El Juramento de Los Treinta y Tres Orietales Baja2
El Juramento de Los Treinta y Tres Orietales Baja2
El Juramento de Los Treinta y Tres Orietales Baja2
6
INTENDENCIA DE MONTEVIDEO MUSEO JUAN MANUEL BLANES ASOCIACIÓN DE AMIGOS
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
COORDINADOR DE SALA
Jorge Ferreira
ASISTENTES DE SALA
Verónica Alonso, Natalia Boero, Sandra
Delgado, Roberto Guido, Matías Ravel,
Javier Reinaldo, Marisol Rodríguez, Juan
Manuel Vergara
SEGURIDAD
Miguel De Santis, Luis Dupasus, Jorge
Laguarda, Jorge Cerrudo
PRÓLOGO EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
7
CRÉDITOS
DIRECCIÓN
Cristina Bausero
Directora Museo Juan Manuel Blanes
División Artes y Ciencias
Departamento de Cultura
Intendencia de Montevideo
ISBN
978-9974-8620-3-6
VERSIÓN DIGITAL
blanes.montevideo.gub.uy
TEXTOS
Laura Malosetti
Elisa Pérez Bucchelli
ClaudIa Barra
Mechtild Endhardt
Cristina Bausero
Fernando Marte
Federico Eisner
DISEÑO GRÁFICO
Andrés Ferrara
CORRECCIÓN DE TEXTOS
Maura Lacreu
Laura Zavala
TRADUCCIÓN AL INGLÉS
Adriana Butureira
CRÉDITOS EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
9
10
Índice
ÍNDICE
11
02 HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Introducción Laura Malosetti 19
Más allá de la imagen, contextos,
ideologías y productos sociales Elisa Pérez Buchelli 25
03 CONSERVACIÓN
05 CRONOLOGÍA 160
06 BIBLIOGRAFÍA
12
El proyecto que presentamos en el concurso para la dirección del Museo Blanes incluía
la restauración del Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales (1875-1877) como un
punto importante de la conservación de las obras del museo.
Las funciones de un museo son varias y complejas: son instituciones culturales que
conservan el patrimonio cultural material de la humanidad, lo custodian, lo investigan
y lo socializan. Estas cuatro funciones están intrínsecamente vinculadas en la dinámica
de un museo vivo.
PRÓLOGO
14
La obra restaurada pertenece al Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales (mnav), dependiente
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
del Ministerio de Educación y Cultura (mec) y está en custodia del Museo Blanes desde el
año 1976. El cuadro ingresó ese año para la Exposición Blanes, junto con otras obras del
pintor. Además del apoyo de las autoridades departamentales, fue entonces necesario
contar con la autorización del mnav y del mec para su restauración.
Para alcanzar este objetivo, fue esencial fundamentar el proyecto y dar los detalles
técnicos de su estado de conservación, por lo cual había que pensar una estrategia
acorde para trabajar en un cuadro de este valor cultural y de estas dimensiones
(305 x 560 cm); lo que justificaría una importante inversión en su restauración. Esta
obra, de tanta importancia para la historia del Uruguay, tenía, entre otras patologías,
desprendimientos que comprometían su permanencia a través del tiempo y oxidaciones
de su barniz que no permitían apreciar la obra en su cabalidad desde un punto de
vista cromático. Para el diagnóstico se consultó a diferentes restauradores, de manera
de obtener más de una opinión técnica y de poder considerar un trabajo en equipo. Las
dimensiones del cuadro y sus patologías justificaron que finalmente se organizara el equipo
de trabajo con la participación de las restauradoras Claudia Barra y Mechtild Endhardt.
Este libro pretende ser una contribución activa a la preservación de la obra pictórica,
en este caso una obra de Juan Manuel Blanes, y un relato de las varias reflexiones y
acciones que se debieron realizar para aportar a esta conservación. Se debe tomar
además como un aporte al conocimiento que tenemos de la obra del autor, ya que,
PRÓLOGO
15
gracias a las acciones de restauración, pudimos investigar los materiales que Blanes
Llevar a cabo esta restauración tuvo un costo importante y significó una decisión
política para la contribución a la conservación de esta obra, ícono de la historia
nacional. Inicialmente parecía una idea inalcanzable, debido a la magnitud del proyecto;
sin embargo, desde las primeras ideas hasta su concreción no pasaron más que doce
meses. La restauración se ejecutó en los tiempos previstos y dio como resultado una
nueva mirada sobre esta obra de Blanes.
Felicitamos a la entonces intendenta Ana Olivera que creyó en este proyecto y nos
apoyó para llevarlo adelante y agradecemos a todos los funcionarios del Museo Blanes
que favorecieron que el trabajo se realizara fluidamente. •
Cristina Bausero
Directora Museo Juan Manuel Blanes
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
16
02
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
17
18
Introducción
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
The highest goal of art in the end is to be inmaterial 19
Anish Kapoor1
Su figura se destaca en las últimas décadas del siglo xix como un caso único en la
región por su extraordinario talento, no solo como pintor sino también como creador
y gestor de nuevos públicos y nuevos espacios para un género del arte hasta entonces
prácticamente desconocido: la pintura de gran asunto o pintura de historia, concebida
como un programa filosófico-político destinado a conmover y persuadir gracias al
impacto de la imagen.
Blanes creó imágenes que son reconocidas como piezas fundacionales de la iconografía
nacional también en Chile y Argentina. Aun cuando en Chile su gran cuadro Últimos
momentos de José Miguel Carrera jamás fue adquirido (se encuentra en el Museo
Nacional de Artes Visuales, mnav, de Montevideo), desde su primera exhibición en
Santiago fue copiado, reproducido y es hoy la imagen más difundida de Carrera en
una nación para la cual la identidad de su autor no fue en absoluto significativa. En
Argentina, en cambio, Blanes recibió encargos oficiales en varias ocasiones y fue Buenos
Aires la ciudad en la que obtuvo su primer gran suceso de público con Un episodio
de la fiebre amarilla en 1871. También Paraguay, a partir de un reciente hallazgo de
Osvaldo Salerno, ha descubierto que una de las imágenes emblemáticas del mariscal
Francisco Solano López –un retrato ecuestre en su caballo blanco– fue pintada por
nuestro artista en Florencia.2
No obstante, primó una lógica nacionalista por sobre su papel como artista regional. Fue
el Estado uruguayo el que reconoció a Blanes tempranamente como artista nacional,
financió su formación en Europa, adquirió algunas de sus grandes pinturas y sostuvo
su prestigio a partir de reconocimientos, exposiciones, publicaciones y el cuidado tanto
de sus obras como de su archivo personal, conservado en parte en el Archivo General
de la Nación (agn) y en parte en el Museo Blanes.
El Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales (1877) significó el primer gran suceso de
Blanes en su tierra. Es una de las imágenes más familiares para los uruguayos desde
hace muchas generaciones, a partir de su presencia en manuales y láminas escolares
hasta su reproducción en libros y revistas, billetes, estampillas de correo, tarjetas
telefónicas, etc. Su casi excesiva familiaridad, sin embargo, tal vez había comenzado a
tornar invisible la retórica teatral de ese grupo de personajes decimonónicos, en una
era de circulación espectacular de imágenes cada vez más impactantes y livianas.
la primera recepción y los distintos momentos en los que el cuadro fue resignificado,
20 exhibido y trasladado, han recuperado la materialidad y la fortuna crítica de esa
inmensa tela, que significó una proeza en el Montevideo de la década del setenta del
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
siglo xix.
Pero hoy se ha puesto de relieve algo más que la memoria colectiva no conservaba:
la extraordinaria empresa que significó imaginar, negociar, realizar y finalmente
promocionar una pintura de esa envergadura en el siglo xix montevideano.
El artista argumentaba en 1866 que Florencia era el ámbito propicio para llevar adelante
semejante empresa pues no solo contaba con insumos accesibles y espacios adecuados
sino que también existía allí un clima de colegas y críticos especializados que le
brindarían apoyo y estímulo. Sin embargo, Blanes no logró la nueva beca esperada, de
modo que trabajó en su taller montevideano. Esto posiblemente acrecentó el impacto
del cuadro al poner en evidencia sus dificultades y pormenores, como el que relata
Fernández Saldaña respecto de la arena de la playa de la Agraciada, que el artista llevó
a su taller para evocar mejor el paisaje, la luz y el clima de la escena, y que luego regaló
como souvenir a los primeros espectadores del cuadro.
El hito final de la fortuna crítica de la obra que recupera este libro es el Año de la
Orientalidad, instituido por la última dictadura militar en 1975, y el traslado de la obra
al Museo Blanes al año siguiente. En esos años todos los regímenes totalitarios de
la región emprendieron una arremetida simbólica promoviendo conmemoraciones y
homenajes patrióticos que se volvieron omnipresentes.
Es posible ver, entonces, tanto en aquel gesto del grupo opr-33 como en el particular
interés de los militares que los derrotaron por exhibir, reproducir y difundir el cuadro
22 de Blanes (incluso destacando el fragmento central en que Lavalleja aparece con la
bandera), la extraordinaria persistencia del poder simbólico de aquella imagen del
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Fue esa, sin duda, la última gran disputa simbólica por la iconografía patriótica. Sin
embargo, en un tono menos grandilocuente pero no menos incisivo, en años recientes
el cuadro de Blanes ha vuelto a resignificarse en obras de artistas contemporáneos,
proponiendo nuevas lecturas críticas de aquella imagen instalada en el imaginario
colectivo. Cuando en 2004-2005 un curador uruguayo y una argentina (Santiago
Tavella y Graciela Taquini) convocaron a artistas de las dos naciones del Plata para
una exposición colectiva que proponía una reflexión crítica en imágenes acerca de
la monumentalización de la memoria y sus persistencias,8 el uruguayo Pablo Uribe
y el argentino Leonel Luna retomaron y resignificaron el juramento de los Treinta y
Tres. En su diálogo deconstructivo con los mitos fundacionales del Uruguay, Uribe
realizó un señalamiento museográfico en una instalación que incluía a un guardia de
sala custodiando el pequeño boceto del cuadro monumental (Alegoría). Leonel Luna
reconstruyó la escena y las poses de Blanes en una toma fotográfica para la que posaron
33 orientales de oriente (inmigrantes chinos y coreanos) aludiendo a la problemática
inserción de los nuevos inmigrantes en la Buenos Aires de la poscrisis de 2001.
La disposición teatral de los personajes, los gestos heroicos y las poses declamatorias
que parecerían alejarlo de la sensibilidad del observador contemporáneo tal vez sean
elementos que contribuyan al poderoso anacronismo de este cuadro que, a través del
tiempo, conserva la capacidad de concitar nuevos espectadores, nuevas miradas e
interpretaciones. •
24
INTRODUCCIÓN
Este texto ofrece un recorrido histórico en relación con el cuadro Juramento de los
Treinta y Tres Orientales de Juan Manuel Blanes, desde las primeras ideas creativas por
las que transitó el pintor en torno al último cuarto del siglo xix hasta el ingreso de la
obra al Museo Blanes en 1976.
Por tratarse de uno de los cuadros de historia más significativos del acervo público
nacional, se analizan aspectos del itinerario creativo de la obra, las instancias de su pri-
mera presentación pública, así como elementos clave en la construcción social de esta
imagen como emblema para ciertos imaginarios nacionales uruguayos, proyecciones
que alcanzan la actualidad.
Dentro de este itinerario, en este texto se seleccionaron para su consideración los si-
guientes momentos significativos: el proyecto inicial del artista y su primera recepción
pública en el año 1878; la exposición homenaje a Blanes realizada en el Teatro Solís
en 1941; la exhibición "El nacimiento de nuestra nación" organizada en el marco de
las celebraciones del año 1975 —postulado oficialmente por la dictadura cívico-militar
como el Año de la Orientalidad— y la "Exposición Blanes" llevada a cabo en el museo
homónimo en 1976, a partir de la cual este cuadro ingresó a la mencionada institución,
donde permanece hasta el presente.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
La obra Juramento de los Treinta y Tres1 de Juan Manuel Blanes (fig. 1) constituye una
26 de las pinturas de tema histórico que más ha influido en los imaginarios nacionales
uruguayos desde su primera presentación pública en 1878 hasta el presente.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
En esta obra, Blanes creó un artificio, una imagen verosímil de los Treinta y Tres que,
desde su primera presentación pública, de manera progresiva y sostenida en el tiempo,
se constituyó como una representación oficializada de la gesta del 19 de abril de 1825
que se mantiene vigente hasta la actualidad.
A través de esta pintura, Blanes creó una imagen cuidadosamente meditada y elabora-
da que, sin precedentes, le daba identidad y fisonomía a los cuerpos de quienes a través
de ella —y junto con otras producciones culturales— pasarían a la posteridad en tanto
héroes nacionales, de la mano de las ideas de construcción patriótica presentes en la
Figura 2 obra. Al dar visualmente individuación a estos libertadores, y al representarlos en una
Portada de la revista “Enciclopedia
acción patriótica valiéndose de una elaboración propia a partir de pautas académicas
uruguaya” número 18, Montevideo,
Editorial Arca y Editores Reunidos, de la pintura que había aprendido en su formación en Florencia, Blanes ofrecía una
octubre de 1968. imagen significativa para la construcción social y cultural de los héroes nacionales
modernos, personajes fundacionales de nuestros imaginarios culturales.6
Ahora bien, ¿cómo se constituyó esta pintura en tanto ícono nacional? ¿A través de
cuáles mecanismos esta imagen ha arraigado su proyección social sostenida en la tem-
poralidad? ¿Por qué se ha consolidado esta imagen en particular y no otra como em-
blema de nuestra nacionalidad? ¿Por qué ha sido tan poderosa la representación visual
del Juramento? ¿Cuáles han sido los distintos impulsos que han mantenido a este
cuadro y su discurso visual en tanto imagen con estatuto “documental”, oficializado,
de este acto patriótico?
5. Esta pintura fue presentada en 1878 junto con el
texto Memoria sobre el cuadro del Juramento de los
33 escrito y firmado por el artista. Se trata de una Las diversas recepciones que atraviesan la existencia del cuadro están mediadas por
publicación en la que Blanes describió detalladamente prácticas, operaciones materiales y simbólicas que interactúan activando o desactivan-
sus procedimientos y opciones teórico-metodoló-
do los “poderes” de esas imágenes en tanto artefactos culturales. A partir de diversos
gicas para la creación de este cuadro. Al final de la
publicación se presenta una litografía que reproduce mecanismos de construcción social de sentido tales como exposiciones, publicaciones,
un bosquejo del motivo del cuadro realizado por presencia en ámbitos escolares, circulación de reproducciones o copias, apropiacio-
Blanes y se ofrece una enumeración de cada uno de los
nes, citas, conmemoraciones, entre otras, ciertas imágenes se tornan icónicas (fig. 2)
patriotas, identificando nominalmente a cada uno en
función de su ubicación en el cuadro. (Malosetti Costa, 2006).
