFP-RV
40 Primary recipients 40 Primary recipients
30 Secondary recipients 30 Secondary recipients
% of total ISs
% of total ISs
20 20
10 10
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X Y 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 X Y
Figure 27.- Descriptive distribution of LIS and RIS within the mouse chromosomes. The distribution of LIS and RIS
in chromosomes from cells obtained from either primary or secondary recipients is shown. (Left) FANCA-LV exhibits
a likely random chromosomal distribution in both primary and secondary recipients. (Right) However, this was not
the case with the EGFP-RV.
However, the RIS exhibited an uneven distribution, which became exacerbated in samples
from secondary recipients, with overrepresentation of RIS in chromosomes 2, 3, 10 and 19 in
secondary recipients, figure 27.
The distribution of LIS and RIS clearly differs from each other and suggests different selection
dynamics for the LV and ɣ-RV transduced Fanca-/- cells undergoing long-term engraftment and
serial BMT.
72
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
1.3.3.- The analysis of the insertional profile defines clusters in Fanca-/- HSCs
Retroviral integrations coexisting in statistically significant proximity can be clustered
together describing common insertion sites (CIS). The number of independent IS belonging to a
defined CIS characterizes its order. Analyses of the 6,658 LIS disclosed that 50% did not form CIS
while the other half were grouped into CIS, from which 26% (1,763 LIS) were under 4th order and
the other 21% (1,420 LIS) belonged to ≥4th order CIS, figure 28. The CIS above 4th order are listed
in supplemental table S1. We examined whether the high order CIS were enriched in growth and
survival factors listed in cancer databases. Over 70% of the high order CIS in our LIS did not hit
genes listed in the retrovirus and transposon tagged cancer genome database (RTCGD) or in
cancer genes listed in the clinical genome database (CGD), supplemental table S1 and figure 28.
100
90
80
LIS defining CIS (%)
70
60 237
50
40
83 36
30 CGD
20
Absent in cancer data bases RTCGD
10
0
-/- nd
Figure 28.- Common insertion sites described by FANCA-LV LIS in a Fanca transplant model. 2 order CIS (2 LIS
rd th
within 50 Kb); 3 order CIS (3 LIS within 100 Kb); and ≥4 order CIS (>3 LIS within 200 Kb) were described using the
th
topologic information of the LIS annotated. Left, CIS content per chromosome. CIS of 4 order and upper were
compared with RTCGD and cancer dataset from CGD, but only 89/326 were matched in either databases and only
3/326, matched both.
The only three CIS matching both databases (Fli1, Mllt3 and Plag1) were not dominant clones
in their respective recipients. For most of the LIS in these CIS, detection was transient in primary
recipients and did not show spread across BMT. This was the case of LIS hitting Plag1 that reached
a clonal representation of 6.58% in PB of one recipient at 1 mpt, but were not detected again in
the same recipients in PB at 3 and 6 mpt neither in BM at end point analyses. Only in the case of
Fli1, present in one primary recipient’s BM transplanted as part of a pool into 4 secondary
recipients. Three of these recipients had detectable levels of Flt1 CIS integrations representing a
clonal contribution ranging from 0.3 to 0.5%. The highest clonal contribution of LIS targeting Mlt3
CIS was obtained in one secondary recipient, in which the LIS targeting Mlt3 CIS constituted 1.82%
of all validated reads.
From these analyses, we can remark that a high proportion of the LIS listed in Fanca-/-
repopulating cells clustered together, describing >4th order CIS. However, most of genes affected
by high order CIS were not listed in oncogene data sets. Interestingly, the few genes affected by
high order CIS that matched the two different cancer databases studied did not have a clonal
behavior suggestive of clonal dominance or dysplasia.
73
functions that embrace the genes targeted by our LIS, supplemental table S2. For comparison, we
performed the same analyses with 3,321 genes that we obtained from 10,000 random insertion
sites generated by computer simulation, supplemental figure S1 B. The analyzed LV tagged genes
from the Fanca-/- mice and random data set were assigned to 499 and 580 functional gene
categories respectively. From these categories only 1/3 overlapped which each other, while 390
and 393 functional categories were unique for either FANCA-LV or the random dataset,
supplemental figures S1 A, B and C. The overlapping functional categories were discarded and we
focused on the functions not represented in the random dataset. Interestingly, the LIS targeted
genes derived from Fanca-/- mice treated by gene therapy revealed enrichment in functional
categories involved in recombination, DNA repair and also genes involved in hematopoiesis and
related to differentiation, development and homeostasis, figure 29 and supplemental figure S1 A.
However, when we applied the same analyses to the published integrome from a β-Thalassemia
gene therapy that used a SIN-LV in a mouse model (Ronen et al., 2011), a pattern of enriched
functional categories similar to the ones highlighted for FA was observed figure 29.
Figure 29.- Overview of the ingenuity pathway analysis (IPA). LIS within 50 Kb from TSS were selected for IPA
analyses and the resulting categories compared with an in silico generated random profile. The same analyses were
performed with a published integrome from the preclinical studies of β-Thalassemia (Ronen et al., 2011). A
selection of functional categories enriched in the preclinical datasets versus the random control is displayed.
1.3.5.- Clonal analyses of FANCA-LV transduced cells exhibit a healthy clonal HSC turnover
in Fanca-/- recipients
Distribution of the RIS and LIS according to the times and samples studied can be of utmost
importance to understand clonal dynamics of the transplanted HSCs. We studied the LIS
annotated in each individual recipient and sorted them according their recurrence along the study
times and their persistence across serial transplantations. The continuous supply of newly
annotated transient LIS evidenced a continuous turnover of clones leading to PB cell production.
Significantly, over 40% of LIS detected in our experiments corresponded to transient clones which
were not present in two or more primary recipients nor in the BM from their corresponding
secondary recipients. This behavior may be likely due a healthy renewal of active and quiescent
HSC, figure 30.
Sequential PB sampling of recipients also evidenced a reduction on the repertoire of LIS
detected over time, consistent with HSC ageing. Furthermore, BMT considerably reduced the
number of marked HSC clones, selecting a pattern of oligoclonal repopulation. Notably, even after
74
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
transplantation of BM pools into secondary recipients we could retrieve novel LIS, undetected in
primary recipients, indicating that FANCA-LV targeting of Fanca-/- HSC clones allowed a healthy
generation of marked HSCs without clonal dominance, figure 30.
Figure 30.- Clonal turnover of FANCA-LV transduced HSCs. Annotated LIS were catalogued according to its host
and time point of collection. Left panel: Analysis of 7 primary recipients (from 2 separate experiments), including 3
secondary recipients that had undergone individual BM tranplantation. LIS appearing in pre-BMT, PB at different
times post-transplantation and BM corresponding to primary and secondary recipients are color coded according to
their recurrence over time. All LISs sequenced only in one single sample and timepoint are colored in green. Right
panels: Different experiments in which BMT were performed with pooled primary recipients’ BM. The graphs also
evidence dynamic relay of clones exclusively found in secondary or primary recipients. Color code labels the clones
in each recipient according to the number of other samples matching the same LIS across the BMT. Means and
standard errors are shown. The number of recipients analyzed is indicated in parenthesis.
In the case or EGFP-RV marked cells, new RIS could be detected in secondary recipients,
figure 31. However, this fact was blurred by the strong oligoclonality and selection evidenced by
EGFP-RV secondary recipients in whom several RIS detected in the primary recipients’ BM were
spread among several secondary recipients (7 out of 8 in the case of Evi1 dominant clones).
75
Figure 31.- Clonal turnover of EGFP-RV cells. Annotated RIS were catalogued according to its host. We analyzed 17
EGFP-RV recipients: 9 primary recipients, whose BM were pooled and transplanted, and the 8 secondary recipients
that received the BM pool cells. Genes targeted by RIS only in one single recipient are colored in green. The RIS that
were widespread across the BMT are color coded according to the number of recipient or donor BM matching the
same RIS. Means and standard errors are shown. The number of recipients analyzed is indicated in parenthesis.
1.3.6.- Clonal kinetics in Fanca-/- mice show a polyclonal repopulation pattern of corrected
cells in contrast to the oligoclonal repopulation of EGFP-RV transduced HSCs
The read counts determined the clonal contribution of the LIS identified in the LAM-PCRs.
Attending to this retrieval frequency, we focused on the top 10 major LIS in the pre-transplanted
BM cells as well as in the periodic PB samples and end-point BM cells from primary and secondary
recipients that had been transplanted individually. The detailed track of top 10 contributing LIS in
all transplanted animals disclosed the hematopoietic clonal kinetics of major contributing HSCs.
No LIS identified in the pre-transplant BM were retrieved again in BM samples from transplanted
mice, figure 32 and 33. Together with continuous renewal of major contributing clones, we
frequently observed the expected coincidences between the top 10 clones in both PB and BM
samples.
76
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
100% 100%
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
PB PB PB BM PB PB PB BM
1 3 6 1 3 6
time points /origin
#023 (1ry rec.) #024 (1ry rec.)
Top LIS M023 Top LIS M024
>6 samples 1 Rassf9 1810013L24Rik Rchy1 Rchy1 1 Ncam2 Strbp Itga4 Itga4
2 Nudt12 Nbea Tmem167 Spen 2 Shoc2 N6amt1 Strbp Strbp
6 samples 3 Arl4a Prmt6 Nmt1 Tmem167 3 Cugbp2 Ptpn4 Spry2 Me3
5 samples 4 Fndc3b Baiap2 Nrg3 Prdx4 4 Ryr2 Repeat ch.17 Mllt4 Eltd1
5 Tnip3 Kcnt2 Pcdh11x Spire2 5 Repeat ch.10 Tusc3 Me3 Rora
4 samples 6 Nmt1 Glul Fam48a Ehd2 6 Kit Glrb Zfp677 Spry2
3 samples 7 Kcnh7 Tmc1 Cdc2l5 Repeat ch.13 7 Med10 Ptpn11 Eif3h Zfp677
8 Grm8 Rab38 Nudt12 Map3k8 8 Myom1 Hist2h3c1 Rora Ndfip2
2 samples
9 Fam48a Repeat Repeat ch.13 Rb1 9 Tmem38b Arhgap29 Eltd1 Baz1a
minor LIS 10 Inadl Mid1 Zfp106 Egfr 10 1700054O13Rik 4930486G11Rik Ptprd Ifnar1
Minor LIS 227 176 151 57 Minor LIS 234 131 139 49
100% 100%
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
LC PB PB PB BM LC PB PB PB BM
0 1 3 6 0 1 3 6
Pre #026 /origin
time points (1ry rec.) Pre #028 /origin
time points (1ry rec.)