6. La individuación creada en esta representación El Juramento fue presentado en el taller del artista ante un auditorio de dirigentes po-
posiciona a esta obra como un retrato colectivo y la
distingue de otras pinturas de tema histórico nacional, líticos montevideanos a comienzos de 1878, durante el gobierno provisorio del coronel
muchas de ellas pintadas por Blanes, que no tuvieron Lorenzo Latorre. Desde entonces, a lo largo de su trayectoria esta obra se ha constituido
la misma trascendencia que el Juramento en el imagi- como una imagen de gran pregnancia7 que ha contribuido decisivamente en la cons-
nario colectivo.
trucción de ciertos imaginarios nacionales uruguayos.
7. Se entiende por pregnancia a aquella ‘cualidad de
las formas visuales que captan la atención del obser-
vador por la simplicidad, equilibrio o estabilidad de su
estructura’ (Real Academia Española. Diccionario de la
lengua española, 23.ª ed., 2014).
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
28
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Las razones de este efecto de larga duración pueden relacionarse con sus correlatos
historiográficos, con algunos momentos relevantes a lo largo de la trayectoria del cua-
dro así como con sus innumerables reproducciones en diversos soportes y formatos
que han circulado socialmente, elementos que han operado en la construcción de la
significación social atribuida a esta imagen.
Figura 3
Fotografía de la obra Alegoría de
Pablo Uribe, Montevideo, 2004, s/d.
Foto: Rafael Lejtreger
8. Véase el Decreto N.º 109/975 de fecha 4 de febrero 9. Esta iconografía constituye el motivo central sobre el realizó una instalación y performance al exhibir el bo-
de 1975 sobre la nómina oficial de los Treinta y Tres que se realizó en 1952 la película El Desembarco ceto cromático del Juramento conservado en el acervo
Orientales. Por esta norma, en el marco de las cele- de los Treinta y Tres Orientales, dirigida por Miguel del mhn junto a la presencia de un guardia de sala que
braciones del Año de la Orientalidad, organizadas por Ángel Melino. encarnaba la vigilancia de la tradición. Para este caso,
el gobierno dictatorial, se estableció oficialmente la véase el catálogo de la exposición con curaduría de
lista de participantes en este acto patriótico. Entre los 10. Véase, por ejemplo, el rol de esta imagen para la Santiago Tavella, Graciela Taquini y Daniela Bouret:
argumentos esgrimidos para esta determinación estaba construcción visual del programa El origen: Independen- Marcas oficiales, Montevideo, Centro de Exposiciones
que “esos nombres deben ser los adoptados […] por el cia de Mueca Films, dirigido por Juan y Facundo Ponce Subte, 2004. Por su parte, Soto realizó una exposición
pintor nacional don Juan Manuel Blanes, figurando, de León en el año 2015. denominada Los tres Blanes en el año 2011 en el
además, en documentos con las firmas autógrafas de Museo Blanes, en la que presentó una videoinstala-
Lavalleja y Oribe”. Para esta reglamentación se debía pro- 11. Dentro de las nuevas significaciones que desde el ción donde multiplicó la iconografía del Juramento
ceder “aprobando esa nómina según el orden dispuesto ámbito del arte contemporáneo han dialogado con proyectando esta imagen en otros ámbitos del espacio
por el pintor Blanes”. la tradición de este cuadro ícono creando nuevos museístico, más allá de su consagración material,
sentidos, mencionaremos, entre los artistas nacionales, unicidad y aura, en la que cobraban sentido nuevas
el caso de Pablo Uribe y de Jorge Francisco Soto. En el relaciones con los espectadores a través del vínculo de
año 2004, Uribe presentó su obra Alegoría en la que la imagen filmada y proyectada.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
DE LA IDEA A LA REALIZACIÓN: EL PROYECTO DEL CUADRO HISTÓRICO SOBRE LOS 29
TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES DE BLANES
La creación del Juramento realizada por Blanes debe contextualizarse en esta trama
compleja de ideas y proyectos culturales, sociales y políticos. Particularmente, a través
de este cuadro Blanes logró crear una imagen histórica que, dentro de su contexto
de creación, promovía una representación del pasado funcional a la legitimación del
proyecto político nacional modernizador impulsado por la elite gobernante. De esta
manera, el cuadro fue reconocido y legitimado desde sus primeros momentos de pre-
sentación pública. Con esta obra y su favorable recepción, Blanes consiguió un primer
reconocimiento en su tiempo como pintor de historia, tal como él mismo había pro-
yectado para su trayectoria profesional. Posteriormente, durante el siglo xx esta imagen
fue apropiada y legitimada en diferentes contextos a través de variadas estrategias de
promoción, difusión, circulación y reconocimiento, que aportaron nuevas instancias de
resignificación a la luz de diversos proyectos nacionales.
Sin embargo, más allá de este cuadro, Blanes creó un repertorio de imágenes sobre la
historia de Argentina, Chile y Uruguay, que progresivamente fueron reconociéndose y
legitimándose como significativas.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Figura 4
Artigas en la puerta de la Ciudadela.
Juan Manuel Blanes. 1884.
30
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
No todas las pinturas históricas que creó Blanes fueron presentadas y recibidas de la
misma manera en su contexto. Otras obras pintados por el artista que apelan a temas
o acontecimientos de la historia nacional, como los cuadros Artigas en la Ciudadela y
Batalla de Sarandí —ambos considerados inconclusos—, fueron conocidas públicamen-
12. Como ha afirmado Pierre Bourdieu (2003: 208) en te en los primeros años posteriores a la muerte del pintor. El retrato de Artigas pintado
su teoría social de las relaciones de los campos, en gran
por Blanes constituye desde mediados del siglo xx la imagen más difundida del prócer
medida es una relación particular entre un habitus
socialmente constituido y el campo de posiciones insti- (Malosetti Costa, 2013).
tuidas la que crea a los “creadores”. De todos modos,
en el último tramo del siglo xix rioplatense, el campo
La creación del Juramento por parte de Blanes ha sido datada entre 1875 y 1877 en
artístico estaba en una etapa inicial de estructuración.
Montevideo (Fernández Saldaña, 1931; de Salterain y Herrera, 1950). Sin embargo, algo
13. En 1864 fue inaugurado el monumento conmemo- más de una década antes de emprender la elaboración definitiva del cuadro, Blanes ya
rativo de los Treinta y Tres erigido en la playa de la
había arribado a la idea de crear una pintura histórica sobre el tema.
Agraciada en el lugar del desembarco, iniciativa que
fue promulgada por ley N.º 764 de fecha 18 de abril de
1863 (Armand Ugon, Cerdeiras Alonso, Arcos Ferrand Inmerso en una red de colaboraciones intelectuales y políticas, Blanes parece haber
y Goldaracena, 1930: 6, 11-12). Según de Salterain y
captado en su medio la necesidad y eficacia de la pintura histórica monumental en
Herrera (1950: 165) esta iniciativa fue promovida y
solventada por Domingo Ordoñana, acaudalado hacen- tanto contribución a la construcción simbólica nacional, cuestión que ha sido especial-
dado de Soriano, integrante de la comisión encargada mente efectiva en la elaboración de esta obra en particular.12
de redactar el Código Rural de 1875, posteriormente
fundador de la Asociación Rural del Uruguay, y amigo
personal de Blanes. A su vez, en 1876 se organizó el En las décadas del sesenta y del setenta del siglo xix en Uruguay, la cuestión de los
concurso para el monumento a la Independencia Nacio- Treinta y Tres estaba presente en el ambiente político e intelectual ante la necesidad de
nal. El monumento ganador de este certamen, realizado
consolidar un imaginario nacional cohesionador, indispensable para evitar una even-
por el escultor Juan Ferrari, fue inaugurado en 1879 y
ubicado en la plaza Asamblea de la ciudad de Florida. tual disolución del Estado (Rocca, 2000: 241).13
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
ANTECEDENTES DEL PROCESO CREATIVO
No quedan dudas de que la idea del cuadro de los Treinta y Tres de Blanes fue ela-
borada varios años antes de su realización definitiva.14 Para los fines de la presente 31
investigación, tomamos como antecedente certero una carta enviada por Blanes a An-
32
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
En este fragmento, escrito a poco más de un año del regreso de Blanes de Europa, se
ponen de manifiesto algunos elementos de gran interés para nuestro análisis. Por un
lado, a través de esta fuente es posible documentar el intercambio previo sobre la idea
de pintar este cuadro histórico entre Blanes y Lamas.17 Por otro, en este manuscrito
Blanes explicita lo que implicaría este encargo para su carrera: sopesar sus penurias
económicas, pero, especialmente, demostrar públicamente de lo que era capaz en tanto
pintor de cuadros históricos. Este proyecto le permitiría trascender la figura del mero
retratista para legitimarse como pintor de historia, cuestión que buscaba consolidar
con respecto a su imagen profesional, diferenciándose de otros pintores de la época.
17. En el archivo de Andrés Lamas conservado en el
Archivo General de la Nación (agn) del Uruguay, no se En tercer lugar, en este pasaje se describen sucintamente algunos aspectos de su me-
identifica una referencia anterior a este tema en su
correspondencia con Juan Manuel Blanes. Es posible todología artística, ante un cuadro semejante. Frente la idea y la posibilidad de su
que este intercambio haya sido mantenido oralmente concreción, elaboró un primer boceto a modo de esbozo de la composición general,
o, eventualmente, que se trate de una correspondencia
aunque sin tener conocimiento del lugar (esto hubiera sido deseable según sus ideas).18
anterior que no ha sido conservada, se encuentre
perdida o en otro fondo documental. Redactó un texto detallando las condiciones que debía reunir un cuadro histórico res-
ponsable, estipuló precios en función de las dimensiones de las figuras representadas y
18. No tenemos conocimiento de la existencia o even-
manifestó el contenido moral que este cuadro podía promover.
tual ubicación de este primer boceto. Posiblemente se
trate del referido por de Salterain y Herrera (1950).
Otro aspecto de interés es la cuestión de que ante la no concreción del proyecto en
19. Juan Ramón Gómez fue ministro de Hacienda en
acuerdo con Juan Ramón Gómez,19 Blanes le sugirió más o menos discretamente a
los años 1865 y 1866 en Uruguay, durante el gobierno
provisorio de Venancio Flores. Lamas la posibilidad de que fuera él quien apoyara tal emprendimiento:20
22. Este documento fue referido por Gabriel Peluffo Al año siguiente de esta misiva, a comienzos de 1866, Blanes escribió una carta dirigida
Linari en su texto “Los íconos de la nación. El proyecto a la Junta Económico-Administrativa de Montevideo21 en la que promovía a título
histórico-museográfico de Juan Manuel Blanes”, y
reproducido parcialmente en Amigo, Broquetas, Cua-
personal la iniciativa de pintar dos cuadros de tema histórico —uno de ellos sobre los
dro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor (2001). El análisis “33 patrios”— para lo cual solicitaba el apoyo económico de la mencionada corporación
de Peluffo sobre este documento se centra en los (Blanes, 1866a).22 Para argumentar esta iniciativa, Blanes formuló un detallado proyec-
postulados museográficos que el proyecto de Blanes
contiene, pero no profundiza en esta pieza documental
to de elaboración de cuadros históricos en el que describió su concepto artístico y las
como antecedente del Juramento. condiciones en las que podían llevarse a cabo tales emprendimientos.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Se trata de un antecedente importante en la elaboración conceptual del Juramento, 33
escrito diez años antes de la elaboración definitiva de la obra. Resulta de particular
Con esta iniciativa Blanes buscaba obtener un nuevo patrocinio oficial luego de haber
sido becado en 1860 por el gobierno uruguayo23 a través de una solicitud promovida
por el propio artista para formarse en Florencia, donde estudió pintura con el maestro
Antonio Ciseri. A través de la propuesta de 1866 Blanes solicitaba financiamiento para la
concreción de dos cuadros históricos en Florencia: uno sobre los Treinta y Tres Orientales
(lo que ya por entonces concebía como “la madrugada del 19 de abril de 1825 en el
Arenal Grande”)24 y otro sobre la batalla de Sarandí, Rincón o Ituzaingó. Sin embargo, en
23. Por ley N.º 615, promulgada el 12 de abril de 1860, su planteo se refirió fundamentalmente al cuadro de los Treinta y Tres (Blanes, 1866a).
le fue otorgada a Juan Manuel Blanes una pensión
de estudio, prevista por cinco años, “para estudiar en
Del mismo año data la primera edición del texto Bosquejo histórico de la República
Europa el arte de la pintura”. El 15 de junio de 1863
el monto de esta pensión fue elevado, según ley N.º Oriental del Uruguay de Francisco A. Berra,25 el cual construyó un relato historiográfico
783 (Armand Ugon, Cerdeiras Alonso, Arcos Ferrand y sin precedentes acerca del episodio del desembarco de los Treinta y Tres destinado a un
Goldaracena: 6, 26-27).
público escolar (Ardao, 1975: 26). Este libro se basaba en crónicas y memorias sobre
24. Según testimonios de los protagonistas del hecho, estos sucesos, en circulación a comienzos de la década del sesenta del siglo xix. Por
el desembarco aconteció en la noche. otra parte, el Bosquejo histórico… fue muy difundido en las instituciones educativas
uruguayas (Oddone, 1959: 17) entre su primera publicación y, al menos, su tercera
25. El libro Bosquejo histórico de la República Oriental
del Uruguay de Berra tuvo en los años sucesivos edición en 1881.26
tres ediciones con reformulaciones ampliamente
controvertidas por su concepto de la historia como
disciplina y la visión antiartiguista que promovía. Las
Es posible considerar la incidencia del discurso historiográfico de Berra en la formula-
controversias radicaron en que la obra constituía una ción inicial de Blanes así como en su conceptualización final de la obra. Berra publicó,
excepción en el contexto de esfuerzos que se venían además, una extensa nota sobre el Juramento en el diario El Siglo a pocos días de su
realizando para conformar un imaginario nacional
cohesionador (Sansón, 2006).
presentación pública, el 9 de enero de 1878. Posiblemente, ambos discursos, el icono-
gráfico de Blanes y el textual de Berra, se apoyaron recíprocamente en el contexto de
26. Asimismo, la segunda edición del Bosquejo histó- presentación de la obra (1878) y contribuyeron a una más eficaz comunicación de los
rico… de Berra es del año 1874, un año antes de que
Blanes comenzara a trabajar en el cuadro definitivo
símbolos implícitos.27
del Juramento.