Top LIS Pre02 >M026 Top LIS pre02 >M028
1 Cpeb2 Cdh2 Cdh2 Itsn1 Itsn1 1 Cpeb2 Gm8817 Unkl Mark3 Mark3
2 Msn Dmd Itsn1 Btbd3 Zfp873 2 Msn Plag1 Fchsd2 2010111I01RikFchsd2
3 Repeat ch.X 2610301F02Rik
2610301F02Rik
Zfp873 Btbd3 3 Repeat ch.X Ankrd28 Fam155a Fchsd2 Prr12
4 Ankhd1 Fgf13 Btbd3 Dmd Erc2 4 Ankhd1 Spna1 Mark3 Olfr171 Repeat
5 Saps3 Asxl2 Dmd Kcnq5 Cdh2 5 Saps3 Phf20l1 Lphn2 C80913 Psmc2
6 Pftk1 Kcnq5 Cnksr3 Asxl2 Fgf13 6 Pftk1 Mdga2 Ncam2 Fam155a Srpk2
7 Adcyap1 Cnksr3 Fgf13 Cdh2 Dmd 7 Adcyap1 Dach1 Htr2c Smurf2 Whsc1
8 Stxbp3a Slc25a36 Exoc6b 2610301F02Rik
2610301F02Rik 8 Stxbp3a Slc12a6 Xpo6 Nav3 Ppp1r13b
9 Zfp1 Lphn3 Zfp873 Vwde Asxl2 9 Zfp1 Galnt5 Satb2 Srpk2 Nav3
10 Ash1l Exoc6b Kcnq5 Exoc6b Slc25a36 10 Ash1l Snx16 Dach2 Whsc1 Klf12
Minor LIS 283 33 35 71 28 Minor LIS 283 155 141 61 149
Figure 32.- Clonal dynamics of top 10 LIS in FANCA-LV corrected recipients over time. The contribution of 10 most
frequently retrieve LIS is represented. Top 10 LIS charts of primary recipients from experimental lot L1 and L2
(including the pre-culture in L2). The tables under the bar-graphs listing the genes targeted are color-coded
according to LIS recurrence. LC, liquid culture; PB, peripheral blood; BM, bone marrow. 0, 1, 3 and 6 indicate the
time of collection: months after transplantation.
77
100%
Clonal contribution %
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
LC PB PB PB BM PB BM
0 1 3 6 1 6
Pre time
#025 (1rypoints
rec.) /origin #030 (2ry rec.)
Top LIS Pre02 >M025 >M030
1 Cpeb2 Depdc5 Lcmt1 Cdh11 Cdh11 Repeat ch.8a Smg1
>6 samples 2 Msn Gm6460 Tbc1d5 Mccc1 Gadd45gip1 Ube2d2 Pnrc2
3 Repeat ch.X Lphn3 Rpl41 Depdc5 Mccc1 Stxbp4 Mettl4
6 samples 4 Ankhd1 4930486G11Rik Efnb2 Casp4 Bmper Oxct1 Ncam2
5 samples 5 Saps3 Myef2 Mcc Mitf Efnb2 Grm4 Stxbp5
6 Pftk1 Adcyap1 Gadd45gip1 Repeat ch.13 Mitf Repeat ch.1 Zpld1
4 samples 7 Adcyap1 Nfia Stau2 Olfr923 AB041550 Repeat ch.8b Bod1l
3 samples 8 Stxbp3a Zbtb41 1700017N19Rik Eltd1 BC033915 Smg1 Repeat ch.11
9 Zfp1 Trafd1 Lpp Repeat ch.4 Wdr44 Gtdc1 Neurod6
2 samples 10 Ash1l 6030498E09Rik Mccc1 Mcc Eltd1 Zfp518 Ube2d2
minor LIS Minor LIS 283 118 18 71 28 43 24
100% 100%
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
LC PB PB PB BM PB BM LC PB PB PB BM BM
0 1 3 6 1 6 0 1 3 6 6
Pre #027 (1ry rec.) #031 (2ry rec.) Pre #029
time (1ry rec.)
points /origin #032
Top LIS Pre02 >M029 >M032 (2ry rec.)
1 Cpeb2 Adamts12 Nav3 Nav3 Cnot2 Nav3 AV249152 1 Cpeb2 Dach2 Ube2d2 Grm4 Ube2d2 Dyrk1a
2 Msn Cntnap2 Cnot2 AV249152 Nav3 Cnot2 Ints7 2 Msn Sntb2 Mapk14 Ube2d2 Mapk14 Repeat ch.8b
3 Repeat ch.X Gp49a Pglyrp2 Zfand6 Fstl5 Txndc16 AV249152b 3 Repeat ch.X Cnot6l Mcph1 Mapk14 Senp8 Smg1
4 Ankhd1 Mnd1 Repeat ch.11Fam122c Zfand6 Fstl5 Fstl5 4 Ankhd1 Lipi Pcdh15 Prr14 Mcph1 Ube2d2
5 Saps3 Pcdh17 Ap3s1 Ap3s1 Ap3s1 Ap3s1 Cnot2 5 Saps3 Ncam2 Senp8 Mcph1 Zfp518 Lass4
6 Pftk1 Rhoh Angpt1 Cnot2 Lrrc7 Diap2 Repeat ch.Xb 6 Pftk1 Repeat Ch.8a Nploc4 Pcdh15 Repeat ch.8c Mmp13
7 Adcyap1 Gpd2 Speer4f Scn3a Scn3a Lphn3 Tmem219 7 Adcyap1 Usp25 Rptor Repeat ch.8b Prr14 Repeat ch.15
8 Stxbp3a Sema3d Usp25 Ap1m1 AV249152b AV249152 Frk 8 Stxbp3a Aga Grm4 Zfp518 Rptor Repeat ch.16
9 Zfp1 Akt3 Fstl5 Cntnap2 Robo1 Fam122c Oprm1 9 Zfp1 Tlr4 Gria3 Lyst Zbtb20 Pnrc2
10 Ash1l Nrk Zfand6 Tgif1 AV249152 Kcnb2 Repeat ch.X 10 Ash1l Zufsp Lyst Senp8 Pcdh15 Usp29
Minor LIS 283 142 124 19 101 47 22 Minor LIS 283 124 101 45 71 45
Figure 33.- Clonal dynamics of top 10 LIS in FANCA-LV corrected recipients over time. The contribution of 10 most
frequently retrieve LIS is represented. Top 10 LIS charts pre-culture, primary and secondary recipients from
experimental lot L2, which underwent individual mouse-to mouse BM transplantation. The tables under the bar-
graphs listing the genes targeted are color-coded according to LIS recurrence. LC, liquid culture; PB, peripheral
blood; BM, bone marrow. 0, 1, 3 and 6 indicate the time of collection: months after transplantation.
We were interested in the selective pressure conferred by the long-term engraftment and
serial transplantation on FANCA-LV corrected Fanca-/-cells. Hence, we examined the top 10 LIS/RIS
in BM samples collected at end-point analyses from primary and secondary recipients. Individual
mouse to mouse BMT demonstrated arousal of novel clones after the BMT, figure 34 A.
78
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
A)
100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
60% 60% 60% 60% 60%
0% 0% 0% 0% 0%
BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m BM 6m
1ry rec. 2ry rec. 1ry rec. 2ry rec. 1ry rec. 2ry rec. 1ry rec. 2ry rec. 1ry rec. 2ry rec.
#034points #040
time /origin #035 #041 #037 #042 #038 #043 #039 #044
Top LIS M034 >M040 Top LIS M035 >M041 Top LIS M037 >M042 Top LIS M038 >M043 Top LIS M039 >M044
1 Ap1g1 Tnn 1 Arhgap15 Tle4 1 Dcun1d5 Tas2r138 1 Dcun1d5 Dgkk 1 Sgk3 Snca
2 Slc17a8 Psat1 2 Galns Gtdc1 2 Tas2r138 BC055324 2 Tas2r138 Rasal2 2 Repeat ch.12 Repeat ch.Y
3 Pik3c3 Tm9sf3 3 Myo16 Stxbp6 3 Lrmp Cyfip1 3 Lrmp Tusc1 3 Snca Plscr1
4 Clec14a Repeat 4 Gm5082 Isoc1 4 Xpo1 Tmtc3 4 Xpo1 Grxcr1 4 Ift80 Magi2
5 Psat1 Csmd3 5 Isoc1 Galns 5 Plxdc2 Cnot1 5 Plxdc2 Sgms1 5 Rarb Pctk2
6 Grxcr1 Adamts5 6 Stxbp6 Clnk 6 Ccdc88a Plxdc2 6 Ccdc88a Lgr4 6 Nudt12 Ift80
7 Vwf Slc35a3 7 Lpp Arhgap15 7 BC055324 Maml2 7 BC055324 Adam6a 7 Cntnap2 Snca(b)
8 Slc8a1 Ptger4 Tmsb15b1-Tmsb15b2
8 Gpc5 8 Eltd1 Mmp16 8 Eltd1 Olfr921 8 Dnahc5 Rasgef1b
9 Herc3 Ccdc15 9 Gtdc1 Megf9 9 Msh5 Lrmp 9 Ms h5 Ubr2 9 Repeat ch.6 Maml2
10 5730494M 16R ik Zfp120 10 Ds c 3 2310035C23Rik 10 P gc p Psd3 10 Pgcp Camta1 10 Nc o a 6 Sgk3
Minor LIS 49 32 Minor LIS 108 25 Minor LIS 74 35 Minor LIS 110 31 Minor LIS 105 42
M038
100%
B)
Clonal contribution %
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM
#033 #034 #035 #036 #037 #038 #039 #045 #046 #047 #048
1ry rec. (6 mpt) 2ry rec. (6 mpt)
Top LIS M033;M034; M035; M036; M037; M038; M39 >pool BM> M045; M046; M047; M048
>6 samples 1 Ghitm Ap1g1 Arhgap15 Repeat ch.4 Dcun1d5 Rasal2 Sgk3 Dgkk Vstm2a Snca Prex1
2 Cytip Slc17a8 Galns Pik3c3 Tas2r138 Adam6a Repeat ch.12 Repeat ch.12 Plscr1 Pcdh18 Snca
6 samples 3 Dlg4 Pik3c3 Myo16 Kifap3 Lrmp Dgkk Snca Snca Snca Arhgap15 Tas2r138
4 4930506M07Rik Clec14a Gm5082 Mtap7 Xpo1 Brd4 Ift80 Fxr1 Armc4 Repeat ch.8 BC055324
5 samples 5 Mctp2 Psat1 Isoc1 C80913 Plxdc2 Fam100b Rarb Ghitm Snca [b] Lrfn2 Tmtc3
4 samples 6 Mll3 Grxcr1 Stxbp6 ENSMUSG00000074747 Ccdc88a Gpr177 Nudt12 Fgf9 Slc17a8 Ccdc88a Maml2
7 Fxr1 Vwf Lpp Ets1 BC055324 Efemp1 Cntnap2 Tusc1 Repeat ch.1 Eri1 Plxdc2
3 samples 8 Pde4d Slc8a1 Tmsb15b1-Tmsb15b2
LOC100233207 Eltd1 Nvl Dnahc5 Galns Dgkk Car1 Psd3
9 Car2 Herc3 Gtdc1 Fam108b Msh5 Tmem135 Repeatch.6 Repeat Galns Repeat ch.19 Cyfip1
2 samples 10 Mdfic 5730494M16Rik Dsc3 AI847670 Pgcp Nupr1 Ncoa6 Klf6 Snca [c] Zfp521 Dgkk
minor LIS Minor LIS 54 49 108 51 74 110 105 25 25 30 32
Figure 34.- Kinetics of major FANCA-LV corrected clones across BMT. The contribution of the 10 most frequently
retrieved LIS in end-point analyses’ BM of primary and secondary recipients is represented. A) Pairs of individually
transplanted primary and secondary recipients from experiment L3. B) Primary and secondary recipients subjected
to pooled BM transplantation in the experimental lot L3. The tables under the graphs listing the targeted genes are
color-coded according to LIS recurrence. BM, bone marrow. 0, 1, 3 and 6 indicate the time of collection: months
after transplantation.
BM, bone marrow; 6m, six months post transplantation; rec. recipients.
LIS analyses also evidenced that serial BMT and the long-term engraftment in the Fanca-/-
recipients notably reduced the overall number of detectable LIS in secondary recipients’ BM. After
transplantation of pooled BM from primary recipients, LV marked clones with the highest retrieval
frequencies in independent pool BMT, figure 32, 33 and 34, showed very low overlap with the
most represented clones in their corresponding primary recipients. In the representative
79
experimental cohort in figure 34 bottom, only 8 out of 30 top 10 LIS in the secondary recipients
were repeated.
In one FANCA-LV experiment in which pooled BMT was performed, figure 35 top, three top
10 IS clones could be detected which were widespread in secondary recipients, in 5 out of 7
individuals.
A)
100%
Clonal contribution %
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM
#049 #050 #051 #052 #054 #055 #056 #057 #059 #060 #061 #062 #063 #065
1ry rec. (6 mpt) 2ry rec. (6 mpt)
Top LIS M049;M050; M051; M052; M054; M055; M056; M057 >pool BM> M059; M060; M061; M062; M063; M065
>6 samples 1 Ripk2 Kif5b Abi2 Ppp1r9a Glra3 Kdm1 Gmds Sec63 Glra3 Sqrdl Glra3 Gm5627 Sqrdl Glra3
2 Gch1 Ctcf Sqrdl Peg12 Got2 Efnb2 Lrch3 Zzef1 Got2 Pphln1 Slc7a8 Fggy Pphln1 Sqrdl
6 samples 3 Usp38 Fam174a Got2 Dennd1b Mdga2 Odf2l Akt3 Apobec1 Mdga2 Glra3 Got2 Abca13 Ppp1r9a Sult1a1
4 Fam174a Suclg2 Pphln1 Vapa Arsk Pcdh17 Lnp Olfr1324 Ikzf2 Got2 Tmem57 Myst3 Peg12 Got2
5 samples 5 Ppp6c Dip2c Rttn Ash1l Ikzf2 1110028C15Rik Alx1 2210408I21Rik Mettl9 Kif5b Zfp521 Cxxc4 Ash1l Pphln1
4 samples 6 C1qtnf3 Sult1a1 Repeat ch.7 Mapk1 Jazf1 Samd12 Olfr414 Pik3ip1 Kdm1 Ddx10 Hirip3 Diap3 Hirip3 Mdga2
7 Nfxl1 Repeat ch.2 Kpna1 Zgpat Ahsa2 Kcnip4 Lingo2 Nr3c1 Arsk Mdga2 Ikzf2 Dmtf1 Slc7a8 Arsk
3 samples 8 Arsk Kif7 Ceacam2 Cdh2 Etv1 Ccnb1ip1 Pcca Hiatl1 Ahsa2 Arsk Alx1 Nmbr Kif5b Kif5b
9 Atf2 Eml5 Arhgap18 Sp1 Kif5b 5730469M10Rik Pglyrp2 Repeat ch.9 Kif5b Mettl9 Nr3c2 Sqrdl Mettl9 Mettl9
2 samples 10 Mdga2 Npsr1 Ikzf2 Wnk1 Cntln Hbp1 Myst3 Pi16 Cntln Ikzf2 Arsk Olfr414 Rps6ka1 Ikzf2
minor LIS Minor LIS 206 44 170 151 9 287 104 129 60 83 92 66 86 65
B)
100% 100%
Clonal contribution %
Clonal contribution %
80% 80%
60% 60%
40% 40%
20% 20%
0% 0%
BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM
#066 #067 #068 #069 #076 #077 #078 #071 #072 #073 #074 #075 #079 #080 #081
1ry rec. (6 mpt) 2ry rec. (6 mpt) 1ry rec. (6 mpt) 2ry rec. (6 mpt)
Top LIS M066; M067; M068; M069 >pool BM> M076; M077; M078
1 Il6st Nphp3 Brcc3 1110028C15Rik Diap2 Acot9 S100a10 1 Emcn Pign Dpy19l3 Zeb2 Fhit Tlk1 Asxl2 Tacstd2
2 Cpox 2310008H04Rik Stk17b Pdik1l Repeat ch.2 Ube2f Cadm2 2 Agbl4 Il1f9 Tpd52l1 Serp2 Dach1 Tacstd2 Tacstd2 Asxl2
3 Sox4 Ube2g1 Fmnl3 Zfp619 2610101N10Rik Ghr Ghr 3 Zfp760 Mdga2 Slc4a10 Urm1 Cnot1 A4galt Ikzf2 C1d
4 Repeat ch.7 Hgf Cadm2 Cept1 Nrxn1 Ywhah Tshz3 4 Nfe2l2 Ugt8a Cbl Wdr17 Phtf2 Tgfbr3 Tgfbr3 Fat1
5 Dennd1a Gnpda2 Ncam2 Lonrf1 Fxr1 Vps13b Ascc3 5 Gdpd3 3110043O21Rik
Lmln Luzp2 Epha3 Narg1l Rarb 4931408C20Rik
6 Slc17a8 Xirp2 Tbc1d2b Zfp800 Robo2 Dusp16 Meis2 6 Qdpr Repeat ch.X Grm1 Vmn2r84 Pja2 Mink1 Nfia Glra3
7 Gm5142 Nmbr Megf9 Wwp2 Thrb A 830007P 12Rik Vps13b 7 Iws1 Rnf149 Gm5127 Pard3b Nrxn3 Rarb Grm8 A4galt
8 Pgr Kdm2a Cntnap2 Slit2 Repeat ch.9 Zbtb20 Aig1 8 Dync2h1 Mgat4c Vezt Sptlc2 Nup153 Brd4 Repeat Tusc3
9 Plekhg1 Ndufs4 Twsg1 Dusp16 Golim4 Ascc3 Olfm3 9 Fgf12 App Pja2 Dpf2 AI316807 Zswim6 A4galt 2810474O19Rik
10 Repeat ch.13 Agtr2 Sox4 Psd3 Papolg S100a10 Ap4e1 10 Reps2 Asxl2 Akt3 Dgkz Gabarapl1 Lix1 Mink1 Slc16a7
Minor LIS 81 118 164 166 20 24 30 Minor LIS 138 126 153 171 73 50 35 67
Figure 35.- Kinetics of major FANCA-LV corrected clones across pooled BMT. The contribution of the 10 most
frequently retrieved LIS in end-point analyses’ BM of primary and secondary recipients is represented. A) Primary
and secondary recipients from pooled BM transplantation in the experiment L4. B) Primary and secondary
recipients from pooled BMT in the experimental lot L5. The tables listing the targeted genes are color-coded
according to LIS recurrence. BM, bone marrow; mpt, months after transplantation; rec., recipient
These LIS were placed into the intron 5 of Glra3, upstream of Sqrdl and upstream Got2.
Despite being major clonal contributors in several secondary mice, these targeted genes have not
been reported to be located in CIS on cancer databases, reducing the possibility that they could
80
VI.- Results I | Resultados I
collaborate to malignant survival or outgrowth. Besides, none of these clones surpassed 20% of
contribution and all coexisted diluted in a polyclonal repertoire, figure 35.
Marked differences in the behavior of EGFP-RV and FANCA-LV transduced Fanca-/- cells were
observed also with respect to top 10 clonal analyses. In the ɣ-RV cohort, which presented an
evident clonal unbalance (figure 25 and 32), RIS targeting Evi1 locus were among the top 10
contributors in several recipients, figure 36.
100%
Clonal contribution %
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM BM
#006 #007 #008 #009 #010 #011 #012 #013 #014 #015 #016 #017 #018 #019 #020 #021 #022
1ry rec. (6 mpt) 2ry rec. (6 mpt)
>6 samples
6 samples
5 samples
4 samples
3 samples
2 samples
minor LIS
Figure 36.- Kinetics of major EGFP-RV corrected clones across pooled BMT. The contribution of the 10 most
frequently retrieved RIS in end-point analyses’ BM of primary and secondary recipients in the experimental lot R1
are represented. The tables listing the targeted genes are color-coded according to RIS recurrence. BM, bone
marrow; mpt, months after transplantation; rec., recipient
It is noticeable the limited oligoclonal repertoire of RIS repopulating the Fanca-/- recipients,
with only 3 out of 8 primary recipients harboring over 10 detected RIS. In addition, the clonal
content presented strong preferences, resulting dominant clones surpassing 50% of clonal
contribution in all secondary recipients. The common cut-off to set clonal dominance in human
hematopoietic reconstitution is 20%.
Opposing to the ɣ-RV, figure 36, we only identified 31 genes targeted by LIS with estimated
clonal contributions over 19%, supplemental table S3. Half of the samples harboring any of these
highly retrieved LIS corresponded to primary recipients (21) and the other half (20) to secondary
recipients.
This discards that the presence of dominant clones was a consequence of the selection and
loss of clones during the BMT. We performed a query in RTCGD for the genes targeted in the 31
dominant clones listed in supplemental table S3 and only 3 were confirmed CIS in this database
(Il5st, Tnn and Ube2d2). This distinguishes RIS and LIS behavior as RIS targeting Evi1, a well-
represented CIS in the RTCGD, are frequent between top 10 clones in the secondary recipients. In
some cases, EGFP-RV recipients harbor more than one single RIS close to Evi1, figure 36.
To sum up, samples from 56 and 16 recipient mice transplanted with FANCA-LV and EGFP-RV
transduced BM, respectively, were positively amplified by LAM-PCR and sequenced using NSG
81
technologies, yielding close to 250,000 mappable sequences to allow further studies.
The pattern of integration in the mouse chromosomes significantly differed in the LIS and the
RIS dataset. Besides, LVs exhibited a strong polyclonality while RVs induced a strong oligoclonality
in the HSCs repopulating pattern. Moreover, the FANCA-LV IPA profile in Fanca-/- was enriched in
genes involved in recombination, DNA repair, hematopoiesis, differentiation, development and
homeostasis. This IPA profile was, however, not exclusive of the FANCA-LV in Fanca-/- HSCs, which
may resemble interactions of lentiviral vectors with specific chromatin features in mouse HSCs.
Based on all this integration analyses we can conclude that the transplantation of FANCA-LV
corrected Fanca-/- HSC results in a healthy polyclonal long-term repopulation pattern in Fanca-/-
recipients.