Si se considera la propuesta del año 1866, en un acercamiento a las circunstancias de
27. Por otro lado, un fragmento de la nota de Berra de
1878 se reprodujo en 1941, dentro de los textos que
Blanes y su contexto, es posible interpretar que el pintor se producía a sí mismo en
conformaron el volumen 1 del catálogo de la "Exposi- tanto artista, en el sentido de que en su época proponía aspectos de política cultural a
ción Juan Manuel Blanes" del Teatro Solís, impulsando los gobernantes, de los que se beneficiaba directamente, al tiempo que lograba desa-
hacia otra temporalidad esta estrecha relación entre
imagen y texto. rrollarse como pintor nacional y americano, con aportes visuales que contribuían a la
consolidación de las naciones sudamericanas.28 En este sentido, es posible interpretar
28. Esta estrategia de producción y gestión puede verse a Blanes como un artista activo que se constituía gradualmente como profesional al
también en la solicitud previa de Blanes ante el Parlamen-
to para ser enviado como pensionado a cursar estudios de tiempo que aportaba elementos, aún en una fase incipiente, para la estructuración,
pintura en Europa (Fernández Saldaña, 1931: 48-51). posterior, del campo artístico.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
gumentaba que de ser atendida su solicitud: “la República puede fácilmente llegar a
enorgullecerse al ser la segunda que en América registra en su Museo alguna de sus
más notables páginas” (Blanes, 1866a).
El Señor D. Luis Montero después de estar pensionado seis años en Italia, y vuelto á
su país (Perú), ha sido encargado por su Gobierno de ejecutar en Florencia el cuadro
de las escequias tumultuosas del Inca Atahualpa [El boceto de este cuadro lo posee
Blanes] (Blanes, 1866a).
…representar dignamente á la República, y decir con eso á los de fuera que, aunque
en pequeña escala, el país basa su progreso en la aplicación de los elementos que
no solo instruyen al pueblo, sino que lo estimulan y encaminan acía la voluntad de
recibir esa misma instrucción (Blanes, 1866a).
29. El Museo Nacional fue la primera institución En su proyecto, Blanes propuso que el gobierno departamental apoyara la realización
museística del Uruguay. Creado en 1837, integraba
colecciones de historia natural y posteriormente de de estas obras por su parte, que serían a su vez destinadas a integrar las colecciones
bellas artes e historia. En 1911, por Ley N.º 3.932 de 1.º del Museo Nacional.29 En el desarrollo de su fundamentación, se detuvo en la conside-
de diciembre del mismo año, se crearon separada- ración de las carencias que a su juicio tenía este museo en materia de obras pictóricas,
mente las siguientes dependencias a partir de aquella
institución: Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, Archivo y entendiendo que se ubicaba en las antípodas de las aspiraciones que, de acuerdo con
Museo Histórico Nacional y Museo Nacional de Historia su pensamiento, debía tener un museo entendido como “orgullo nacional”. Según sus
Natural: las colecciones del ex-Museo Nacional fueron ideas, dotar al Museo Nacional de un cuadro histórico de grandes proporciones le daría
repartidas en las nuevas dependencias según corres-
pondiera (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Previsión a esta institución un carácter más “respetable […] y haría de él un monumento de
Social y Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1966: lxi). recreo y de instrucción popular” (Blanes, 1866a).
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
A través de su iniciativa, Blanes mencionaba la relevancia de su propuesta en tanto
estaba en juego “la importancia moral” de un cuadro que proyectaba como “serio, ar-
tístico, histórico y verosímil de uno de los más brillantes episodios de nuestra nublada 35
historia, y de la historia americana también” (1866a).
En su propuesta del año 1866, a cambio de una contraprestación por la creación de las
pinturas históricas aludidas, que estipulaba a modo de contrato entre ambas partes,
Blanes se comprometía a ejecutar artísticamente los dos cuadros (el de los Treinta y Tres
y el de la batalla de Sarandí), de la siguiente manera:
...con figuras de dos tercios del natural, ajustándose á las prácticas y preceptos
más vigorosos del arte en Europa, á saber: -Verdad, unidad y verosimilitud de la
representación – Verdad de costumbres- Verdad de colorido- Filosofía de la com-
posición- Claro-oscuro grandioso ó sea distribución justa de las masas – Dibujo
correcto- Justicia de perspectiva- Accesorios históricos- Movimiento característico-
Identidad de todos aquellos pensonages de quienes sea posible adquirir retratos,
(por malos que sean) – Verdad topográfica- Sentimiento- Expresión-Verdad de la
acción expresada- Carácter especial en las figuras- Unidad y relación respectiva en
la acción comun, y duración de la obra (Blanes, 1866a).
Asimismo, el artista proponía trasladarse hasta los lugares donde habían tenido lugar
las escenas a representar, así como contar con una persona que relatara los hechos al
artista para su creación. A su vez, preveía una cuota de creación personal en la compo-
sición, en tanto establecía una cláusula por la cual se amparaba para:
...permitirse las licencias que el arte permite, siempre que estas licencias no com-
prometan la historia y la unidad del asunto representado- Aproposito, y entre otras
(relativamente al cuadro de los 33) el artista proponente opinaría y optaría por
alterar la hora histórica, cambiando la noche por la madrugada (Blanes, 1866a).
tecimiento en su pintura de manera distante, como si mirara a los Treinta y Tres desde
el ojo de una cerradura. Por el contrario, la estrategia compositiva de Blanes fue la de
construir una imagen próxima, valiéndose de una mirada omnisciente. Ambos efectos
repercuten en las experiencias de los espectadores de los respectivos cuadros.
Durante los años que transcurrieron entre la idea inicial y la concreción del Juramento,
Blanes se dedicó a desarrollar otros proyectos de su interés personal y de relevancia
para los círculos políticos e intelectuales con los que se vinculaba, entre los que cabe
destacar las obras Muerte del general Venancio Flores (1868), Asesinato de Florencio
Varela (1870), Un episodio de la fiebre amarilla en Buenos Aires (1871), La revista de
Rancagua (1872), y Los últimos momentos de José Miguel Carrera (1873).
Estas obras dan cuenta del interés de Blanes por la historia, pensándola en sus inte-
racciones regionales y dotando para la posteridad de instantáneas de memoria sobre
acontecimientos que fueron construidos iconográficamente por el artista (en tanto au-
tor), a partir de estudios previos, que incluyeron lecturas historiográficas, testimonios y
revisión de tradición oral sobre personajes, lugares, armas y vestimenta.32
El relato tradicional sobre el proceso de creación del Juramento indica que exactamen-
te a los cincuenta años del desembarco de los Treinta y Tres en la playa de la Agraciada,
Blanes habría concurrido al amanecer junto a sus amigos, el naturalista José Arechava-
leta y el hacendado Domingo Ordoñana, y a su hijo Juan Luis Blanes al lugar preciso del
hecho, próximo a la estancia de Ordoñana. Allí, Blanes habría tomado conocimiento de
las características observables del lugar exacto, la luz y el clima.
38
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 6 Figura 7
Este relato de la presencia del pintor y sus allegados en el lugar de los hechos contribuye
a darle un estatus de verdad al cuadro y coadyuva a oficializar a esta imagen como la
“verdadera” representación de los Treinta y Tres, a partir de su inmersión en el espacio físi-
co, en tanto el entorno sí ha sido pintado del natural, más allá del desfasaje cronológico.
En el proceso creativo del Juramento, Blanes realizó numerosos bocetos en distintos so-
portes, como papel o tela, a lápiz y al óleo, bien con estudios de figuras parciales, estudios
del paisaje, detalles particulares de la composición o aproximaciones al conjunto. Vale
decir que este cuadro emblemático guarda relaciones con otros fragmentos parciales que
dan cuenta del proceso particular de creación por el que transitó el artista.
Los bocetos diseñados a lápiz en papel y pintados con óleos cromáticos, conservados en el
Museo Blanes,34 constituyen los primeros esbozos de la composición de los que tenemos
conocimiento (figs. 4, 5 y 6). A modo de ensayos, son aproximaciones parciales a partir
de las que Blanes fue arribando a la definición de su obra final plasmada en el lienzo de
grandes dimensiones. Se trata de estudios en los que el artista fue creando esta iconogra-
fía particular, definiendo especialmente su peculiar composición y haciendo un estudio
minucioso de los detalles a representar. En ellos pueden observarse detalles, tanto de las
34. Una selección de esta serie de bocetos fue exhibida
en el Museo Blanes en el año 2015, con motivo de la figuras principales como de las secundarias, de las poses corporales individuales y en
presentación de la restauración del Juramento. grupos reducidos, la definición de las características fenotípicas de los rostros y las manos,
Figuras 6, 7 y 8
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Diseño de Juan Manuel Blanes para cuadro
“Juramento de los Treinta y Tres”, Museo Blanes.
39
Resulta significativo destacar que hay una gran concordancia en líneas generales entre
los diseños de los bocetos, al menos los considerados hasta el momento, y la obra aca-
bada. Debido a esta correspondencia iconográfica, es posible pensar que estos bocetos
fueron hechos en los años inmediatamente anteriores a la realización definitiva del
35. En los bocetos en papel predominan los colores cuadro. Este aspecto nos revela que, en su proceso creativo, el artista tenía muy pre-
rojo, azul y negro sobre el fondo blanco del papel. sente conceptualmente la representación iconográfica que buscaba. La aproximación a
la imagen fue dada a partir de los bocetos, pero no es posible identificar un cambio en
36. Hay al menos dos obras de Blanes, Muerte del
general Venancio Flores (1868) y Un episodio de la su conceptualización. Las representaciones de los bocetos se corresponden a grandes
fiebre amarilla en Buenos Aires (1871), en las que existe rasgos con la imagen del cuadro definitivo.36 Sin embargo, es posible identificar en los
una notoria diferencia entre boceto y obra acabada. bocetos a lápiz una mayor sutileza expresiva, por las propias características del medio,
Se trata en ambos casos de bocetos al óleo. Tal es así
que podría pensarse en la posibilidad de considerar dos ya que, al ser un estudio o aproximación, puede leerse un acercamiento parcial y ex-
cuadros diferentes sobre un mismo tema. ploratorio a lo que sería el diseño de la obra.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Otra de las obras que se conservan en las colecciones públicas nacionales vinculadas
al Juramento consiste en un boceto al óleo37 perteneciente al acervo del mhn, deno-
minado de igual manera que el cuadro de referencia, que se considera un “estudio
cromático, para la ejecución del gran cuadro del Juramento” (Ministerio de Instrucción
40 Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 133). Este boceto al
óleo de pequeñas dimensiones fue exhibido en la exposición organizada en el Teatro
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Solís en 1941. Se integró a las colecciones del mhn a partir de la ya mencionada compra
de varias obras de Blanes por parte del Estado uruguayo a sus herederos en 1925.38
Esta pieza guarda una correspondencia formal con la imagen de la obra definitiva, pero
se distancia, en tanto boceto, de su realización técnica.
Otra pieza que podemos considerar como estudio preparatorio del Juramento es el
óleo en papel Paisaje de la Agraciada.39 Según consta en el catálogo de la exposición
de 1941, este óleo consiste en un “apunte al natural tomado por el pintor en la Playa
de la Agraciada, junto a la desembocadura del arroyo Guardizábal, en el sitio en que
37. Dimensiones: 31 × 56,5 cm. desembarcaron los 33 Orientales. Este […] paisaje es el que sirve de fondo al cuadro
del Juramento” (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y
38. Véase nota al pie n.° 31. Este boceto fue el
utilizado por el artista Pablo Uribe en su obra Alegorías Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 174). Posiblemente, este boceto cromático haya sido trazado en la
del año 2004. visita inspiradora a la Playa de la Agraciada en el cincuenta aniversario del desembarco.
Otra obra relacionada es el cuadro El baqueano de los Treinta y Tres (Andrés Cheveste) .40
39. Dimensiones: 25 × 52 cm. Exhibido en el marco de
la Exposición Juan Manuel Blanes de 1941 del Teatro Se trata de una figura aislada de aquella obra, un retrato del mencionado patriota (Fig. 7).
Solís, en cuyo catálogo se consigna que por entonces Posiblemente se trate de un cuadro pintado a pocos meses de finalizado y presentado el
era propiedad del Dr. Alfredo Navarro.
Juramento, en 1878. Según testimonio del coleccionista Octavio C. Assunção41 (1994)
40. Óleo sobre tela, 100 × 71,5 cm, 1878. Pertenece con respecto a su procedencia, Blanes lo habría obsequiado a José María Montero.42
al acervo del Museo Blanes. Fue adquirido por el
Concejo Departamental de Montevideo al Sr. Octavio C.
Assunção el 27 de abril de 1961 y entregado al museo
Es posible establecer algunas relaciones y diferencias específicas entre el Juramento
por la Caja Nacional de Ahorros y Descuentos el 25 de y las series de los gauchos de Blanes. Existe, por un lado, una coincidencia temporal
mayo de 1964. en cuanto a la producción de estas imágenes, realizadas entre 1865 y 1879 (Amigo,
41. Coleccionista que, según sus palabras, “recuperó”
Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor, 2001: 142). Por otro lado, estas ico-
este cuadro que se encontraba en Brasil, al adquirirlo nografías remiten a un entorno espacial semejante. Algunas figuras de los gauchos
y luego venderlo a la Intendencia de Montevideo, con tendieron a ser representadas por Blanes haciendo énfasis en el peso corporal, repar-
destino al Museo Blanes.
tido entre las piernas flexionadas. En estas representaciones, las posturas corporales
42. En el caso de que se tratara de un obsequio a José requieren en muchos casos de otros apoyos externos para mantenerse, tales como
María Montero (hijo), ampliamente probable en aquel árboles, palenques o caballos.43 Estas características ponen de manifiesto la represen-
contexto, consistiría en una atención al por entonces
ministro de Gobierno de Latorre. En tal caso, sería
tación de cuerpos que no han sido disciplinados en sus usos corporales44 y que, casi
un indicio más a considerar a la hora de pensar en como metáfora de este tránsito entre la sociedad “bárbara” a la “civilizada”, podría in-
la procedencia del Juramento en manos del Estado terpretarse, necesitaban de dispositivos externos para mantenerse dentro de los límites
uruguayo. Más adelante profundizaremos sobre esto.
de lo deseable socialmente, de acuerdo a las ideas de los grupos dominantes a las que
43. Este es el caso, por ejemplo, de las siguientes obras adscribió Blanes.
de Blanes: Tomando mate, Descanso, Crepúsculo y
Aurora, entre otros.