82
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
2.- GENERATION OF iPSC LINES FROM Prkdcscid SEVERE COMBINED IMMUNODEFICIENT MICE
Induced pluripotent stem cells, also referred as iPSCs, are generated through the expression
of a set of transcription factors that delete cell identity, hence, leading to an undifferentiated
pluripotent steady state equivalent to the one described for embryonic stem cells (ESCs)
(Takahashi and Yamanaka, 2006; Takahashi et al., 2007). Additionally, different adult cell types, as
hematopoietic progenitors, could also be obtained through the differentiation of gene corrected
iPSC cells (Raya et al., 2009).
DNA-PKcs deficiency seriously impacts in the hematopoietic system, mostly in the generation
of B and T cells, but also the HSCs (Bosma et al., 1983; Biedermann et al., 1991; Blunt et al., 1995;
Araki et al., 1997; Qing et al., 2012), causing a T-B-SCID syndrome in human patients (van der Burg
et al., 2009). Generation of DNA-PKcs deficient iPSCs, may therefore provide a relevant tool to
improve the knowledge of the implications of this NHEJ protein in the generation and
maintenance of cell pluripotency. Scid iPSCs may also constitute a valuable platform to evaluate
the feasibility of future cell therapies based on the generation of HSC derived from patient-
specific iPSC lines.
D 10 D 12
mES medium
D7
Culture
D4 on D 17
feeder
Emergence
of
iPS colonies
D0 Seed MEFs STEMCCA-LV D 23
P:2 MEFs iPS propagation
and
characterization
Figure 37.- Stepwise design for somatic cell reprogramming using STEMCCA LVs. Early passage MEFs were
transduced with either STEMCCA RedLight or STEMCCA cMyc. Next, transduced cells were grown in ES medium and
later plated onto feeder-coated plates where iPSC-like colonies arose. MEF: mouse embryo fibroblast. D, day of
experiment. mES medium: murine embryonic stem cell complete medium.
83
Small oval or teardrop shaped colonies with well-defined smooth round edges arose in the
plates 10 to 14 days after transduction. Individual colonies were isolated and expanded on feeder
layers, as it was routinely done with mouse ES cell lines. When the STEMCCA RedLight LV was
used, the expression of mCherry was evident in the emerged clones, figure 38.
C)
A) B)
Figure 38.- mCherry positive iPSC-like colonies. Two to three weeks after STEMCCA transduction, iPSC colonies
were noticeable in the cultures. A) AP positive colonies were confirmed in the cultures stained 17 days after
STEMCCA LV delivery. B) Tear-shaped colonies with smooth edges emerging after STEMCCA RedLight transduction,
bright field. C) Magnified areas revealing red fluorescence from mCherry expression. AP, alkaline phosphatase
staining.
84
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
ability to maintain a pluripotent undifferentiated state by themselves. Hence, given the robust
expression of STEMCCA cassette we opted to remove the cassette using the Cre/LoxP system.
clone H
clone J
To deliver the Cre-recombinase, we transduced the iPSC-like clones with integration deficient
lentiviral vectors (IDLV) that expresses the Cre-recombinase and a GFP reporter. This IDLV was
kindly provided by Tobias Maetzig and Melanie Galla (Maetzig et al., 2010) from the Hannover
Medical School, Hannover, Germany. This IDLV was produced using a mutant (D64V) integrase
protein (INT) which specifically prevents the integration of the circularized DNA into the host
genome, while maintaining other features of INT (Yanez-Munoz et al., 2006).
To improve CRE-IDLV transduction, iPSC clones were grown for 2 passages on gelatin coated
plates under feeder-free conditions. Then, trypsinized cells were resuspended and transduced for
6 h with the CRE-IDLV, and next plated on feeder-coated plates. Green cells arose in culture after
24-48 h and between one and two weeks after transduction iPSC-like colonies emerged, a high
number of which were still red-fluorescent, figure 40.
Not excised
Excised
85
From a total of 229 iPSC-like colonies retrieved after IDLV-CRE delivery in separate
experiments, 32 resulted negative for mCherry fluorescence. This accounts for an excision
efficiency of the STEMCCA-RedLight cassette varying from 14% to 17% in different clones.
Non-red-fluorescent colonies were manually picked and expanded. In no instance, these
colonies recovered the fluorescence after expansion, indicating the loss of the reprogramming
cassette. Then, several colonies were confirmed to have lost the reprogramming LV by qPCR
analyses using specific primers for the LTRs sequences, table 17, and by Southern blot, figure 41.
* *
Figure 41.- Southern blot of the reprogramming LV after excision with CRE-IDLV. The genomic DNA isolated from
the indicated clones growing on feeder-free plates was digested with either Pst1 or EcoRV. The digestion was
resolved in electrophoresis gels and transferred to membranes prior hybridization with the probes for IRES and
wPRE vector sequences. L1, parental clone (0.8 copies estimated by qPCR); L2, excised clone J.Bf; L3, mES J1
untransduced control. Color arrows indicate position of estimated restriction fragments (of the same color)
detected by the probes IRES or wPRE , indicted as * in the vector scheeme.
We selected the LV-free iPSC clone J.Bf as representative from the pool of excised iPSC clones
for a more detailed characterization, figure 42. Pluripotent markers such as NANOG, OCT3/4,
SSEA-1 were positive in immunohistochemical staining, figure 42 B.
The cytogenetic analysis of the iPSC clones showed a normal karyotype. For further detail
comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) analyses were performed showing evident
chromosomal unbalances in chromosomes 1, 12 and X, which was almost completely deleted,
figure 42 D.
86
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
Figure 42.- Characterization of vector free iPSCs derived after CRE-IDLV delivery. The LV-free iPSC clone “J.Bf” was
successfully maintained and expanded after isolation of a single colony negative for mCherry fluorescence after
transient delivery of Cre recombinase. A) The J.Bf clone retained characteristic ES morphology. B) It was also
positive for AP stain and for NANOG, OCT3/4 and SSEA1 immunohistochemical staining. C) Cytogenetic analyses
confirmed that the parental unexcised LV-iPSC clone and the vector free derived J.Bf iPSC clone presented a normal
karyotype. D) Comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) analyses only showed abnormalities in chromosomes 1, 12
and X. AP, alkaline phosphatase.
Accordingly, mRNAs from key pluripotency markers were detected in J.Bf iPSC cells using
qPCR, figure 43. Besides, these cells were able to generate teratomas when injected
intratesticularly into NSG mice. The teratomas clearly evidenced tissular structures from the three
germ layers, figure 43, as determined by histological analyses.
Expression Profile
Relative Expression
2
1,5 Oct4
Sox2
1 Nanog
0,5 Utf1
c-Myc
0
mES J1 iPSC WT
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm
Figure 43.- Pluripotency characterization of vector-free iPSC. iPSC clone J.Bf was propagated on feeder-free
conditions before RNA extraction. qPCR on the cDNA from this clone confirmed endogenous expression of Oct3/4,
Sox2, Nanog, Utf-1 and c-Myc at levels close to those of mES J1 control line. Besides, J.Bf formed teratomas with
structures from the three germ layers when injected into NSG mice. Pictures show keratin pearls (ectoderm),
smooth muscle (mesoderm) and ciliary epithelium (endoderm).
87
conducted. Scid MEFs transduced with either STEMCCA RedLight or cMyc yielded a reduced
number of iPSC-like colonies whose morphology were often blurred, turning in some cases into
differentiated areas at early passages. This defect was corroborated by the impaired generation of
IPSC-like colonies 2-3 weeks after transduction, figure 44.
60
Figure 44.- Impaired generation of Scid AP positive colonies after STEMCCA delivery. Side by side transduction of
wt and Scid cells with STEMCCA RedLight resulted in differential reprogramming success reflected by the number of
AP positive iPSC-like colonies scored 17 days after transduction. AP, alkaline phosphatase.
We found a 4 to 7 fold decrease in the number of AP+ colonies yielded by Scid MEFs with
respect to wt cells. No Scid iPSC line could be established from the initial pool of iPSC-like
colonies, not even using the STEMCCA c-Myc vector. Clones either differentiated prematurely,
stopped growth or disappeared after first passages.
Taken together our results demonstrate that we managed to produce high titer STEMCCA LVs
and to set up an efficient protocol for the generation of iPSC to study Scid cell reprogramming.
Using the reprogramming STEMCCA LVs, either carrying c-Myc or mCherry, we were able to
generate iPSC-like colonies from early passage MEFs. Besides, vector free iPSC could be
successfully isolated after Cre delivery.
Full characterization of one LV-free wt iPSC successfully demonstrated complete
reprogramming sustaining the use of the STEMCCA reprogramming vectors for further
experiments. Nevertheless, Scid MEFs presented a defect in the generation of iPSC through
STEMCCA lentiviral reprogramming and, furthermore, we observed that the initial Scid colonies
generated after STEMMCA LV transduction were unable to be propagated as iPSC lines.
88
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
shown in figure 45. We found elongated telomeres on early passage MEFs either homozygous or
heterozygous for the Prkdcscid mutation. These results are consistent with previous evidences
already obtained by Goytisolo and colleagues (Goytisolo et al., 2001).
A) B)
DAPI Centromere Telomere Merge
4.0 Primary MEFs
3.0 ****
2.0
Scid MEFs
1.0
0.0
wt +/- Scid
Figure 45.- Telomere length in wt and Scid MEFs. Non-transduced passage 2 wt and Scid MEFs, were analyzed to
compare their telomere length. After 6 h of colcemide incubation, cells were processed for fluorescence in situ
hybridization (FISH). A) Amplified areas from metaphases used for the quantification. B) 30 metaphases were
considered per sample and telomere signals were normalized using the centromere probe for comparison. Mean
and standard errors are shown (**** p<0,0001, T-test).
To completely discard a role of eroded telomeres in the inability of Scid MEFs to undergone
cell reprogramming, we also measured the telomere lenght in cells transduced with STEMCCA
vectors. As before, the Prkdcscid mutation resulted in lengthened telomeres compared to wt
counterparts, figure 46.
Although the interaction of the vector did not affect the telomere length of transduced cells
at the time points studied, aberrant telomere capping may be interconnected with the drop of the
reprogramming efficiency in Scid cells.
Relative Telomere Length
3.5 ***
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
LV + +
wt Scid
Figure 46.- STEMCCA transduction impact on telomere length. Scid cells transduced with the STEMCCA RedLight
LV and their wt counter parts were processed for telomere FISH analyses. Differences between wt and Scid cultures
are statistically significant (*** p<0.001, T test), while no significant differences were observed due to STEMCCA LV
transduction. Mean and standard errors are shown.
89
measured cell expansion of wt and Scid MEFs, after transduction with STEMCCA or mock
transduced cells, figure 47. Same passage MEFs from Scid and wt mice had similar expansion
profiles during the first week after mock transduction. Both cell types were stimulated to
proliferate more actively after delivery of the reprogramming factors. However, only in the case
of transduced Scid MEFs, significant increased expansion was found one week after transduction,
figure 47.
Fold Expansion
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1
0 0
0 3 7 0 3 7
Days Days
Figure 47.- Influence of the STEMCCA transduction of Wt and Scid MEFs with STEMCCA LV on cell proliferation.
MEFs, either transduced or not, were cultured in vitro to follow cell expansion. STEMCCA increased cell numbers in
both wt and Scid cultures. Differences were only significant in Scid cells 7 days after transduction (* p<0.1, T-test).
Clear bars correspond to mock cultures and solid barscorespond to STEMCCA transduced cells.
80
Side Scatter
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
MOI: 5 10 5 10
mCherry Fluorescence
Figure 48.- Scid susceptibility to STEMCCA transduction. The analysis of mCherry fluorescence was used to
scid
determine susceptibility of wt and Prkdc MEFs to STEMCCA RedLight transduction. Similar percentages of
mCherry positive cells were obtained in both cell types. Left, representative flow cytometry analyses of mCherry
transduced cells. Right, mean and SEM from different transduction experiments with low (5) and moderate (10)
MOI, at 3 and 7 dpt. MOI, multiplicity of infection; dpt, days post transduction.
90
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
Using the same MOI, wt and Scid MEFs achieved similar percentages of mCherry positive cells
shortly after transduction. The same observations were obtained at 7 dpt, indicating that a
decreased transduction susceptibility should not account for the impaired reprograming ability of
Scid cells.
2.2.4.- Prkdcscid MEFs subjected to STEMCCA LV cell reprogramming show an increase
senescent phenotype
It has been previously shown that cell reprogramming induces DNA damage. Inability of Scid
MEFs to resolve this damage can result in persistent DDR signaling stress in the cells.
Ten days after transduction with the STEMCCA LV we tested the expression of tp53, p21/CIP1,
p15/INK4a, p16/INK4b mRNAs because they are key factors of the DDR involved in cell cycle
progression. In figure 49, increased levels of p16/INK4a expression are shown in Prkdcscid cells
undergoing cell reprogramming, which may induce a senescent status incompatible with the
reprogramming process (Li et al., 2009). These results are consistent with an increase of SA-β-Gal
staining, characteristic marker of cell senescence, figure 49.
Scid - Scid LV
100 2.5
80 2.0
60 1.5
40 1.0
20 0.5
0 0
tp53 p21/CIP1 p15/INK4b p16/Ink4a mock LV mock LV
Figure 49.- STEMCCA transduction effects on cell senescence. Left, expression of several key factors (Tp53,
4b 4a
p21/CIP1, p15/INK and p16/INK ) tested in the mRNA isolated from wt and Scid MEFS 10 dpt. Rigth, in parallel
we performed senescence associated β galactosidase staining (SA-β-Gal) to discern whether STEMCCA transduction
had an effect on the senescence status of Scid MEFs.
Taken together, the data in this section show that the differential telomere length present in
wt and Scid before cell reprogramming were not significantly changed due to LV transduction.
Besides, the short Scid and wt MEFs employed in these experiments had the similar proliferation
rates and transduction susceptibility, indicating that none of the mentioned factors could account
for the reduced reprogramming efficiency of Scid cells, observed after the transduction of with
the STEMCCA LV. However, increased levels of p16/INK4a mRNA, coincident with a moderate
increase in SA-B-Gal staining, was found in Scid cells undergoing LV cell reprogramming, indicating
that this event could, at least in part, account for the inability of Scid Mefs to be reprogrammed
with the STEMCCA LV.
91
2.3.1.- Optimizing nucleofection in PrkdcScid MEFS
The use T2/OSKM non-viral technology required from physical or chemical methods to deliver
DNA into the target cell. We compared different transfection technologies and conditions in order
to optimize DNA delivery into our target Scid MEFs. Using standard reporter systems we
evaluated delivery, survival and proliferation of treated cells 96 h after transduction, figure 50.
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Figure 50.- Optimization of plasmid delivery into Scid MEFs. A set of different transfection methods and conditions
were tested using a GFP reporter plasmid alone. We considered the effect of the transfection on the growth (blue),
toxicity (purple) and gene transfer efficiency (green) in Scid MEFs 96 h after plasmid delivery.
A nucleofection protocol by AMAXA was selected as standard delivery method. The best
condition to transfect PrkdcScid cells consisted of the use of the T-20 program and the MEF 2
solution, according to AMAXA specifications.
D 11
D4
D1 T2/OSKM
+
D0 Transfection SB100x D 21
P:2 MEFs iPS propagation
and
characterization
Figure 51.- Reprogramming strategy using Sleeping Beauty transposons. We set a reprogramming protocol for cell
reprogramming with optimized SB transposon/transposase system.
IPSC-like colonies, positive for AP staining and resembling ESC morphology, arose between 2
to 3 weeks after transfection. Quantification of AP+colonies showed a marked increase in the
reprogramming efficiency obtained in these experiments compared to cell reprogramming with
LVs, figure 52.
In contrast to previous LV reprogramming experiments, colonies isolated from nucleofected
92
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
cultures could be propagated in ESC medium on feeder layers, without loss of their induced
undifferentiated morphology. The iPSC clones isolated using the SB transposon system were
name as Tn-iPSC.
3.5
***
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
SB + +
wt Scid
scid
Figure 53.- Effect of reprogramming Sleeping Beauty transposon on telomere length of wt and Prkdc MEFs.
Cells were transfected with T2/OSKM + SB100x and were processed for telomere FISH analyses at 10 days post
transfection. Differences were found between wt and Scid cultures (*** p<0.001, T test). However, no significant
differences were observed between transfected and non-transfected cells. Mean and standard errors are shown.
93
Table 17.- Estimated qPCR vector copy number
Clone ID Background Vector Estimated copies qPCR VCN
Tn-iPSC 01.02 Wt T2/OSKM 1 0.79
Tn-iPSC 01.10 Wt T2/OSKM 1 0.87
scid
Tn-iPSC 03.32 Prkdc T2/OSKM 3 3.39
scid
Tn-iPSC 03.64 Prkdc T2/OSKM 1 0.38
scid
Tn-iPSC 01.72 Prkdc T2/OSKM 1 0.88
Similarly, PrkdcScid cells transfected with T2/OSKM did not show any tendency to increase SA-
β-Gal staining, figure 54.
14 3.5 wt Scid
wt - wt SB
Scid - Scid SB
10 2.5
8 2.0
6 1.5
4 1.0
2 0.5
0 0
tp53 p21/CIP1 p15/INK4b p16/Ink4a mock SB mock SB
Figure 54.- Absence of Senescence activation in Scid cells reprogramed with the T2/OKSM SB transposon. Left,
mRNA was isolated from wt and Scid MEFS, 10 days after nucleofection. We tested expression of: Tp53, p21/CIP1,
4b 4a
p15/INK and p16/INK . Right, in parallel we performed senescence associated β galactosidase staining (SA-β-Gal)
to discern whether the nucleofection of the reprogramming SB and the SB100x had an effect on the Scid MEFs.
Tn-iPS Scid clone 32 Tn-iPS Scid clone 64 Tn-iPS Scid clone 72 Tn-iPS Scid clone 32 Tn-iPS Scid clone 64 Tn-iPS Scid clone 72
C) SSEA-1
Chromosomes per metaphase
50
45
40
35
30
wt 10 wt 69 Scid 32 Scid 64 Scid 72
Tn-iPS clones
Figure 55- Characteristics of DNA-PKcs deficient iPSC clones generated with reprogramming SB transposons. Both
wt and Scid Tn-iPSC clones had A) an ES-like morphology, B) positive SSEA-1 expression confirmed by flow
cytometry and, C) diploid chromosome content.
94
VI.- Results II | Resultados II
A) B)
2.0 Nanog c-Myc Sox 2
Tn-iPS wt
Relative Expression
1.5
1.0
Tn-iPS Scid
0.5
0.0
ES J1 wt10 wt69 scid64scid72
C)
Figure 56.- Confirmation of pluripotency of Tn-iPSC lines. Wt and Scid Tn-iPSC cells were positive for pluripotency
hallmark features. A) Immunohistochemistry confirmed expression of NANOG, OCT3/4 and SSEA-1. B) RT-PCR
analyses on Tn-iPSC confirmed expression of endogenous Nanog, c-Myc and Sox2 in either wt or Scid Tn-iPSC
clones. C) Scid Tn-iPSC lines were able to form bona fide teratomas when injected into NSG mice. Pictures show
keratin formations (ectoderm), immature cartilage (mesoderm) and ciliar monostratified epithelium (endoderm)
from the same Scid Tn-iPSC line teratoma.
95
A) wt Scid
CNTRL MEF Tn-iPS 10 Tn-iPS 69 MEF Tn-iPS 64 Tn-iPS 72
Alu I - + - + - + - + - + - + - + M
118 bp
72 bp
B) C)
Scid Tn-iPS
10 10
wt MEF
Scid MEF
1 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Irradiation Dose (Gy) Irradiation Dose (Gy)
Figure 57.- Scid Tn-iPSC conserves parental Prkdc mutation resulting in a radiosensitive phenotype. A) The
Scid
original Prkdc mutation was confirmed by Alu I digestion of the specific prkdc loci in the Tn-iPSC generated and
the parental MEFs. B) Radiosensitivity of parental Scid MEFs compared to the wt MEFs. C) Hypersensitivity to IR in
DNA-PKcs deficient Tn-iPSCs as compared to wt Tn-iPSCs.
To conclude, these results show the generation of DNA-PKcs deficient iPSC cells when the
highly efficient SB transposon/transposase system was used. Scid and wt Tn-iPSC were
indistinguishable in morphology, expression of pluripotence markers or chromosome count, and
were able to generate teratomas into NSG mice, which clearly demonstrated the pluripotent
capacity of the DNA-PKcs deficient iPSCs. Moreover, Scid Tn-iPSC, exposed to IR, displayed the
hypersensitive phenotype characteristic of NHEJ deficient cells.
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VII.- Discussion | Discusión
VII.- DISCUSSION
97
Besides, conditioning regimens have been successfully applied in previous gene therapy trials
(Cartier et al., 2009; Cavazzana-Calvo et al., 2010; Cartier et al., 2012; Aiuti et al., 2013; Biffi et al.,
2013). However, it is noteworthy that none of these disorders are associated with DNA repair
defects.
Records of chimerism in PB from primary and secondary recipients showed stable
engraftment in the first ones and a faint drop in the second ones, in both LV-complemented and
RV-marked transduced cohorts (figure 18). This could be explained by combined susceptibility to
ageing of HSCs during their long-term engraftment in recipient mice and an affected capacity of
Fanca-/- hematopoietic niche to host donor cells. Undoubtedly, further investigation on the cells
supporting HSC niche is fundamental in FA. The increased numbers of CFCs observed in the BM
from either primary or secondary Fanca-/- recipients subjected to gene therapy suggest that
defects in the self-maintenance of FA HSC mainly reside in the HSC population itself, and that this
is corrected after the gene complementation (figure 20).