Por otro lado, los patriotas del Juramento fueron representados en su mayoría con
44. Más allá de que en algunos casos Blanes utilizara posturas corporales heroicas, solemnes, adoptando convencionalismos académicos.
recursos académicos para su representación. Predomina un uso de la verticalidad, la presencia del tono muscular a través de las
45. En este último caso, nos referimos particularmente poses erguidas, autosostenidas, expuestas teatralmente hacia “afuera”, legibles para
a las posiciones de las piernas en la representación de el espectador. Vale decir que en esta obra hay varias representaciones corporales aca-
la mayoría de los patriotas, que recuerda a una versión
démicas que pueden conectarse tanto desde su tradición pictórica como con ciertas
de la cuarta posición de los pies en el ballet. También
a la presencia de los rostros erguidos y la mirada algo analogías a los usos corporales codificados de la educación corporal militar, e incluso
superior a la línea del horizonte. formas que pueden vincularse con la danza académica.45
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
La representación de los cuerpos de los Treinta y Tres estuvo mediada en Blanes por
una conceptualización filosófica, moral y política que contribuyó a reivindicarlos como
héroes “civilizados”, vinculados a una idea de progreso y de educación para la nueva
sensibilidad que comenzaba a consolidarse en aquel contexto. A través de esta ico-
nografía, los ideales del Estado nación que el gobierno de Latorre buscaba consolidar 41
fueron corporizados por el pintor en su lienzo.
Un indicio con respecto a estas prácticas de creación puede leerse en una carta enviada
por Blanes a Andrés Lamas en 1865, en la que el pintor le expresaba:
Antes bien desearía producir algo nuevo, y querría que, si Ud ha ordenado el asunto,
en cuanto al episodio que se ha de representar, me enviase el texto escrito y los
retratos que me deben servir para ir soñando y ejecutando con calma una compo-
sición, cuyo boceto enviaré para que Ud. analize (Blanes, 1865b).
Más allá de los intercambios intelectuales y de una relación amistosa, Blanes pintaba espo-
rádicamente obras para Lamas, particularmente entre 1864 y los primeros años de la década
del setenta del siglo xix, a cambio de dinero que este le depositaba en un plazo fijo en el
Banco Mauá. Además de la sugerencia temprana que Lamas le habría hecho a Blanes sobre
46. Uno de los intelectuales con los que Blanes pintar un cuadro de los Treinta y Tres, entre las obras hechas por el artista a iniciativa de aquel
mantuvo una profusa correspondencia sobre variados
aspectos fue Ángel J. Carranza, quien fue su amigo y
consta una copia de su obra La Rebeca (o La Samaritana). A su vez, entre otras obras, Lamas
además prologó la "Memoria sobre el cuadro Juramen- incentivó el motivo del cuadro Asesinato de Florencio Varela. También le solicitó “un Lavalle”
to de los 33". y un retrato de Artigas, en el que Blanes comenzó a trabajar en 1870 (Blanes, 1870).47
47. Blanes realizó también un retrato de la esposa de
Lamas, Telésfora Somellera. Se trata de un óleo sobre Identificamos, entonces, una enorme relevancia en la relación entre Blanes y Lamas con
tela en formato ovalado, conservado en el mhn, donado respecto a la producción de dos de las principales iconografías nacionales del Uruguay, el
por la familia Lamas en 1923. Se ha datado la realiza-
ción de este retrato en torno a 1870. Véase el catálogo cuadro de los Treinta y Tres y el retrato de Artigas, temas sugeridos por Lamas y desarro-
"Miradas de la Banda Oriental" (2011: 80). llados iconográficamente por Blanes posteriormente.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
48. Véase: Blanes, 1877. Un momento singular en la trayectoria de este cuadro estuvo dado en la instancia de
42 presentación pública de la obra concluida en enero de 1878, así como en la difusión de
49. Asociación de intelectuales católicos y masones
la conceptualización que sustentaba la pintura.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 10
Invitación enviada por Juan Manuel Blanes a la
Junta Económico-Administrativa a la inauguración
del cuadro de los Treinta y Tres. Montevideo, 31 de
diciembre de 1877. Museo Blanes.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Figura 11
Portada de la “Memoria sobre el cuadro del
Juramento de los 33” por Juan Manuel Blanes,
Montevideo, 1878. Biblioteca Nacional.
43
retribución por haber sido admitido como miembro fundador de la Sociedad Ciencias
y Artes (Blanes, 1878), ya que, de hecho, para ser admitido como socio fundador de la
sociedad, por reglamento de la organización (artículo 8, numeral 2) el postulante, ava-
lado por tres socios fundadores, debía presentar una “tesis sobre puntos que se refieran
al objeto de la Sociedad” que luego debía ser aprobada por mayoría de votos (Boletín
de la Sociedad Ciencias y Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria, 1878: 151).
Sin embargo, la fuerte presencia, en aquel contexto, del cuadro y las ideas que repre-
sentaba en la esfera pública de la época, invitan a pensar que se trataba de una posi-
ble estrategia de difusión y legitimación primaria de la imagen para sentar las bases
iniciales de su favorable recepción. De hecho, gran parte de la promoción del cuadro,
de su presentación pública y de su difusión fue patrocinada y avalada por la Sociedad
Ciencias y Artes, debido a las ideas de progreso, civilización y nación que presentaba
su iconografía.
Cabe destacar que el propio Juan Manuel Blanes se integró a la redacción del boletín
de esta sociedad, como director responsable, entre el 13 de enero de 1878 y el 5 de
mayo del mismo año inclusive, es decir, desde el primer número en el que comenzó a
publicarse el texto de la memoria del cuadro, a una semana de realizada la presentación
pública del texto ante esta sociedad.54
55. Visto desde nuestro presente, en el siglo xxi, un Gran parte del éxito inicial del cuadro radica, posiblemente, no solo en sus postulados
cuadro de la independencia uruguaya podría asociarse formales (la destreza técnica, la composición, los usos del color y del claroscuro), sino
particularmente a algún momento relevante de la
revolución artiguista, como los eventos que en los también en los elementos conceptuales que el cuadro propone, que fueron difundidos
últimos años se celebraron en torno a la revolución socialmente por múltiples vías desde su contexto de enunciación.
oriental que inició en 1811. Véase, por ejemplo:
bicentenario.gub.uy. Por ley N.° 18.677 de fecha 13 de
agosto de 2010, se declaró “el año 2011 como año de Como consta en la memoria del cuadro, gran parte de las elucubraciones que estuvie-
‘Celebración del Bicentenario del Proceso de Emanci- ron en tensión desde las etapas de su proyecto preliminar, se relacionan con la decisión
pación Oriental’, en el marco de la lucha de los pueblos
del asunto de la representación, así como su caracterización y escenificación pictórica.
americanos por su autodeterminación e independen-
cia, reconociendo la participación central de la figura El poder de este cuadro, posiblemente esté en su contexto de presentación, en la se-
de José Artigas en la misma”. lección, conceptualización y creación simbólica que elaboró Blanes sobre la temática,
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
y en la perspectiva diacrónica, en los usos y lecturas que este cuadro ha propiciado en
otros momentos históricos de construcción nacional. En las propias palabras de Blanes:
Acentuados esfuerzos de índole patriótica, que chispearon en los primeros años del
siglo, me tentaban con su génio, pero dudaba conquistar sancion para una obra,
que no se apoyase mas que en narraciones todavía en contestacion.
Sólo el 19 de Abril de 1825, revestía para mi este carácter, porque en ese dia la inde-
pendencia nacional habia puesto su pié con firmeza en esta tierra.
Debia, pues, buscar esa primera y memorable huella, y la encontré, señores, en los
arenales de la Agraciada… (Blanes, 1878a: 9).
Los Treinta y Tres fueron el principal ícono de las luchas independentistas antes de la
56. Las primeras iconografías que se conocen de
Artigas son de la década del sesenta del siglo xix, como revaloración de Artigas como prócer nacional y hasta principios del siglo xx fueron el
la de Alfred Demersay tomada del natural en contacto principal motivo visual “patriótico” capaz de producir cierto impacto en el imaginario55
directo con Artigas antes de su muerte y publicada
(Irigoyen, 2000). Un cuadro heroico sobre Artigas con una construcción idealizada de
entre 1860 y 1864; la de Pedro Valenzani (Artigas en
Purificación), o la de Eduardo Carbajal (Artigas en su figura solo pudo ser elaborado posteriormente para consolidarse gradualmente en
el Paraguay), finalizada en 1873. Estas no implican el imaginario colectivo.56
representaciones del personaje en tanto prócer de la
historia del Uruguay. Una imagen de Artigas como
héroe nacional fue viable, y de manera progresiva, a El cuadro Artigas en la Ciudadela iniciado por Blanes en 1884 por encargo del Sena-
partir de la construcción de su imagen en un sentido do (Fernández Saldaña, 1931: 178-179), fue traído a Montevideo desde Florencia y
patriótico y de sus nuevas significaciones por parte de
la historiografía nacional. Esto pudo ser, concretamen-
presentado públicamente en el año 1908. En su estudio sobre la vida y obra de Bla-
te, entre otros elementos, de manera gradual, a partir nes, Fernández Saldaña (1931: 179) afirmó sobre esta obra: “De haberlo terminado, el
del alegato que presentó Carlos María Ramírez en 1881 Artigas en la Ciudadela nada sumaría al mérito de Blanes, como pintor de historia”. Es
contra la postura antiartiguista que Berra había ido
radicalizando en las sucesivas ediciones del Bosquejo
posible considerar que el reconocimiento visual y la construcción de este retrato como
histórico de la República Oriental del Uruguay. De la imagen de Artigas, que guarda un estatuto casi de registro fotográfico análogo al
hecho, fue en ese contexto, bajo la presidencia del que opera en relación con la recepción del cuadro de los Treinta y Tres, coincidieron
general Máximo Santos, que se prohibió la circulación
y el uso de los manuales de Berra —quien debió
con una nueva instancia de revaloración de la imagen e historia artiguista en torno al
exiliarse en Buenos Aires— y se promovió la realización centenario de su muerte en 1950 (Malosetti Costa, 2013).
del retrato de Artigas, que le fuera encargado a Blanes
para esta nueva creación emblemática, y que dio como
resultado el cuadro Artigas en la Ciudadela.
Con respecto a la construcción del Juramento por la que optó Blanes en su representa-
ción, parece ineludible relacionar su visualidad con obras del pintor francés neoclasicis-
57. Le Serment des Horaces, pintura al óleo, 330 x 425 ta Jacques-Louis David, particularmente con sus obras El Juramento de los Horacios57
cm, pertenece a la colección del Museo del Louvre,
París. Véase: www.louvre.fr. (1784) y El Juramento del Juego de Pelota (1791).58
58. Le Serment du Jeu de Paume, dibujo de David, con- Se ha conjeturado que Blanes pudo haber visto el cuadro de David sobre los Horacios
servado actualmente en el palacio de Versalles, donde
se exhibe un lienzo de Luc-Olivier Merson (1883) que en su visita al museo del Louvre (Sullivan, 1994: 145). Otros autores enfatizan la re-
retoma esta iconografía. Véase: es.chateauversailles.fr. lación de la imagen de Blanes con la composición del Juramento del Juego de Pelota,
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Consideramos que la imagen del Juramento del Juego de Pelota guarda algunas coin-
cidencias con la imagen de Blanes de los Treinta y Tres, en cuanto, por ejemplo, ambas
iconografías representan un suceso histórico fundacional59 a partir de un juramento
colectivo. Ambos cuadros representan la acción patriótica en composiciones de forma
semicircular, se identifica un tratamiento análogo en algunas posiciones corporales
en el acto de jurar, se presenta una figura central que mira al público (en el caso de la
obra de David ubicada al medio de la imagen, mientras que en la de Blanes Lavalleja se
ubica descentrado hacia la derecha del espectador), la presencia de algunos sombreros
en alto que acompañan ambos juramentos y la posibilidad de subdividir ambos cuadros
en tres franjas horizontales —en lo alto el techo o el cielo (según corresponda), en el
medio los hombres, en lo bajo el piso, pies y sombras—.
En el caso del cuadro de Merson (1883), que trabaja directamente sobre la imagen de
David que venimos relacionando, hay una utilización similar a la del cuadro de Blanes
en la dirección y delimitación de luces y sombras. Esta coincidencia puede ser atribuida
a un uso común de la luz dentro del neoclasicismo, así como a los avatares de la difu-
sión y circulación de las imágenes.
59. La democracia francesa y las luchas por la inde- La idea de la donación de este cuadro al Estado por parte del pintor fue una noción
pendencia nacional, respectivamente. difundida, particularmente, en el marco de los eventos de la "Exposición Juan Manuel
60. Véase, por ejemplo: Fernández Saldaña (1931: 152)
Blanes" realizada en el Teatro Solís en 1941, bajo el gobierno de Alfredo Baldomir, a
y de Salterain y Herrera (1950: 165), entre otros. cuarenta años del fallecimiento del artista.61 Se trató de un momento relevante en la
consagración de Blanes por parte de las autoridades públicas nacionales y si bien se
61. Anteriormente, Fernández Saldaña había mencio-
nado este acto de donación, aunque sin citar la fuente
reunió una retrospectiva de gran parte de la obra del artista, el cuadro de los Treinta y
para tal afirmación, de la siguiente manera: “Blanes Tres tuvo un lugar central en la puesta en escena del espacio expositivo.62
[...] hizo obsequio de su cuadro al País, poniéndolo en
manos del Gobernador de la República, para que le
diese el destino que correspondiera” (1931: 152).
En el catálogo de esta exposición se publicaron unos documentos sobre el asunto de la
donación del Juramento, aunque sin consignar la procedencia de las fuentes que die-
62. Como observan Broquetas y Cuadro (Amigo, ran cuenta del acto de donación del cuadro al acervo público (Ministerio de Instrucción
Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor,
2001: 95), ese mismo año fue distinguida la obra
Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 93-94).
historiográfica Historia de los partidos políticos en el
Uruguay de Juan E. Pivel Devoto, con el premio Pablo Bajo el título La ofrenda a la patria este catálogo reproduce una nota de Blanes con
Blanco Acevedo. Este texto constituye una de las pro-
ducciones historiográficas más influyentes en el siglo fecha 28 de enero de 1878, dirigida al ministro de Gobierno, José María Montero (hijo),
xx, tendiente a la construcción nacional. por la cual se manifestaba de la siguiente manera: “...debo a mi vez llenar el objeto que
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
lo motivó, poniendo ese lienzo a disposición del Gobierno de mi patria, para que se
sirva darle el destino que le corresponda” (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión
Nacional de Bellas Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 93-94). Esta iniciativa, según una carta
publicada en el mismo catálogo, fue aceptada por el ministro, quien expresó: “...puede 47
figurarse cómo valorará el infrascripto su generoso donativo...” (Ministerio de Instruc-
En otra publicación vinculada a la misma exposición del año 1941, editada como
apéndice de este catálogo, Agustín Benzano escribía acerca de la “generosidad” y el
“acendrado patriotismo” en Blanes, en tono laudatorio acerca de la figura del pintor.
Destacando cualidades morales en el artista, afirmaba que Blanes “en magnífico gesto
de desprendimiento, dando una hermosa lección de vida desinteresada, donó al Estado
su famoso cuadro El Juramento de los 33 después del clamoroso suceso que significó
su exhibición al público…” (1942: 16).
Desde nuestra mirada, llama la atención la donación “desinteresada” por parte de Bla-
nes, y su promoción posterior, mencionada al pasar por Fernández Saldaña en 1931,
que a partir de la exposición de 1941 se constituía como un discurso que buscaba le-
gitimarse y consolidarse. Al aproximarnos al estudio de Blanes y su obra y al conocer a
través de sus manuscritos personales el reconocimiento del pintor al valor de la propie-
dad intelectual y artística, surgió la inquietud de repensar el estatuto de esta donación
en una eventual adquisición por parte del Estado uruguayo.
Creemos que [el cuadro de los Treinta y Tres] debe ser adquirido por el gobierno,
ayudado del patriotismo de todos los orientales. Iniciese una suscricion nacional
para la adquisición de esa joya, que, estamos seguros, será secundada con entusiasmo
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
por todos los hijos de la república, contribuyendo cada cual con el contingente que
cada posición le permita. Manos a la obra! ("El cuadro de los Treinta y Tres", en La
48 Nación, 15 de enero de 1878, 1).
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Recordemos que a partir del regreso de su viaje formativo en Florencia, Blanes se cons-
tituyó netamente como artista productor, promotor de sus propios proyectos artísticos
en acuerdo con otros agentes del campo intelectual y político, a través de la realización
de grandes cuadros que buscaban impactar en los países de la región.
El pintor podía calcular el precio de sus obras, en relación con sus características, al
trabajo que implicaban y a los costos materiales y, en consecuencia, reclamar una con-
trapartida económica por sus obras. En el proyecto de 1866, Blanes dejó librada expre-
samente a la consideración de la Junta la posibilidad de optar por:
…cuadros de mayor categoría (figuras del tamaño natural) siempre que ellas en-
tiendan que su valor no sería el mismo que el que ha dado á los establecidos antes.
En el caso de cuadros con figuras del tamaño natural, se alteraría el número de
años de duración de la obra y las mensualidades con un 40 % más de lo propuesto
(Blanes, 1866a).
A lo que el artista agregó, para finalizar la nota: “Los cuadros de que trata la presente
propuesta podrían valer legítimamente el doble del precio que reciben aquí” (Blanes,
1866a).
Más allá de ver actos desinteresados en los cuadros de Blanes, considerando los ante-
cedentes en la creación del Juramento y otros indicios en su trayectoria, nos inclinamos
por interpretar la procedencia del Juramento en tanto propiedad del Estado uruguayo,
en función de un plan de diversas contrapartidas.
En este contrato, de fecha 2 de marzo de 1878, autorizado por el escribano José Cabral,
Blanes declaró que:
A raíz del negocio de las reproducciones fotográficas de sus cuadros, Blanes publicó un
anuncio en la prensa en abril de 1878 por el cual comunicaba al público su autorización
para las reproducciones realizadas con este fotógrafo:
50
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
51
sol naciente, dentro de las fronteras nacionales marcando el río como límite, vistiendo
ropas con los colores de las banderas artiguistas (esta es la paleta cromática que pre-
52 domina en el cuadro, que fue a su vez la empleada por los Treinta y Tres), adoptando
poses heroicas y disciplinadas, portando armas discretamente y alzando los sombreros
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
En 1890, Juan Mesa, subdirector de la Sección Bellas Artes del Museo Nacional, le soli-
citó al ministro de Instrucción Pública, Dr. Carlos A. Berro, autorización para trasladar el
Juramento desde la Secretaría de la Presidencia, donde se encontraba, al mencionado
museo con el fin de “dar realce a la sección Bellas Artes e Historia” (Ministerio de Ins-
trucción Pública y Previsión Social y Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1966: xxxvii). Por
entonces, las distintas secciones del Museo Nacional se ubicaban en el ala izquierda
del Teatro Solís.
En este evento se realizó un gran homenaje oficial a Blanes, a cuarenta años de su falle-
Figura 14 cimiento, al consagrar la figura del pintor, dándole rango de artista patriota legitimado
Portada del catálogo de la “Exposición Juan oficialmente. Montero Bustamante expresaba al iniciar la conferencia de apertura del
Manuel Blanes”, Montevideo, 1941, T. I.
evento, solemnemente:
…todos cuantos aquí se hallan congregados, que, a justo título, pueden invocar la
67. Esta exhibición fue organizada por el presidente de personería de la cultura y de la sociabilidad del país, consagran definitivamente el
la comisión, Raúl Montero Bustamante, y patrocinada nombre y la obra de Juan Manuel Blanes, cuya obra inmarcesible ya no se ha de
por el presidente de la República, Alfredo Baldomir, el
ver oscurecida ni por las disputas de los hombres, ni por el juicio apasionado de
ministro de Instrucción Pública, Cyro Giambruno y el
intendente de Montevideo, Horacio Acosta y Lara. sus contemporáneos. Blanes es ya un inmortal, y su espíritu, purificado por el agua
lustral de la historia, planea sobre esta sala, desciende hasta estos lienzos sagrados
68. Cabe destacar que si bien en el recorrido del
Juramento que estamos presentando, las recepciones
y les infunde la misteriosa potencia que ha de hacerlos superiores al tiempo y al
de Blanes han sido en su mayoría consagratorias, las olvido (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y Tea-
opiniones públicas sobre la obra de Blanes no fueron tro Solís, 1941: II, XIV).
siempre laudatorias. Si bien los momentos referidos y
otros han contribuido en el sentido de la construcción
de Blanes como “el pintor de la patria”, en los primeros A fines del mismo año se realizó en Buenos Aires otra gran exposición de la obra de
años del siglo xx, a pocos años de su fallecimiento, el Blanes, por parte del Instituto Cultural Argentino-Uruguayo. El Juramento viajó a Bue-
periodismo del novecientos fue crítico y despectivo
en sus apreciaciones sobre la obra y la relevancia del
nos Aires junto a otras obras del artista para su exhibición, que se realizó en los salones
pintor. La consolidación del imaginario de Blanes como del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes entre el 25 de octubre y el 4 de diciembre de 1941
principal productor iconográfico nacional comenzó a (Instituto Cultural Argentino-Uruguayo, 1942).
afianzarse en torno al Centenario de la Jura Consti-
tucional y del nacimiento del pintor (Peluffo, 1995:
10), período en el que se creó el museo que lleva su Otro momento de reconocimiento oficial se dio en la inauguración de la estatua en
nombre, y continuó hasta el presente. homenaje a Juan Manuel Blanes en 1947, realizada por José Belloni en bronce y granito
69. De este modo, el Teatro Solís volvía a albergar, rosado, ubicada en Montevideo, en la esquina de las calles Juncal y Buenos Aires, al
aunque transitoriamente, colecciones de bellas artes, costado del Teatro Solís. En las caras laterales del monumento pueden leerse las inscrip-
como lo había hecho hacia 1890, y el cuadro del ciones: “Fue el pintor de los héroes y de las glorias de su patria” y “En su obra perdura
Juramento volvía a ocupar este espacio teatral, aunque
ahora ya no en un sector lateral, sino el fondo del la tradición nacional” (Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo, 1986: 31).
espacio espectacular.
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
En 1951 se dispuso oficialmente, por ley N.º 11.659, con fecha de promulgación 14
de mayo del mismo año, el traslado de los restos de Juan Manuel Blanes al panteón
nacional, tributándole los honores máximos.
54
Por iniciativa de la Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes del Ministerio de Instrucción
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Pública, se realizó en 1961 en Punta del Este la exposición "De Blanes a nuestros días".
Bajo la curaduría de Fernando García Esteban, se presentó una retrospectiva histori-
cista de la plástica nacional. Si bien en el catálogo de esta exhibición se reproduce una
lámina del Juramento, no consta en él que esta obra haya sido trasladada y expuesta
en este contexto, dado que no se la menciona en la numeración correlativa de obras
que integran el catálogo. De todos modos, desde el nombre mismo del evento se le
otorga gran centralidad a Blanes ubicándolo como el “origen” de la trayectoria plástica
y visual del Uruguay. En palabras de Fernando García Esteban: “Si fijamos como punto
de arranque de nuestra pintura a la obra de Juan Manuel Blanes […] echamos, al mismo
tiempo, las bases del fenómeno comentado” (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Comi-
sión Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1961).
En 1969 se aprobó un proyecto de restauración del Juramento por parte del entonces
director del Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, arquitecto Alberto Muñoz del Campo, en
el último año de su gestión. Hacia 1971 se inició el proceso de restauración de esta
obra que consistió en un entelado, forración o “reentelado” del lienzo, a cargo de Car-
los Giaudrone, a comienzos de la gestión Ángel Kalenberg como nuevo director de la
institución. Este proceso de restauración se llevó a cabo en varios momentos a lo largo
de la década del setenta (Antecedentes del cuadro Juramento de los Treinta y Tres, s/d).
Como han señalado Isabella Cosse y Vania Markarian (1996), durante el Año de la
Orientalidad se hizo un uso publicitario de la iconografía del Juramento, empleado
como el elemento más significativo de la propuesta visual de las conmemoraciones
impulsadas por su comisión organizadora. Mediante este procedimiento de transfor-
mación publicitaria de la imagen, “se reconvirtió su bagaje simbólico anterior […] por-
que se asociaron los contenidos ideológicos de la dictadura a una estampa que siempre
había representado la ‘esencia nacional’” (Cosse y Markarian, 1996: 29).
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA
Una de las acciones conmemorativas de la Comisión Nacional de Homenaje, fue la
producción de la exposición El nacimiento de nuestra nación, inaugurada el 18 de julio
de 1975 en el Palacio Legislativo —espacio monumental material y simbólico de la
democracia, por entonces anulada—, que a su vez conmemoraba el cincuentenario de 55
su inauguración (fig. 13).
Aspiramos a que esta muestra sea un hito más del reencuentro de los orientales
consigo mismos en la forja del nuevo Uruguay. Que el ejemplo del sacrificio, del
valor, del desinterés, del patriotismo puro de aquellos prohombres, sirva para gal-
vanizar el espíritu de quienes, por ser herederos de aquellos legendarios orientales
de la epopeya, debemos sentir diariamente, la responsabilidad de un alto deber:
ser dignos de ellos y, en definitiva, capaces de entregar a nuestros hijos y nietos,
incólume y «al día» la Patria maravillosa que ellos nos legaron. Este es el voto que
nuestra alma pronuncia en el Año de la Orientalidad (Presidencia de la República
Oriental del Uruguay et al., 1975).
Esta exposición promovía una apelación a la nacionalidad de índole emotiva más que
crítica o racional, al unir pasado y presente en una concepción atemporal de la historia
y de la identidad nacional (Cosse y Markarian, 1996: 61). A su vez, se postulaba el Año
de la Orientalidad, que pautaba aquel presente dictatorial, como herencia y derivación
directa de los hechos y sentidos de los acontecimientos de la historia nacional, que con
“sacrificios” y “patriotismo” había construido “la Patria”. De esta forma la dictadura ape-
laba a un “nosotros” que buscaba legitimarse desde un pasado nacional común, para
proyectarse y consolidarse en el presente-futuro (Presidencia de la República Oriental
del Uruguay et al., 1975).
Juan Manuel Blanes (fig. 14). Este evento volvió a reunir una importante cantidad de
obras del artista, aunque en menor escala que la de 1941, a partir del acervo del propio
museo, junto a obras en préstamo de otras colecciones públicas, así como extranjeras y
privadas (Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo y Comisión de Actos Conmemorativos
por el 250.º Aniversario del Proceso Fundacional de Montevideo, 1976).
De este modo, el Juramento ingresó al Museo Blanes transitoriamente, junto con otras
obras del pintor. Se hizo un comodato de préstamo de esta obra por noventa días con
fecha 1.º de noviembre de 1976 con firma notarial, previo a su traslado desde el Palacio
Legislativo, donde se encontraba entonces. (Antecedentes del cuadro Juramento de los
Treinta y Tres Orientales, s/d). Desde esta fecha hasta el presente, la obra ha perma-
necido en custodia en esta institución, donde se exhibe permanentemente en la Sala
Blanes. No sucedió lo mismo con las demás obras cedidas temporalmente en préstamo,
devueltas oportunamente a sus instituciones de procedencia. Desde entonces, el Jura-
mento se ha constituido como uno de los cuadros de Blanes más representativos del
museo que lleva su nombre.
58
03
CONSERVACIÓN
59
60
Alcances de la conservación
Por Claudia Barra y Fernando Marte
CONSERVACIÓN
61
Desde 1931, con la Carta de Atenas y las subsiguientes cartas internacionales sobre la con-
servación del patrimonio cultural, se han sentado las bases teóricas y se han establecido
criterios fundamentales para las intervenciones de conservación. Más recientemente, in-
fluencias políticas, religiosas y filosóficas, y la incorporación de nuevos materiales y técnicas
de diagnóstico e intervención, han impulsado transformaciones profundas en la forma de
ejercer la conservación restauración. La situación llegó a límites preocupantes hasta las
primeras décadas del siglo xix, cuando se encontraron soluciones para la conservación en
las ciencias naturales y se inició la etapa científica de la conservación. El crecimiento cuan-
titativo y en diversidad de los acervos, así como la tendencia a facilitar el acceso y el uso
públicos de las colecciones, conducen a un escenario que crece en complejidad. En res-
puesta, ha crecido en forma exponencial la investigación científica sobre los factores que
causan el deterioro y se ha ampliado la búsqueda de nuevas estrategias de prevención que
respondan a las necesidades actuales (Clavir, 1998; Coulombié y Ladrón de Guevara, 2009).