The presence of all types of mature cells in the PB of transplanted animals was evident in
both primary and secondary recipients (figure 19). While analyses on RV-marked cohorts showed
considerable differences among individuals and time points, the absence of hematological
skewing in FANCA-LV corrected cohorts reinforces the safety associated with the use of this
vector for FA gene therapy.
Notably, when BM cells from gene therapy treated mice were seeded in methylcellulose
plates and exposed to increasing doses of MMC, a significant increase in their tolerance to MMC
was documented. Opposedly, CFCs obtained from mock or EGFP-RV transplanted recipients
retained their characteristic FA hypersensitivity to this drug (figure 24). Together, these
experiments support the efficiency of the FANCA-LV to correct the function of Fanca-/- HSCs.
Accordingly, these results highlight the stability of the therapeutic provirus, whose function is not
lost or silenced even after stressing LV-transduced cells through serial BMT.
Integrative gene therapy results in life-long modification of the patients cells. Thus, safety
concerns imply the necessity of verifying the vector identity and function over long periods of
time. To confirm that the 3rd generation SIN FANCA-LV was unable to generate replication
competent lentivirus (RCLs), the presence of newly generated vector particles was tested by ELISA
detection of HIV p-24 proteins. As expected, no particles were detected in the serum of
transplanted animals. Besides, human PB lymphocytes were transduced with the FANCA-LV and
the presence of p-24 protein content was analysed. After one week, the levels of p-24 were
undetectable and did not increase with time (figure 21). Those results corroborate the safety
design of the FANCA-LV that prevents the generation of de novo infective particles.
Furthermore, bio-distribution of the infused therapeutic cells was tracked in recipients long-
term after transplant. Genomic DNA isolated from different organs was used for specific PCR
amplification of FANCA-LV sequences. We could readily detect persistence of marked transduced
cells in hematopoietic tissues. In other non-hematopoietic tissues, such as brain and gonads, no
significant signal from LV sequences could be detected (figure 23). The lack of marked cells in the
gonads, in either male or female recipients transplanted with FANCA-LV transduced cells,
indicates that transduced hematopoietic cells do not contribute to gametogenesis. Likewise, this
discards the possibility that residual amounts of the LV, accompanying the infused cells after
washing, could overcome complement inactivation and target tissues such as gonads or brain. The
detection of low amounts of the LV provirus in certain tissues such as the liver is explained by the
presence of blood cells in this highly irrigated organ (figure 18). Therefore, we can conclude from
98
VII.- Discussion | Discusión
these experiments that gene therapy based on the infusion of gene corrected-HSCs was confined
to the hematopoietic lineage, reinforcing the safety of the FANCA-LV vector.
There is a general concern in the field of integrative gene therapy about secondary effects
that could arise from individual integrations altering nearby genes, either by affecting regulatory
sequences of the cell genome or disrupting the codifying frame itself. Current insertion site (IS)
analysis, based on the amplification and sequencing of genomic loci surrounding the integrated
provirus, facilitated a thorough description of the IS repertoire. Currently, next generation
sequencing (NGS) platforms facilitate the determination of thousands of IS, but the huge amount
of data generated in these analyses need to be translatable into biological information with
relevant safety implications. The process of amplification, quality control, filtering and data
handling are constantly being updated. We chose to use LAM-PCR because, despite inefficient
amplification of IS located either too close or too far from the restriction motifs, this procedure
has a solid overall performance and is well optimized for limited blood samples. Apart from
describing the insertion profile of a given integrative vector, LAM-PCR coupled to NGS techniques
can semi-quantitatively report on the contribution of each individual IS between all counterpart
sequences read in parallel, which makes it highly suitable for the follow up of fluctuating clonal
populations.
According to published data, ɣ-RVs have a tendency to integrate near the transcription start
site (TSS) of genes (Montini et al., 2006; Cattoglio et al., 2007; Montini et al., 2009; Cattoglio et
al., 2010a; Cattoglio et al., 2010b), while LVs predominantly integrate in codifying genomic
regions, but do not preferentially target sequences around TS. Furthermore, LIS are found fairly
interspersed along gene codifying regions (Laufs et al., 2006; Gonzalez-Murillo et al., 2008;
Cattoglio et al., 2010a; Cattoglio et al., 2010b; Biffi et al., 2011). These observations are consistent
with the idea that major risks of cell transformation are markedly increased in the case of ɣ-RV
with respect to LV, because of the transactivation of oncogenes or cell-cycle activators
surrounding RIS (Hacein-Bey-Abina et al., 2002; Hacein-Bey-Abina et al., 2003; ESGCT, 2006;
Deichmann et al., 2007; Hacein-Bey-Abina et al., 2008).
There is a vast experience in preclinical and clinical settings showing the safety associated to
the use of LVs (Laufs et al., 2006; Gonzalez-Murillo et al., 2008; Mantovani et al., 2009; Maetzig et
al., 2011; Ronen et al., 2011; Cartier et al., 2012; Cesana et al., 2012; Frecha et al., 2012;
Scaramuzza et al., 2012; Aiuti et al., 2013; Biffi et al., 2013). Hitherto, only in one case it has been
reported LV-mediated transformation in wt mouse cells by the insertion of a LV within a tumor
suppressor gene. In this case, leukemia-like transformation was demonstrated in vivo in a mouse
with a SIN-LV interfering the expression of Ebf1, a key regulator of B-cell differentiation (Heckl et
al., 2012). In a human trial for β-Thalassemia a dominant clone arose as a result of the specific
insertion of the provirus within 3’ regulatory sequences of HGMA2, impeding the post-
transcriptional control of this gene, with a role in adipogenesis and mesenchymal differentiation
(Cavazzana-Calvo et al., 2010). Despite the skewed clonality, recently, it has been reported that
the patient affected by the HGMA2 clone maintains normalized hematological values and
continues transfusion independency 6 years after the gene therapy treatment (Leboulch, 2013).
Several differences in the insertion profile of RIS and LIS in Fanca-/- hematopoietic
repopulation were noted in our experiments. Recipients of EGFP-RV marked cells yielded an
oligoclonal repopulation pattern, as deduced from the very limited repertoire of integrations
resolved by electrophoresis of the LAM-PCR products compared to the therapeutic LV. Besides,
RIS distribution showed a strong representation of a few overcoming clones which behaved as
99
having proliferative advantages (figures 26, 28, 31 and 37). This was clearly reflected in analyses
of the semi-quantitative contribution of RIS in primary and secondary recipients, which exhibited
a strong selection for certain integrations resulting in a chromosomal distribution afar from our
random in silico control. Oppositely, recipients transplanted with FANCA-LV transduced cells
displayed a highly polyclonal repopulation repertoire (figure 25). The chromosomal distribution of
LIS accommodates well with a random IS dataset generated in silico, without the strong IS
skewing seen in the EGFP-RV RIS in primary and secondary recipients (figure 27). Turnover of the
LIS over time and across the BMT was followed to evidence continuous contribution of newly
arisen clones (figures 31, 32-36).
From these results, it is remarkable that the Fanca-/- serial BMT model allowed the
identification of overcoming ɣ-RV clones, leading presumably to malignification (Hahn and
Weinberg, 2002; Modlich et al., 2005), in which clonal dominance constitutes a doorstep of cell
transformation (Fehse and Roeder, 2008). Furthermore, in this FA mouse model, the therapeutic
integration of FANCA-LV in the genome of Fanca-/- cells did not trigger clonal dominance and
rather displayed a polyclonal repopulating profile.
Although chromosomal distribution of LIS mainly falls into a random profile (figure 27), a
more detailed study of the FANCA-LV insertion profile defined the presence of clusters of
Common Insertion Sites (CIS) as a result of the co-integration of a number of LIS in statistical
relevant proximity. This may either resemble availability of exposed transcriptional active loci at
the moment of the provirus integration or reflect sequence-specific interactions between features
from the vector and the host genome.
Besides of the systematic description of the integrome of FANCA-LV in this model, LAM-PCR
studies can provide relevant insights on clonal dynamics of stably corrected HSCs. This is based on
the semi-quantitative output of LAM-PCR coupled to NGS technologies, which provides read
counts for the different amplicons. We used this estimation to extrapolate the contribution of
individual LIS to the pool of retrieved clones. The study of sequential PB and BM samples allowed
us to perform analyses of the clonal dynamics, and therefore of the potential skewing and
domination processes on the recipients’ hematopoiesis after gene therapy. To maximize the
informative potential of such IS analysis, several transplantation experiments differing in the BMT
methodology were undertook. On one hand, periodic sampling and mouse to mouse BMT
facilitates the follow up of clonal variance. On the other hand, BMT performed with pooled BM
samples strongly selects the fittest clones among several BM donors, thus increasing the chances
to display dominancy or leukemogenic episodes through the propagation of advantageous clones
among several recipients.
The Fanca-/- mouse model chosen showed a high sensitivity for RV insertional genotoxicity,
measured by clonal dominance. One hundred and eighteen different RIS could be sequenced in
primary EGFP-RV treated mice and 62 in secondary RV-recipients. Significantly, only one third
were novel RIS. With the therapeutic LV we mapped 7,513 LIS in primary FANCA-LV treated mice
and 1,369 LIS in their secondary recipients, which served to evidence a healthy clonal
repopulation across the BMT (table 16). Besides a high percentage of LIS present in FANCA-LV
primary recipient were never detected again in secondary recipients receiving their BM (figure
30). Deeper characterization of clonal fluctuation was achieved by monitoring contribution of
individual IS in blood samples at different time points. The display of top 10 LIS contributing to PB
clearly reflects the loss and gain of clones over time. This implies clear clonal turnover of the HSC
giving rise to hematopoiesis in FANCA-LV treated animals, being this feature cornerstone for a
100
VII.- Discussion | Discusión
healthy hematopoiesis.
Transplantation of pooled BM was intended to select the fittest clones in the primary
recipients and this idea easily matches with the strong clonal selection seen in the BM of
secondary EGFP-RV treated recipients. Remarkably, the EGFP-RV marked cells resulted in strong
selection and overcoming of integrations close to Evi1, a well-known target for ɣ-RV vectors that
has been proven to drive retroviral mediated leukemogenesis (Modlich et al., 2006; Montini et al.,
2006; Kustikova et al., 2007; Modlich et al., 2008; Montini et al., 2009). Again, these results
support the susceptibility of the chosen model to amplify and sense even proliferative
advantages. However, pooled BMT of FANCA-LV did not result in such clonal selection or
progression to oligoclonality and although some top 10 clones were repeatedly found between
individuals, none of them overcome the others repeatedly in several animals. Besides when
dominance (>20% contribution) was found, it rarely was due to a single dominant clone. From the
list of the genes targeted in the 31 dominant clones listed in supplemental table S3, only 3 were
listed as CIS in the RTCGD. Moreover, the majority of the clones that showed frequencies above
20% were transient.
We have focused on the effects of the transduction with the FANCA-LV vector on viability,
stemness, engraftment and clonal evolution of HSCs. Nevertheless, many other aspects derived
from the ex vivo culture may also affect to FA HSCs with an impact on the efficiency and the safety
of the gene therapy approach. In any case, the results condensed in this memory predict a very
low genotoxic impact associated to the use of the therapeutic FANCA-LV. Because of the
sensitivity and informative value of clonal analyses, a close follow up of the corrected cells, as is
routinely performed in clinical gene therapy trials will also be conducted in patients undergoing
FANCA-LV gene therapy.
Taken together the results of this first section of the thesis, we can conclude that short ex
vivo transduction of FA hematopoietic progenitors with the FANCA-LV corrects Fanca-/- lin- BM
cells. Thus, the corrected FA HSCs were able to generate hematopoietic colonies in vitro and
efficiently engraft Fanca-/- recipients for long-term after serial BMT. A clear and sustained
phenotypic correction of MMC hypersensitivity, characteristic of FA cells, was achieved in all our
experiments. Under a toxicological point of view, the Fanca-/- animals receiving FANCA-LV treated
cells did not show any symptoms of toxicity after the infusion of the corrected cells and, in no
case, dysplasia associated with a LV insertion was observed. The analyses of the insertion sites in
repopulating cells harboring EGFP-RV or FANCA-LV provirus served to demonstrate both the
healthy and polyclonal repopulation of animals engrafted with the FANCA-LV transduced cells.
Thus, efficacy and safety data compiled in this section of the thesis further sustains the reliability
of this vector to enter into clinical investigation in human FA-A patients.
2.- IMPAIRED CELL REPROGRAMMING OF CELLS WITH DEFECTIVE NHEJ DUE TO SCID
MUTATION
Herein, we report the outcomes from the use of improved LVs (Sommer et al., 2009; Somers
et al., 2010; Sommer et al., 2010) and non-viral SB transposons (Mates et al., 2009; Kues et al.,
2012; Muenthaisong et al., 2012) vectors for the generation of DNA-PKcs deficient iPSCs.
Additionally, we have provided evidence showing for the first time the relevance of NHEJ in cell
reprogramming.
Our first experiments showed marked differences in the number of AP positive iPSC-like
clones after transduction/transfection of Scid cells with respect to numbers found in wt cells
101
(figure 44). Among the platforms assayed, T2/OSKM SB transposon outstand as the most
powerful reprogramming tool followed by STEMCCA cMyc LV and then the STEMCCA RedLight LV,
with reprogramming efficiencies of 0.0035, 0.001 and 0.0003 in wt MEFs, respectively (figures 45
and 53). Nevertheless, the moderate STEMCCA RedLight reprogramming efficiency was sufficient
to isolate and expand iPSC lines from the wt cells. The STEMCCA RedLight design allowed us to
easily follow transgene expression, measuring the mCherry fluorescence, and also to retrieve the
STEMCCA cassette from the iPSCs, taking advantage of the flanking loxP sites present in both
LTRs. This reprogramming LV thus facilitated the generation of bona fide LV-free wt-iPSCs lines.
The same vector was, however, unable to reprogram DNA-PKcs deficient cells. Because of the
high reprogramming efficiency yielded by the T2/OSKM SB reprogramming transposon, true iPSCs
with Prkdcscid genotype could be generated by this non-viral reprogramming approach. Because of
the similar VCN found in LV-iPSC and Tn-iPSC clones isolated from wt MEFs, differences in the
reprogramming efficacy of both reprogramming vectors should reside on either the different gene
delivery technologies or on the different design of the promoters and transcription factor genes,
which may incur in differential levels, performance or stoichiometry of reprogramming factors
expression. Our data also corroborates that the inclusion of c-Myc clearly favored cell
reprogramming, as it is deduced from the reprogramming efficacies of the two reprogramming
LVs (figures 45 and 53).
Deficiency in DNA-PKcs causes SCID in both humans (van der Burg et al., 2009; Woodbine et
al., 2013) and in other mammals (Bosma et al., 1983; Wiler et al., 1995; Mashimo et al., 2012).
Function of DNA-PKcs in NHEJ, a major defense mechanism against DSB during interphase, makes
this model adequate to study the implication of this repair pathway in the generation and
maintenance of cell pluripotency. Several DNA repair proteins have been already reported to
interact with the cell reprogramming process: FANCA (Raya et al., 2009), FANCC (Muller et al.,
2012; Yung et al., 2013), FANCD2 (Muller et al., 2012) and BRCA2 (Navarro et al., 2013; Yung et al.,
2013), which are FA proteins involved in resolving ICLs; ataxia-telangiectasia mutated (ATM),
which is a signal transducer of different DNA repair pathways (Kinoshita et al., 2011) and
xeroderma pigmentosum C (XPC), which belongs to the nucleotide exchange repair pathway
(Fong et al., 2011). Taking together, the involvement of these pathways in cell reprogramming
highlights the necessity of an accurate DNA-damage response that assures the integrity upon the
reprogramming stress. However, until our work, there was no evidence regarding the possible
involvement of NHEJ proteins in the induction of pluripotence.
The rational of our investigations came from the observation that readily efficient
reprogramming vectors yielded low numbers of AP+ colonies in Prkdcscid MEFs (figure 44). Besides,
colonies were prematurely lost or differentiated after the first passages in vitro. This intriguing
resistance to cell reprogramming was independent of the use of c-Myc containing reprogramming
LVs or even the delivery method of the reprogramming factors (figure 53).
Shortly after disclosure of our data, other authors independently reached the same
conclusions about the NHEJ impact in cell reprogramming, in that case using cells from LIG IV SCID
patients. They demonstrated the NHEJ missfunction in iPSC derived cell lines, whose implications
extended over the re-differentiation of such pluripotent cells (Tilgner et al., 2013a). The same
group also generated iPSCs from CERNNUNOS (XLF) deficient fibroblasts, which after cell
reprogramming were unable to normally differentiate to certain lineages (Tilgner et al., 2013b).
All these results highlight the relevance of NHEJ in both somatic cell reprogramming and cell
differentiation.
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VII.- Discussion | Discusión
Reported barriers to cell reprogramming include eroded telomeres (Marion et al., 2009;
Batista et al., 2011), cell cycle arrest (Li et al., 2009) and p53 activation (Marion et al., 2009).
Consequently, we considered that the telomere status in Scid cells prior to and after
transduction/transfection with LV and SB vectors could play a role in the defective
reprogramming of DNA-PKcs deficient cells. Remarkably, we found enlarged telomeres in early
passage Prkdcscid MEFs (figure 45), in grand consistency with previous reports from fresh Prkdcscid
BM cells (Hande et al., 1999) but contrasting with studies in Prkdcscid and Prkdcnull cell lines
(Goytisolo et al., 2001). Besides, despite the significant differences found in the reprogramming
success of Scid cells, telomere differences were not affected after cell transduction with STEMCCA
LVs or transfection with the T2/OSKM reprogramming SB transposon (figures 47 and 53). This fact
discarded the fact that eroded telomeres could account for the inefficient cell reprogramming of
DNA-PKcs deficient cells. However, the gain of telomere repeats in culture strongly suggests
defects in DNA capping, implying that we cannot discard the possibility that described
implications of DNA-PKcs in telomere capping (Gilley et al., 2001) could also account for the
reprogramming resistance of Prkdcscid cells.
Active proliferation warranting the dilution of original cell epigenetic marks is also required
for complete cell reprogramming. At the early passages after transduction with the
reprogramming STEMCCA LV, a similar proliferation rate was observed in wt and Prkdcscid cells.
Furthermore, transduction of reprogramming-LV resulted in a mild increment in the rate of the
cell doublings, which reached statistical differences in DNA-PKcs deficient transduced cells (figure
47). In the case of Scid cells, increased cell proliferation may result in a parallel induction of
proliferation-associated DNA damage, which might not be well tolerated by these DNA repair
deficient cells.
Although LVs transduce target cells in all cell cycle stages, including G0 (Naldini et al., 1996),
some authors have contradictory reports about the relevance of DNA-PKcs in the efficacy of
retroviral transduction (Baekelandt et al., 2000; Daniel et al., 2004). Therefore, we initially though
that differences in the efficiency of cell transduction were having a definitive impact on the
reprogramming success. Thus, we followed mCherry expression in MEF cultures, either wt or Scid,
after the transduction with the reprogramming STEMCCA RedLight LV. When cells were analyzed
by flow cytometry 3 days after transduction, both cell types presented similar percentages of
mCherry positive cells, which were dependent on the MOI used (figure 48). This suggested that
adhesion and entrance of the vector in both cell types did not significantly differ. We waited for
one week, to allow clearance of non-integrated vector DNA, and then we measured again the
mCherry fluorescence. Consistent with previous analyses obtained at day 3, similar percentages
were obtained in wt and Scid MEFs when the same MOIs were compared, discarding that the
impaired reprogramming of Scid cells could be accounted by reduced susceptibility of these cells
to be transduced with LVs.
To clarify if any cell cycle regulator was limiting cell reprogramming in DNA-PKcs deficient
cells, we analyzed mRNA expression of tp53, p21/CIP1, p15/INK4a and p16/INK4b after
transduction with STEMCCA LV. We chose to check these factors 10 days after transduction based
on previous reports (Marion et al., 2009). Significantly, we found a specific increase in the
expression of p16/INK4a in the Scid cells after transduction with the reprograming LV. The function
of p16/INK4a is to promote cell cycle arrest and senescence and it is known to be a late responding
element often activated downstream of p53 and retinoblastoma (RB). Functional activation of
p16/INK4a should result in an increment of associated β-galactosidase staining at suboptimal pH.
103
In fact, ten days after STEMCCA mCherry transduction, Scid MEFs, but not wt MEFs, exhibited an
increased tendency of SA-β-Gal staining, suggesting a Scid-specific senescence response against
cell reprogramming.
To further investigate whether the generation of Scid iPSCs could be achieved by a different
reprogramming platform, we aimed to generate Scid iPSCs using a non-viral approach based on
from the transfection of an efficient T2/OSKM SB transposon and the hyperactive SB100X
transposase. Although, T2/OSKM yielded more AP+ colonies in both cell types, differences
between wt and Prkdcscid cells were evident (figure 52). This further supported the Scid-specific
refractoriness to cell reprogramming. Fortunately, despite the loss and/or differentiation of most
Scid iPSCs clones, some Scid colonies generated by the reprogramming transposon could be
isolated and expanded in vitro. These SB transposon iPSC clones were named Tn-iPS since they
have a T2/OSKM cassette stably integrated in their genome.
Then, we tried to discern the molecular basis accounting for the marked differences in the
reprogramming of the Scid cells between the reprogramming T2/OSKM SB transposon and
STEMCCA LV. We evaluated the SB-transposon VCN in the Tn-iPS cells and values were in a range
between 1 and 2 copies per cell, similar to the the ones found in wt LV-iPSCs, suggesting that
similar insertion efficiencies were shared among the two platforms. We also confirmed that
transfection of the reprogramming T2/OSKM did not affect the telomere length of transfected
MEFs (figure 53). Transfected cells resembled in most features LV-transduced cells, yet we found
a differential expression profile of p16/INK4b. A very homogenous expression of tp53, p21/CIP1,
p15/INK4a and p16/INK4b was described in T2/OSKM reprograming SB transfected and mock MEFs.