CONSERVACIÓN
ÁREAS DE LA CONSERVACIÓN
Conservación, conservación preventiva y conservación restauración
Si bien por décadas existió una variedad importante de definiciones sobre la conserva-
ción y sus áreas de actuación, no fue hasta la XV conferencia del Comité de Conserva-
ción del Consejo Internacional de Museos (ICOM, por sus siglas en inglés), en 2008, que
se llegó a un consenso internacional al respecto (ICOM/CC, 2008).
Toda acción que implique intervenir en forma directa sobre el objeto hace necesaria
la participación del conservador-restaurador, quien muy probablemente requiera de
análisis científico de la materialidad para realizar un diagnóstico y propuesta de inter-
vención. En las últimas décadas las exigencias de formación de los especialistas han
crecido y combinan los conocimientos propios de la conservación-restauración con las
ciencias naturales, la historia y un ineludible cúmulo de experiencias prácticas realiza-
das bajo la supervisión de expertos. En consecuencia, arribar a una situación de dete-
rioro de un bien cultural tiene múltiples implicancias. Aun cuando exista la posibilidad
de restaurar el objeto, puede verse comprometida la información que este contiene,
en particular, cuando tratamos con colecciones de estudio como las arqueológicas y
de ciencias naturales. Pensemos también en las pérdidas de los valores del objeto, la
necesidad de recursos económicos y de recursos humanos especializados, que nunca
resultan suficientes, así como una motivación ética hacia la preservación constitu-
yen razones más que suficientes para tomar el camino de la prevención del deterioro
(European Preventive Conservation Strategy European Commission, 2000).
Para estudiar y abordar la problemática del deterioro se han propuesto diferentes es-
trategias. Entre ellas, con gran aceptación en la comunidad de la conservación, se en-
cuentra el sistema de manejo de riesgo de deterioro propuesto en primera instancia por
Robert Waller (1995) y profundizado por el investigador Stefan Michalski. Idealmente,
los profesionales de la conservación preventiva deberían poder cuantificar los riesgos
para una colección y determinar la forma más rentable para reducirlos. Para evaluar los
riesgos de deterioro es necesario producir estimaciones precisas de la magnitud de muy
diversos riesgos a los que están expuestas las colecciones. Para ello, Michalski seleccio-
1. Se llama ciclo de intervención al período que
transcurre entre dos intervenciones de conservación na un conjunto de agentes de deterioro y un método para estimar el riesgo de que ocu-
curativa y/o restauración. rra deterioro debido a alguno ellos o a su combinación. Estos agentes son: fuego, agua,
CONSERVACIÓN
ción relacionada o de la capacidad para recuperar o asociar los objetos con su contexto,
es frecuentemente subestimada. La ausencia de políticas y procedimientos para docu-
mentar y controlar la adquisición y el traslado de los objetos, o la negligencia a la hora
de su aplicación, constituye uno de los mayores riesgos para las colecciones. Hablamos
de disociación, por ejemplo, cuando se pierde una etiqueta de identificación, o cuando
no se registra adecuadamente la información sobre un objeto, o cuando hay pérdida
de información del contexto de objetos arqueológicos (Waller y Cato, 2009; CCI, 1994).
En la mayoría de los casos, la transformación que ocurre en el objeto que ha sido afec-
tado por un agente de deterioro sigue procesos que pueden ser del tipo físico, químico
o biológico, o la combinación de más de un proceso como consecuencia de la acción de
uno o más agentes de deterioro. La mayor parte de los agentes de deterioro externos
suelen ser detectados por el personal del museo luego de un proceso de capacitación,
y constituyen un conjunto de parámetros, procedimientos o circunstancias, de origen
externo al objeto, que podemos controlar o mitigar.
Por otra parte, pueden darse procesos de carácter intrínseco, que tienen relación con
los materiales y técnicas de ejecución. Estos procesos se inician en el momento de crea-
ción del objeto y no hay forma de evitarlos. Es el caso de las obras pictóricas: el artista
incorpora en sus obras pigmentos inestables, ya sea por sus efectos visuales o como
forma de reducir costos, pero estos pigmentos se transforman irreversiblemente con el
pasar del tiempo. Si bien no podemos impedir el deterioro, podemos impedir que este
aumente por la acción de las radiaciones y de los contaminantes. Un caso que viene
siendo estudiado para comprender estos procesos de transformación de los pigmentos
es el de las obras de Vincent van Gogh (Van Bommel, Gedolf y Hendriks, 2005).
Los datos recabados, idealmente por el período de un año, nos permitirán identificar los
riesgos reales, las fluctuaciones en el correr del día, las variaciones según la temporada y
la respuesta del recinto a las condiciones climáticas externas. Con esta información a la
vista, podremos iniciar el análisis, evaluar los riesgos de deterioro y tomar las medidas de
control más adecuadas en función de los recursos accesibles. De acuerdo a este planteo,
resulta evidente que no es adecuado utilizar deshumidificadores sin haber realizado un
estudio previo y haber planificado un proceso gradual para la adaptación de las coleccio-
nes a eventuales cambios en los parámetros de humedad relativa y temperatura.
orientadas a limitar las posibilidades de proliferación de las plagas. Estas nuevas estra-
tegias involucran transformaciones edilicias y la adecuación de las condiciones am-
66 bientales y de higiene en los espacios del museo. Ciertas medidas mínimas para el con-
trol a corto plazo resultan muy efectivas, como la colocación de tejidos protectores en las
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Los actos vandálicos, incluyendo el robo, están directamente vinculados a las condicio-
nes de seguridad, tanto a las políticas como a los sistemas de seguridad en sí mismos.
Este constituye un gran capítulo de la conservación preventiva que involucra especial-
mente la capacitación y compromiso de todo el personal.
El fuego, el agua, y las fuerzas físicas de alta intensidad causadas por las catástrofes
naturales, el terrorismo y las guerras constituyen otro grupo de agentes que ocasionan
daños. Dentro de las fuerzas físicas encontramos también procesos de menor impacto,
como los causados por golpes, presiones ejercidas entre objetos, o los de impacto gra-
dual como las vibraciones y las abrasiones. Estos se encuentran asociados a las formas
y procedimientos de exhibición, almacenaje, manipulación o transporte (Van Bommel,
Gedolf y Hendriks, 2005; Thomson, 1986).
Para el conjunto de factores del tipo catastrófico, la prevención gira en torno a cier-
tas características edilicias y sistemas de prevención, y a la elaboración de planes de
emergencia que nos permitan responder de forma rápida y organizada en caso de
que sobrevenga un desastre. No sería posible actuar en forma eficaz y eficiente sin
haber establecido en forma previa un conjunto de prioridades y procedimientos de
acción. Todo plan de emergencia tendrá en cuenta la preservación de la vida humana
como primera prioridad, y luego resguardar registros y equipos vitales para el funcio-
namiento de la institución y los acervos a su cuidado. Para el cuidado de los acervos es
crítico identificar en forma anticipada los objetos más importantes para la institución.
Es recomendable establecer prioridades en función de su vulnerabilidad, de los valores
y los significados de diversa índole que puedan tener los objetos para la institución y
para la sociedad. No podemos dejar de mencionar la necesidad implacable de realizar
simulacros de evacuación, las habilidades que se generan con la práctica durante los
simulacros, sin lugar a dudas marcarán una gran diferencia en caso de ocurrir una
situación de desastre (Ilwaine y Varlamoff, M. 2006).
CONSERVACIÓN
LOS ESTÁNDARES INTERNACIONALES, ¿SON APLICABLES EN NUESTROS MUSEOS?
Los estándares internacionales para las colecciones son valores de los parámetros de con-
diciones ambientales como humedad relativa, temperatura, exposición a determinadas
radiaciones, que son aceptables para preservar determinado tipo de material que integra 67
acervos de bienes culturales. Hasta hace pocos años se consideraban valores ideales para
Nos hemos referido a la necesidad de considerar el entorno de los objetos para orientar
su adecuada conservación. En tal sentido, el edificio que alberga las colecciones posee
características estructurales propias que dan lugar a los microclimas en las salas de ex-
posición y áreas de reserva. La ubicación geográfica va a determinar sus características
climáticas; la urbanización y el nivel de industrialización del entorno determinarán la
contaminación ambiental a la cual está expuesto. Se suman a estos aspectos la cantidad
de público visitante, el acceso y uso de las colecciones y otros factores del entorno que
condicionan el riesgo de deterioro. Los factores de deterioro no actúan en forma aislada,
sino que se relacionan en una realidad compleja, por lo que diagnosticar la situación im-
plica un proceso previo de evaluación de las condiciones generales de conservación y de
las características de los acervos. Actualmente contamos con herramientas para la eva-
luación y el manejo de los riesgos de deterioro, cuyo aporte puede ser muy significativo al
momento de establecer prioridades en la elaboración de un plan de acciones preventivas.
68
Concebimos esta tarea como una oportunidad de compartir este sueño con nuestros
visitantes y en especial con los más pequeños quienes se han visto enriquecidos y
estimulados habiendo participado en este proyecto.
Pensar un taller para restaurar una obra de tal magnitud implicaba un costo inaccesible
para nuestro presupuesto. De esta dificultad surgió una oportunidad: realizar la restau-
ración en la propia sala y a la vista del público. Acciones que habíamos visto en otras
partes del mundo pero que era en materia de obra pictórica, inédita en nuestro país.
Así comenzó una propuesta para desarrollar un espacio abierto para la conservación y
restauración del Juramento.
El proyecto consistía en retirar la obra del muro donde está colgada, retirarle su marco y
reubicarla perpendicular a su actual ubicación para generar un espacio de trabajo para
las restauradoras y que mirara al público.
Se diseñó por lo tanto una estructura desarmable, efímera, para colocar el cuadro en
su nueva posición. En el espacio destinado a la restauración se protegieron los pavi-
mentos de la sala para evitar cualquier deterioro producto de los posibles materiales
que se iban a utilizar para esta tarea. El espacio se termina de conformar con un vidrio
autoportante que separaba a las restauradoras del público y dejaba 6 metros de área de
trabajo, por el ancho de la sala.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES CONSERVACIÓN
70
Por un lado, controlar día a día la humedad relativa ambiente que determinamos se
encuentre en el rango del 55%, con una variación que no supere el 3% de este valor. Así
la sala cuenta hoy con deshumidificadores que regulan las humedad relativa ambiental.
Por otra parte, se reparó el aire acondicionado que mantiene la temperatura en los 19 ºC y
21 ºC. Se colocaron medidores termohigrómetors que permiten hacer diariamente la
lectura de la humedad relativa ambiente y de la temperatura para mantener las condi-
ciones necesarias para una conservación preventiva.
Iluminación
Los techos de las dos salas principales del Museo se encontraban en franco deterioro.
Se tomó la decisión de repararlos para evitar filtraciones y buscar una solución acorde
con las necesidades de iluminación y lo que se está platicando en la museología con-
temporánea. Estas intervenciones van desde acciones de aplicación de alta tecnología
hasta otras soluciones más simples, como la que se adoptó en nuestro Museo. Así se
recuperaron las claraboyas originales, a las que se les aplicó un film que filtra las radia-
ciones ultravioletas e infrarrojas no deseadas. Además en el plafón existente, de valor
patrimonial, se le aplicó otro film que disminuye la cantidad de luz visible. Este film se
1. Es la densidad superficial de la intensidad luminosa
en una dirección dada que es posible medir en luxes seleccionó de acuerdo a mediciones de iluminancia1 real sobre las obras en el verano
mediante un luxómetro. en las horas de mayor incidencia solar.
CONSERVACIÓN
minación natural y la artificial. Se capacitó al personal del Museo para realizar los
controles necesarios para tomar la acción adecuada en función de la luminancia que
reciben las obras.
El movimiento de la obra
Con la intención de ubicar la obra en el espacio diseñado para que fuera visible fue
necesario pensar un sistema de desmontaje que permitiera su traslado al lugar previsto
para el trabajo.
Este movimiento implicaba riesgos vinculados con el traslado de una obra de grandes
dimensiones, que se debían controlar. Para ello se ideó el siguiente plan de trabajo.
Traslado de la obra
1. El lugar para realizar la restauración tenía que estar pronto para que una vez reali-
zados los movimientos de traslado la obra pudiera ser ubicada de inmediato en su
nuevo lugar sin sufrir deterioros.
3. Una vez separada del muro, la obra quedó suspendida de esta estructura de anda-
mio móvil. De esta manera fue posible la separación de la obra del marco.
4. Fue necesario trasladar la obra fuera del espacio previsto para su restauración para
poder luego girarla, transportarla y ubicarla en la estructura de trabajo. Primero se
trasladó manualmente en un movimiento lateral paralelo al muro unos metros ha-
cia adelante. Se apoyó sobre un material flexible para evitar impactos. Allí permaneció
mientras que con el andamio móvil se volvía a colocar el marco en su sitio original.
movimiento del cuadro, junto a los funcionarios del museo y las restauradoras que iban
controlando la manipulación de la obra.
76
La intervención
Por Claudia Barra y Mechtild Endhardt
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Características técnicas1
En una primera instancia se estudiaron las características técnicas de los diferentes com-
ponentes materiales de la obra en forma visual, complementada con el uso de lentes de
78 aumento y visualización con radiación ultravioleta. A partir de estos estudios se realizó
el diagnóstico primario y la propuesta de intervención. En una etapa posterior se inició
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
SOPORTES
El soporte primario2 es de tela de fibra natural. Resulta visible en los bordes y en los
sectores donde los faltantes de capa pictórica dejan la tela al descubierto.
Por medio de una nota del director del Museo de Artes Visuales, Prof. Ángel Kalenberg,
se confirma que el soporte secundario se trata de tela de lino de origen belga (ver
Anexo I).
BASTIDOR
El bastidor es de madera del tipo de estructura móvil, realizado a medida con varillas
de aproximadamente 10 cm de ancho por 3 cm de espesor. Los ángulos presentan
Figura 3 encastres del tipo caja y espiga. Consta de dos travesaños verticales y uno horizontal.
Dorso con detalle del marco y bastidor Presenta cuñas dobles en las esquinas y simples en los encastres de los travesaños
durante el traslado. Foto: C. Barra.
totalizando 14 cuñas. En cada una de las dos uniones de las varillas verticales con las
centrales presenta una placa de madera compensada de aproximadamente 40 x 40 cm
que refuerza la estructura.
El bastidor se encuentra unido al marco por flejes metálicos atornillados a ambos elementos.