To confirm this lack of p16/INK4b induction by reprogramming-SB in Prkdcscid cells, we scored the
percentage of SA-β-Gal 10 days after transfection and, consistent with p16/INK4b analyses, we did
not detect any differences in the percentage of senescent cells compared to wt cells (figure 54).
Related to Tn-iPSCs characterization, wt and Scid cell types yielded indistinguishable colonies
in terms of morphology and expression of pluripotency markers. Scid clones retained normal
chromosome numbers and were able to form teratomas generating tissues from the three germ
layers after subcutaneous implantation in NSG host mice (figure 56).
The Prkdcscid mutation was confirmed in Scid Tn-iPSCs discarding that cross-contamination of
wt cells or even spontaneous reversion of the point mutation could justify the success of cell
reprogramming. To further confirm this point, DNA-PKcs deficient Tn-iPSCs were exposed to X-Ray
to assess their sensitivity to IR. Despite being more sensitive to IR than their parental fibroblasts,
Scid Tn-iPSCs cells preserved an hypersensitive phenotype compared to wt iPSCs (figure 57).
To sum up, the data presented in this section of the thesis demonstrates for the first time
that non-functional NHEJ results in a cell reprogramming impairment. This has been
demonstrated using either viral or non-viral cell reprogramming platforms. Besides, we studied
the factors that could account for the inhibited reprograming of Prkdcscid cell and observed that
reprogramming LVs triggered a significant senescent response accompanied by p16/INK4b
induction.
Mutations in the PRKDC gene encoding DNA-PKcs have a direct implication, not only in
immune cell maturation and neurological development (Pankotai et al., 2012; Woodbine et al.,
2013) but also in HSC function. Besides, DNA-PKcs are proposed as a suitable target for
experimental therapies aiming to increase the efficiency of radio/chemotherapies against certain
cancers (Kashishian et al., 2003), as well as to avoid massive cell death during HIV infection
(Cooper et al., 2013). Under these perspectives, the Scid Tn-iPS model presented herein offers an
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VII.- Discussion | Discusión
outstanding platform to better understand the implications of DNA-PKcs mutations during stem
cell development and differentiation and also to test new anticancer therapies.
105
106
VI.- Conclusions | Conclusiones
VIII.- CONCLUSIONS
1. The ex vivo gene therapy of Fanca-/- mice with the VSV-G pseudotyped FANCA-LV
designed for human clinical trials efficiently corrected the phenotype of Fanca-/-
hematopoietic progenitors and stem cells without evidences of toxicity.
2. Biodistribution studies in gene therapy treated Fanca-/- mice showed that the presence
of the therapeutic FANCA-LV provirus was restricted to hematopoietic tissues. No
evidences of replicating competent lentiviruses were observed in gene therapy treated
animals.
3. No clinical adverse effects were observed either in gene therapy treated mice, or in
secondary re-transplanted recipients.
107
108
IX.- Corollary | Corolario
IX.- COROLLARY
The use of the Fanca-/- mouse model allowed us to demonstrate the efficacy and the
safety associated to the PGK-FANCA-wPRE* lentiviral vector designed for human clinical
trials. These results offer new preclinical evidence supporting the use of this LV for the
gene therapy of FA-A patients.
The impaired reprogramming of Prkdcscid cells demonstrates the role of the NHEJ DNA
repair pathway in cell reprogramming. Improved reprogramming transposons facilitated,
however, the generation of Prkdcscid iPSC lines. This pluripotent stem cell model will
constitute a new tool to understand the role of NHEJ in cell reprogramming and
differentiation, and also to develop novel therapies for DNA-PKcs-deficient SCID patients
and to test new drugs targeting the NHEJ pathway.
109
110
X.- Supplemental information | Información suplementaria
RTCGD
Aff4 Bahcc1 Dach1 Fchsd2 Hspa4 Mcc Olfr693 Ppp6c Rhoh Sgk3 Tbl1xr1 Tusc1
Ahsa2 Calcrl Dach2 Ftmt Ikzf2 Mnd1 Pam Prr14 Robo1 Slc16a7 Tex2 Ube2d2
Akap13 Casp4 Derl1 Fusip1 Kif3c Msh5 Pcdh15 Ptprk Robo2 Slc20a2 Tmem49 Vars
App Ccr2 Dmxl1 Ghr Lcorl Mthfd1l Pecam1 Rab38 Rps6ka1 Slc8a1 Tnfrsf11a Wac
Arid1a Cdt1 Ell2 Gimap7 Lnpep Mybl1 Plxdc2 Rab5c Rpusd4 Stat3 Trafd1 Zeb2
Asxl2 Chchd7 Ets1 Gls Lrrc7 Ncam2 Plxnd1 Rasa1 Seh1l Stat5b Tsg101 D630037F22Ri k
AU021838 Ctsc Fbp1 Gmds Ly6e Nudt3 Ppp4c Rcbtb2 Senp8 Stxbp4 Tspyl1
CGD
Brd4 Cbfa2t3 Cltc Ddx10 Ptpn11 Rb1
RTCGD + CGD
Fli1 Mllt3 Plag1
111
-/-
Table S2.- Ingenuity Pathway Analyses (IPA) of FANCA-LV integrome in Fanca recipients.
Molecule p-value of
Upstream Regulator Target molecules in dataset
Type overlap
TGFB1 growth factor 5.24 x10-5 ASPM, C9orf3, CASP4, CBFA2T3, CDH2, CDT1, ITGA5, Ly6a (includes others), MMP13, MYBL1, NCAPG,
PECAM1, PTPRK, RHOD, SMURF2, STAT3, ZEB2
-4
ERBB2 kinase 4.16 x10 ASPM, CBFA2T3, CDT1, DERL1, GDPD3, GHR, ITGA5, MAN1A1, MMP13, MYBL1, NCAPG, PTPRK,
RHOD, VEGFC
DDIT3 transcription 4.36 x10-4 CASP4, ERO1L, PPARGC1A
regulator
PTH1R G-protein coupled 9.32 x10-4 AR, MMP13, TNFRSF11A
receptor
-3
IL12A cytokine 1.07 x10 IL27, PECAM1, STAT3, STAT4
CD24 (human) other 2.96 x10-3 ASPM, DIAPH2, FXR1, RANBP2, RASA1, VPS13B
-3
HNRNPA2B1 other 3.86 x10 ALX1, CRB1, PDGFC, PPARGC1A, SFI1 (includes EG:305467), ST8SIA4, SULT1A3/SULT1A4
TGFBR2 kinase 7.85 x10-3 AR, CASP1, CDH2, HGF, MMP13, UBE3A
IFN alpha/beta group 1.06 x10-2 CCR2, IL27, Ly6a (includes others), LY6E
IL6 cytokine 1.21 x10-2 ANXA1, CASP1, CCR3, MMP13, RASA1, RB1, STAT3, STAT4, TNFRSF11A
STAT6 transcription 1.26 x10-2 Gp49a/Lilrb4, Ly6a (includes others), PDGFC, PPARGC1A, STAT4, TFEC, TNFRSF11A
regulator
-2
mir-451 microRNA 1.43 x10 PPP6C, RASA1
miR-211-5p (and other miRNAs w/seed mature microRNA 1.43 x10-2 PTPN11
UCCCUUU)
-2
ECE1 peptidase 1.43 x10 App
112
X.- Supplemental information | Información suplementaria
estrogen receptor group 2.01 x10-2 ANXA1, ETS1, LY6E, MAN1A1, NCAM2, PDGFC, VEGFC
-2
RAC2 enzyme 2.06 x10 ANXA1, CDH2, STAT4
miR-17-5p (and other miRNAs w/seed mature microRNA 2.67 x10-2 RB1, STAT3
AAAGUGC)
-2
SIX1 transcription 2.67 x10 DACH1, DACH2
regulator
DHCR24 enzyme 2.83 x10-2 App
IL2 cytokine 3.17 x10-2 CCR2, ETS1, LTA, Ly6a (includes others), PECAM1
113
THBS4 other 3.57 x10-2 MMP13, MMP16
TAF4 (includes EG:100149942) transcription 3.60 x10-2 ETS1, MMP13, PDGFC, VEGFC
regulator
-2
ETS1 transcription 3.67 x10 CASP1, HGF, IKZF2, MMP13, ZEB2
regulator
LDL complex 3.81 x10-2 CCR2, LIMS1, PECAM1
-2
HRAS enzyme 3.81 x10 HGF, ITGA5, STAT3
Interferon alpha group 3.88 x10-2 CASP1, IL27, MORC2, RB1, STAT4
114
X.- Supplemental information | Información suplementaria
Table S3- Putative dominant LIS (>20% clonal contribution) in 56 engrafted recipients analyzed.
LIS Ch. Position Sample Total reads Clone reads Contribution Gene product RTCGD
Acot9 X 151704359 M077_6m_bm 354 112 31,64% acyl-CoA thioesterase 9 NO
Asxl2 12 3502910 M080_6m_bm 1002 316 31,54% additional sex combs like 2 (Drosophila) 1 RV
Dcun1d5 9 7202127 M037_6m_bm 4708 1041 22,11% DCN1, defective in cullin neddylation 1, domain containing 5 (S. cerevisiae) NO
Dyrk1a 16 94798383 M032_6m_bm 6270 1530 24,40% dual-specificity tyrosine- (Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1a 1 Tn
Fhit 14 10587330 M075_6m_bm 1602 377 23,53% fragile histidine triad gene 2 TN
Ghitm 14 38106174 M033_6m_bm 1575 395 25,08% growth hormone inducible transmembrane protein 1 RV
Glra3 8 58560604 M059_6m_bm 2848 626 21,98% glycine receptor, alpha 3 subunit NO
Itsn1 16 91764098 M026_6m_bm 3176 2172 68,39% intersectin 1 (SH3 domain protein 1A) NO
Rasal2 1 159098055 M038_6m_bm 6891 1493 21,67% RAS protein activator like 2 1 Tn
Rchy1 5 92388204 M023_6m_bm 1139 324 28,45% ring finger and CHY zinc finger domain containing 1 NO
Smg1 7 125358722 M030_6m_bm 1462 689 47,13% SMG1 homolog, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-related kinase (C. elegans) NO
Sqrdl 2 122600280 M063_6m_bm 2026 426 21,03% sulfide quinone reductase-like (yeast) NO
Tle4 19 14802973 M041_6m_bm 4177 2858 68,42% transducin-like enhancer of split 4, homolog of Drosophila E (spl) NO
Vstm2a 11 16254006 M046_6m_bm 3094 892 28,83% V-set and transmembrane domain containing 2A NO
115
-/-
Figure S1A: Unique IPA functional categories of LV targeted genes in Fanca mice.
116
X.- Supplemental information | Información suplementaria
Figure S1B: Unique IPA functional categories of LV targeted genes from computer simulated random IS.
117
-/-
Figure S1C: Overlapping functional categories between random IS and LV targeted genes in Fanca mice.
118
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