Presenta una base de preparación blanca de apariencia uniforme. Posee las caracte-
rísticas de las preparaciones a base de cola animal. La textura del soporte primario se
reproduce a través de la base de preparación hasta la capa pictórica. 79
A diferencia de lo que podemos encontrar en gran parte de su obra del mismo período,
Figura 4 Blanes hace mínima la incorporación de veladuras.6 La veladura es un recurso pictórico
Detalle sobre el borde de la pintura de compleja ejecución que Blanes ha utilizado en gran parte de su obra, en particular
mostrando la base de preparación en las de menor tamaño. En el Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales se observa un
en blanco. Foto: M. Endhardt.
uso muy moderado del recurso, especialmente en el sector del cielo y partes del follaje,
Figura 5 con menor participación en los rostros y demás carnaciones de los personajes. Aunque
Detalle de la textura de la capa pictórica.
las veladuras son capas sumamente sensibles a los solventes y se podría pensar que han
Foto: C. Barra.
sido eliminadas en intervenciones anteriores, la falta de indicios de su presencia y las
características generales de la ejecución no apoyarían esta hipótesis.
Debido al gran número de bocetos existentes de la obra no hay dudas sobre la minu-
ciosa tarea que Juan Manuel Blanes emprendió al realizar este trabajo. El dibujo previo
perfectamente estudiado en su anatomía, composición y color debió ser una constante
en toda la ejecución. La comprobación objetiva de este supuesto podría realizarse si
se contara con equipos de reflectografía infrarroja que nos brindaran imágenes de los
diferentes estratos subyacentes. Para llegar al boceto, sería necesario recurrir a los ra-
yos X, que se introducen más profundamente en las capas de la pintura. Estos estudios
serán materia pendiente hasta que esta tecnología llegue a nuestro medio.
80
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 6
Detalle en el sector del cielo y partes
del follaje con uso de veladuras en el
cuadrante B4v. Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 7
Detalle de la pintura, velauras en
los cuadrantes F/G 3/4. Foto: Carlos
Contrera (CdF, Centro de Fotografía de
Montevideo).
CONSERVACIÓN
RECUBRIMIENTO
Figura 8
Se observa la capa de barniz en el
MARCO
cuadrante E5. Foto: C. Barra.
El marco de madera tallada presenta preparación con yeso para el dorado a la hoja de
oro. Cada una de las cuatro uniones en inglete se encuentra reforzada por dos plan-
chuelas metálicas en ángulo recto atornilladas al marco por su reverso. Presenta cinco
elementos decorativos que se describen a continuación.
82
CONSERVACIÓN
Intervenciones anteriores
Intervención de 1971
Una carta escrita por el Sr. Cantú da muestra de la necesidad de intervenir la obra
para su salvaguarda y de su estado de conservación en el año 1953 (ver Anexo I).
Finalmente, en el año 1971 se concretó la restauración a cargo del restaurador Carlos
Giaudrone.10 Según datos aportados por el restaurador Eduardo Luciani, integrante
del equipo de Giaudrone, la obra habría recibido anteriormente un tratamiento que
involucró la aplicación de colleta11 en su reverso. No precisa si se trató de un entelado
o de un tratamiento con el objetivo de la consolidación. Nos informa sobre la dificultad
que experimentaron en la eliminación de estas capas de cola. En la intervención de
1971 se le realizó un entelado a la cera resina. Existen registros sobre la adquisición
de la tela de lino que fue traída desde Bélgica por medio del Ministerio de Relaciones
Exteriores. Consta también que la obra permaneció fuera de su bastidor mientras se
esperaba la recepción de la citada tela. Las tareas de restauración se realizaron en una
sala especialmente adaptada en el sector de la Biblioteca del Museo Nacional de Artes
Plásticas (actualmente Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales).12
7. Fidencio Alabés: artista plástico español, 1863. Vivió
en ambas orillas del Río de la Plata desde 1870. Otras intervenciones
Se observan en la pintura intervenciones menores de realización posterior a la citada
8. Nacido en Montevideo (1926-1980) fue el primer
director del Taller de Restauración del Patrimonio en el 1971.
Artístico, Histórico y Cultural de la Nación (ver Anexo I).
Soporte
La tela de lino que oficia de soporte secundario es de una sola pieza. El entelado se rea-
84 lizó con la técnica de cera y resina. Este entelado se encuentra funcional actualmente.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figuras 13, 14 y 15 Algunos repintes transforman visiblemente la textura de la capa pictórica debido a su
Detalle con repintes en el cielo en el dureza. Otros se ubican sobre grietas y resultan invasivos.
cuadrante F/G4. Foto: C. Barra
Junto a los repintes y retoques también presenta resanes desajustados por su textura
y dureza.
Se observan también repintes sobre faltantes que no han sido resanados previamente
al agregado de color. Se estima que estas intervenciones fueron realizadas posterior-
mente a la de 1971.
CONSERVACIÓN
85
Figura 17
Detalle con repintes en el cuadrante
A1. Foto: M. Endhardt
Figura 18
Planilla de los cuadrantes sobrepuesta
a la imagen. Foto: M. Endhardt
CONSERVACIÓN
DIAGNÓSTICO
DIAGNÓSTICO PRIMARIO
La superficie tiene una apariencia casi mate. El barniz está levemente oxidado y la
saturación de los colores es deficiente.
DIAGNÓSTICO COMPLETO
Una vez instalados los andamios se hizo posible el acceso a la obra completa y por
ambos lados. Esto posibilitó inspeccionar la totalidad de su superficie y determinar
Figura 19 la magnitud de la inestabilidad de la capa pictórica. Se observaron gran cantidad de
Detalle con brillo que muestra la
deformación convexa que abarca los faltantes y repintes que a la distancia y sin la iluminación adecuada no eran visibles
cuadrantes H 3/4/5. Foto: M. Endhardt durante el diagnóstico primario.
SOPORTES
Figura 20
Vista del dorso de la obra durante la El soporte original presenta tres roturas de entre 3 y 5 cm ubicadas en los bordes lateral
restauración. Foto: N. Vitureira izquierdo (cuadrante A1), inferior (cuadrante H1) y superior (cuadrante H5).
BASTIDOR
El estado de conservación del bastidor es bueno y este resulta funcional a los efectos
de proveer a la obra de una tensión suficiente. Su estructura móvil permite el acompa-
ñamiento por parte del bastidor de los movimientos que experimenta la tela debido a
las fluctuaciones de humedad.
La varilla inferior presenta una leve curvatura del plano en la zona central.
Como se mencionó, el bastidor presenta dos placas de refuerzo entre los travesaños,
una de las cuales se encontró muy deteriorada, con signos de haber tomado contacto
directo con agua. Por tal motivo se decide eliminar dicha placa y sustituirla por otra de
similares características.
Donde la base de preparación queda visible es posible observar una fina red de grietas
de edad16 que atraviesan esta capa hasta el soporte.
Figura 21
Detalle de desprendimientos de la capa
pictórica del cuadrante A2.
Foto: C. Barra.
Figura 22
Detalle con repintes en el cuadrante
H1. Foto: C. Barra.
CONSERVACIÓN
La presente intervención ha sido motivada fundamentalmente por la problemática de
inestabilidad que se observó a nivel de la capa pictórica. La inestabilidad se evidencia en
los pequeños desprendimientos que se observan en diversos sectores de la superficie.
Estos afectan también a la base preparatoria, como se ha mencionado en el aparta- 91
do anterior. Sus dimensiones coinciden en su mayor parte con las correspondientes
Figura 24
Grietas en el cuadrante F2.
Foto: C. Barra.
92
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 25
Grietas de edad y envejecimiento en el
cuadrante F4. Foto: C. Barra.
Figura 27
Faltantes de la capa pictórica en el
cuadrante A2. Foto: C. Barra.
Figura 28
Faltantes de veladura en el cuadrante
E/F 5. Foto: C. Barra.
En el sector del cielo se encuentra una discontinuidad de la película pictórica que toma
el aspecto de una mancha irregular oscura que afecta los cuadrantes E5 y F5. En este
sector falta la capa de color más superficial correspondiente a las nubes que Blanes
aplica en forma de veladura con alto contenido de pigmento blanco sobre el fondo
celeste. Por su forma, la zona debió verse afectada por el derrame de algún elemento
líquido que barrió con el color superficial.
La capa pictórica presenta abrasiones en algunos sectores. Estas abrasiones son alte-
raciones producidas en la superficie por desgaste, por ejemplo, debido a una limpieza
inadecuada o por la fricción con otro objeto. El desgaste se observa como pequeños
puntos de pérdida del color. La abrasión deja expuesta la superficie subyacente que
94 resulta visible.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 29
Marca de plancha en el cuadrante A3.
Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 30
Desgaste de la capa pictórica en el
cuadrante F2. Foto: C. Barra.
Figura 31
Suciedad depositada en el cuadrante
F4. Foto: C. Barra.
CONSERVACIÓN
95
Figura 33
Capa pictórica con superficies
aplastadas en la zona del cielo.
Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 34
Zona con posible arrepentimiento en
el cuadrante H3. Foto: C. Barra.
En el cuadrante H3 se observa una mancha oscura de forma rectangular que, por sus ca-
racterísticas, provendría de capas subyacentes. Podría tratarse de un arrepentimiento19
que puede apreciarse a simple vista debido a la polimerización de la pintura. En ocasio-
nes, los arrepentimientos resultan visibles a ojo descubierto, en otras, se hace necesaria la
19. Horie (1999). aplicación de técnicas de estudio de imágenes como son la reflectografía IR y los rayos X.
CONSERVACIÓN
Barniz
96
El barniz es brillante y muestra irregularidades con sectores opacos. Esta capa acompa-
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Marco
98
La intervención
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
CRITERIOS DE INTERVENCIÓN20
En primer lugar, el principio de mínima intervención, a partir del cual damos respuesta
a las necesidades esenciales de conservación de la obra. Desde el punto de vista de
la estructura, comprende los procesos de estabilización que devuelven al soporte la
función de sostener los estratos pictóricos y a nivel de la capa pictórica comprende los
procesos de consolidación y fijado. El concepto de mínima intervención se traduce en
la práctica en proponer las metodologías de trabajo y los materiales que sean más efec-
tivos y mínimamente invasivos. Se relaciona directamente con otro de los criterios que
perseguimos en nuestra actuación que es de máxima reversibilidad de los materiales y
procesos incorporados. Aunque la reversibilidad completa resulte un objetivo pocas ve-
ces alcanzable, debido a limitaciones técnicas, tenemos la mira en realizar tratamientos
que no dificulten futuras intervenciones. En este sentido, además de seleccionar los
materiales por sus características intrínsecas de reversibilidad, consideramos la forma
de aplicación. Un mismo material puede resultar en mayor medida reversible o irrever-
sible según la técnica elegida para su aplicación. Por las razones expuestas se procuró la
máxima reversibilidad y estabilidad en la selección de los materiales y procedimientos.
Estas cualidades, junto con los aspectos de conservación preventiva, son las que harán
posible que las futuras intervenciones se realicen en un momento más alejado en el
tiempo, aumentando de esta forma el período de reintervención.
100
ILUMINACIÓN PARA LA INTERVENCIÓN
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 36a
Limpieza del espacio entre bastidor
y la tela.
CONSERVACIÓN
101
Figura 38
Eliminación del barniz oxidado.
Foto: N. Vitureira.
Figura 40
Eliminación de repintes en
cuadrante C1. Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 42
Resanes en el cuadrante H 4/5.
Foto: C. Barra.
Reintegración cromática
106 La reintegración cromática se realizó mediante dos diferentes técnicas de retoque en
función de la extensión y características de las mermas. Sobre las mermas pequeñas
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Se advierte que todas las reintegraciones cromáticas podrán ser visualizadas si se ob-
serva la obra iluminándola con radiación ultravioleta en la oscuridad. La experiencia
de un conservador en pintura es necesaria para sacar conclusiones significativas de
estudios de este tipo.
Figura 43
Reintegración de colores en el
cuadrante C1. Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 43
Reintegración de colores en el
cuadrante C1. Foto: M. Endhardt.
110
CONSERVACIÓN
Documentación de la intervención
FOTOGRAFÍA CON RADIACIÓN ULTRAVIOLETA 111
Figura 46
Luz visible en el cuadrante A4.
Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 47
Radiación UV en el cuadrante A4.
Foto: M. Endhardt.
CONSERVACIÓN
112
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 48
Luz visible en el cuadrante G 3/4.
Foto: M. Endhardt.
Figura 49
Radiación UV en el cuadrante G 3/4.
Foto: M. Endhardt.
CONSERVACIÓN
FOTOGRAFÍAS SERIADAS
Los cuadrantes A1, D2 y E2 se seleccionaron para realizar la documentación de las dife- 113
rentes etapas desde el estado previo, durante el proceso y en su estado final.
114
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 51c
Reintegración cromática finalizada.
Foto: C. Barra.
CONSERVACIÓN
Sectores con grafismos digitales Se realizó el registro de los deterioros observados y de los sectores
intervenidos plasmando con grafismos en color el estado previo para
cada sector. Los grafismos se realizaron con una tableta digitalizadora
en función de su ubicación en la obra. Los sectores con inestabilidad
116 de la capa pictórica se marcaron en color verde y coinciden con los
sectores que fueron consolidados y fijados. Los sectores con faltantes
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
a b c
CONSERVACIÓN
que recibieron resanado y en última instancia la reintegración cro- Estado previo Intervención
mática. Los sectores con repintes se distinguen con el color celeste
Zonas inestables Zona fijada
y coinciden en términos generales con sectores reintegrados cromá-
ticamente en la presente intervención. Otros deterioros de presencia Repintes Reintegración cromática
puntual o específicos se registraron mediante fotografías que se ad- 117
Faltantes Reintegración cromática
juntan al presente informe en el Anexo II.
d e f g h
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES CONSERVACIÓN
118
Cuadrantes
A4
A1
CONSERVACIÓN
119
Zona fijada
D5
Reintegración cromática
Reintegración cromática
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES CONSERVACIÓN
120
H1
E5
CONSERVACIÓN
121
Zona fijada
H3
Reintegración cromática
Reintegración cromática
CONSERVACIÓN
Respecto a las reintegraciones cromáticas realizadas cabe mencionar que se han uti-
lizado pigmentos de alta estabilidad y que se encuentran protegidos por la película
de barniz final. A pesar de sus nobles cualidades, estos son susceptibles de deterio-
ro debido al efecto de las radiaciones y, en algunos casos, de los gases atmosféri-
cos. Afortunadamente, el deterioro por radiaciones se encuentra reducido sustan-
cialmente gracias al esfuerzo que la Dirección del Museo ha realizado recientemente
en instalar iluminación de tipo LED en la sala de exposición donde se ubica la obra.
Presenta como ventaja que brinda un poder de adhesión entre los soportes que se
mantiene funcional por largos períodos y así se pudo constatar en esta obra de Blanes.
BASTIDOR
Actualmente existen diversos diseños de bastidores que permiten minimizar aún más
los movimientos causados por la fluctuación de la humedad relativa. En la actual inter-
vención no se consideró justificado realizar este cambio, que supondría el desmontaje
de la obra para este único fin. Se sugiere que en oportunidad de desmotar la obra de
su bastidor se evalúe la conveniencia de incorporar un bastidor de tecnología superior.
CONSERVACIÓN
Otro aspecto a controlar es la evolución de las grietas y del craquelado, aunque han
sido estabilizados en la presente intervención, su envejecimiento natural no puede ser
detenido completamente y su estado de conservación futura tendrá relación directa
con las condiciones ambientales de su entorno.
Durante la exhibición, los cuidados generales y condiciones ambientales serán las re-
queridas para la preservación de pintura caballete. En el caso del Juramento, la protec-
ción que se ha colocado en su reverso amortigua los efectos de la humedad relativa
ambiente. Como se ha expresado en el capítulo sobre conservación preventiva, los pa-
rámetros de humedad relativa y temperatura ideales dependerán de una evaluación y
estudio que considere múltiples aspectos. Tratándose de una sala que alberga exclu-
sivamente pintura al óleo, la humedad relativa podría fijarse hasta en un máximo de
60% sin riesgos mayores para la obra, siempre y cuando no se supere el 65% debido
a las fluctuaciones, ya que a partir de este valor el crecimiento fúngico es altamente
probable. Los valores de referencia sirven de guía mientras se realizan los estudios es-
pecíficos correspondientes, son para la temperatura 20 ºC con una fluctuación máxima
de 2 grados Celsius y para la humedad relativa de 50% con una fluctuación máxima
de 5% (Michalski, 2009).
En suma, será el trabajo en equipo para realizar las evaluaciones y estudios que nos
conduzcan a elaborar y mantener un plan de conservación preventiva, el camino a
transitar para el mejor cuidado de nuestro tan preciado acervo. •
CONSERVACIÓN
Anexo
DOCUMENTACIÓN DE LOS ANTECEDENTES
126
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
drone y su equipo, texto del Prof. Ángel Kalenberg (exdirector del Museo Nacional de
Artes Plásticas actual Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales).
128
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
CONSERVACIÓN
Solicitud del Sr. Cantú de 1953 referida a la necesidad de intervenir la obra
para su salvaguarda.
129
130
05
y la técnica pictórica
Estudio de la materialidad
131
132
Metodología
134 Para llevar adelante los análisis se tomaron muestras de la capa pictórica de
aproximadamente un milímetro. La toma de muestras se realizó durante los
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 1
Imagen completa de la obra con zonas de toma
de muestras marcadas.
M15
4 M14
3
M16
M9
M8 M5
2
M7 M4
M2
1
M1
a b c d e f g h
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
135
136
ESTRATIGRAFÍA Y ANÁLISIS MICROSCÓPICOS
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
La muestra fue tomada con bisturí desde la superficie pictórica. Fue observada
bajo microscopio y se seleccionó un fragmento para ser incluido en resina acrílica
autocurable (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Una vez fraguada la resina con la muestra
incluida, se desgastó la resina con lijas al agua en un rango desde los P240 a los P2500
y luego desde 2400 a 12000 micromesh® (Wachowiak, 2004). La muestra ya pulida fue
registrada bajo microscopio Leica DM EP, de polarización y de fluorescencia, con lentes
objetivos de 5, 10 y 20× a través de cámara digital Leica DFC280, a máxima resolución.
MICROSCOPÍA RAMAN
Las técnicas espectroscópicas son aquellas con las cuales se mide el comportamiento de
la muestra cuando interactúa con determinada región del espectro electromagnético.
Son técnicas espectroscópicas, entre otras, la espectrometría Raman, la fluorescencia
de rayos X y la difracción de rayos X, todas de uso común en estudios de materiales
culturales.
3. Capa pictórica superficial de color ocre más oscuro con más inclusiones que el
anterior, de colores verde, azul, rojo y negro, de varias formas y mayor distribución
de tamaño. Altura máxima observada de 32 μm y mínima de 8 μm. Sobre este
se aprecia otro estrato de aproximadamente 4 μm, de color ocre más claro, con
apariencia de diferencia óptica.
200μm 200μm
Fuente: IIPC-UNSAM
Figura 2 Figura 3
Fotografía de la muestra M1/H1 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M1/H1 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×. incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×.
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
138
Figura 4
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
02 CUADRO
Mediciones de análisis Raman para distintos
puntos en la muestra M1/H1.
Figura 5
Espectro Raman de muestra M1/H1 en zona de análisis
6 con señal correspondiente a blanco de plomo.
1 139
Figura 6 Figura 7
Fotografía de la muestra M2/H1 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M2/H1 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×. incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×.
M2/H1MUESTRA
Descripción: muestra tomada como un pequeño fragmento desde pantalón negro de
personaje en la esquina inferior izquierda de la obra.
3. Estrato pictórico superficial marrón oscuro (casi negro) con menos inclusiones, sin
inclusiones blancas. Altura máxima observada de 48 μm y mínima de 16 μm.
5
4
3
140 2
1
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
200μm 200μm
Figura 8 Figura 9
Fotografía de la muestra M4/C2 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M4/C2 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×. incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×.
M4/C2 MUESTRA
2. Estrato pictórico: de color crema, alto y de altura regular, de entre 72 y 102 μm.
Presenta bastantes inclusiones rojas anaranjadas, verdes y azules. La descripción
del color es dificultosa por su tamaño pequeño. La parte superior se observa como
un estrato pero de límites poco definidos, se presenta como un gradiente (quizás
sea un oscurecimiento del anterior). Sin embargo, bajo iluminación UV se ve una
marcada diferencia en su fluorescencia: este pseudoestrato presenta fluorescencia
azulada mientras que el inferior lo hace en menor medida y con otra coloración.
4. Estrato pictórico similar al estrato 2 pero con mayor número y tamaño de inclusiones.
En este caso además se observan inclusiones de color rojo carmín que son, a su vez,
las más grandes. Altura máxima observada es de 24 μm y mínima de 12 μm.
3. Estrato pictórico blanco levemente rojizo, con pequeñas inclusiones rojas. La altura
del estrato está entre los 20 y los 52 μm. Este estrato corrige los valles de los
estratos inferiores.
4. Estrato pictórico superficial rojo intenso muy puro, casi sin inclusiones. Su altura
varía entre los 5 y los 24 μm, con algunas discontinuidades.
5
4
3
2
1
200μm 200μm
Fuente: IIPC-UNSAM
Figura 10 Figura 11
Fotografía de la muestra M5/G2 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M5/G2 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20× incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
142
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 12
200μm Fotografía de la muestra M5/G2. Se muestran las zonas
de análisis por espectroscopia Raman
03 CUADRO
Mediciones y condiciones de análisis Raman
para distintos puntos en la muestra M5/G2.
Figura 13
Espectro Raman de muestra M5/G2 en zona de análisis
4 con señales correspondientes a bermellón.
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
143
3. Estrato pictórico blanco de altura regular de entre 50 y 90 μm. Presenta muy pocas
inclusiones, solo se observan algunas inclusiones amarillas alargadas de orientación
ecuatorial y una inclusión rojiza. No se observa capa de protección.
3
2
1
200μm 200μm
Fuente: IIPC-UNSAM
Figura 14 Figura 15
Fotografía de la muestra M7/B2 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M7/B2 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20× incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
144
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
200μm Figura 16
Fotografía de la muestra M7/B2. Se muestran las zonas
de análisis por espectroscopia Raman.
04 CUADRO
Mediciones y condiciones de análisis Raman
para distintos puntos en la muestra M5/G2.
M8/E2 MUESTRA
1. Base de preparación blanca de gran altura, alcanza los 120 μm. Presenta
inclusiones traslúcidas de cortes angulares, en general alargadas con orientación
horizontal, de hasta 50 μm de longitud.
3. Estrato pictórico azul que se observa abundante desde el centro hacia la izquierda
de la muestra y desaparece hacia la derecha, posiblemente debido a un valle en la
superficie pictórica. La altura del estrato varía entre los 16 y los 28 μm. Presenta
inclusiones negras.
4
3
2
1 145
05 CUADRO
Mediciones y condiciones de análisis Raman
para distintos puntos en la muestra M8/E2.
Figura 20
Espectro Raman de muestra M8/E2 en zona de análisis 1
con señales correspondientes a lazurita
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
146
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
M9/E3 MUESTRA
3. Estrato pictórico azul que desaparece hacia la derecha de la muestra. La altura del
estrato varía entre los 12 y los 32 μm. Presenta menos inclusiones negras que el
estrato análogo de M8/E2, por lo que el tono es un azul más claro.
4
3
2
1
200μm 200μm
Figura 21 Figura 22
Fotografía de la muestra M9/E3 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M9/E3 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×. incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×.
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
147
Fuente: IIPC-UNSAM
06 CUADRO
Mediciones y condiciones de análisis Raman
para distintos puntos en la muestra M9/E3.
Figura 24
Espectro Raman de muestra M9/E3 en zona de análisis 3
con señales correspondientes a barita
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
M14/G4 MUESTRA
1. Base de preparación blanca con un tono amarillento en zona inferior. La altura del
estrato alcanza los 180 μm observables. Presenta inclusiones traslúcidas de hasta
20 μm.
2. Estrato pictórico blanco de fina granulometría. Su altura está en torno a los 40 μm,
pero su límite superior es muy difuso y se funde con el estrato 3.
4. Estrato pictórico blanco con inclusiones azules (celeste). La altura del estrato varía
entre los 15 y los 60 μm.
5
4
3
2
1
200μm 200μm
Figura 25 Figura 26
Fotografía de la muestra M14/G4 con luz Fotografía de la muestra M14/G4 con fluorescencia
polarizada incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×. incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
M15/H4 MUESTRA
1. Base de preparación blanca con un tono amarillento. La altura del estrato alcanza
los 120 μm observables. Presenta pocas pero grandes inclusiones traslúcidas de
hasta 30 μm.
Fuente: IIPC-UNSAM
4
3
2
1
200μm 200μm
Figura 27 Figura 28
Fotografía de la muestra M15/H4 con luz polarizada Fotografía de la muestra M15/H4 con fluorescencia
incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20× incidente utilizando un objetivo de 20×
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
150
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Figura 29
200μm Fotografía de la muestra M15/H4. Se muestran las zonas
de análisis por espectroscopia Raman
07 CUADRO
Mediciones y condiciones de análisis Raman
para distintos puntos en la muestra M15/H4.
M16/F3 MUESTRA
1. Base de preparación blanca de gran altura, alcanza los 120 μm. Presenta inclusiones
traslúcidas de cortes angulares de hasta 50 μm.
08 CUADRO
Mediciones y condiciones de análisis Raman
para distintos puntos en la muestra M16/F3.
Figura 32
200μm Fotografía de la muestra M16/F3. Se muestran las zonas
de análisis por espectroscopia Raman
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
Figura 33
Fotografía de la obra completa. Se indican
los resultados en los sitios de estudio.
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
153
La obra presenta una base de preparación clara de blanco de plomo como componente
principal e inclusiones medianas de sílice con cortes rectos y limpios, posiblemente
molida para preparar la base a aplicar sobre la tela. La altura de la base, como es
esperable, es muy variable dependiendo de la topografía del soporte textil, pero se
logró determinar una altura máxima de 180 μm, con inclusiones de longitud máxima
horizontal de 50 μm. Esta preparación fue encontrada en todas las muestras tomadas y
ha sido consistente en sus características, lo que permite concluir que la tela completa
fue preparada posiblemente de una sola vez con un estrato de la misma composición.
Cabe preguntarse si la tela pudo haber sido adquirida ya preparada o si la preparación
la realizó el artista.
El blanco de plomo, también conocido por sus nombres antiguos como albayalde o
cerusita, es químicamente un carbonato básico de plomo de fórmula Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2.
No se trata de un mineral natural, sino que, aunque se encuentra en la naturaleza,
históricamente siempre se sintetizó a partir de la carbonatación de plomo metálico.
Ha sido el pigmento blanco más utilizado en la pintura occidental de caballete hasta
su caída en desuso en el siglo xx, cuando se lo reemplazó por el blanco de titanio, de
poder cubriente similar y mucho menos tóxico que el albayalde (Eastaugh, 2004: 223).
Se encuentra descripto en todos los manuales clásicos de pintura, donde se destaca por
sus propiedades secativas y adherentes sobre los aceites, así como por su gran poder
cubriente.
Incluso en casos como el de la muestra M5/G2 (camisa roja) se observan dos estratos
pictóricos intermedios, mientras que la muestra M4/C2 (arena del suelo) presenta
una estratigrafía que sugiere corresponder a un repinte. Al menos en tres muestras
(M1/H1, M4/C2 y M7/B2) se encuentra un segundo estrato o estrato intermedio con
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
154
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Otra situación similar es la del cielo (M14/G4 y M15/H4), donde el estrato intermedio es
de un blanco más “puro” que el de la preparación, con pocas inclusiones (posiblemente
subdividido en dos fases de límite difuso por falta de secado). Como se observa en
ambas estratigrafías, para lograr la variedad de celestes y el veteado de nubes en el
cielo se necesitaba partir de un fondo blanco que permitiera resaltar por contraste
hasta las más sutiles partículas de pigmento azul. ¿Permite esto deducir que los estratos
intermedios fueron aplicados por zona como fondo de color para distintas figuras? Es
posible, pero quedan algunas interrogantes, como por ejemplo qué función tendrían
los dos estratos intermedios en M5/G2 y si efectivamente la superposición de estratos
en M4/C2 es un repinte, y en caso de serlo, si es de una restauración o corresponde a
una corrección del mismo artista, dado que no parece haber un cambio muy notorio
de materiales.
Por otra parte, se observan interfaces difusas entre los estratos intermedios y los estratos
pictóricos superficiales, apreciándose bajo fluorescencia ultravioleta enriquecimientos
de aglutinante hacia la zona superior de los estratos intermedios (M1/H1 y M4/C2).
Esto nos puede dar indicios de una cierta premura en la aplicación de algunos estratos
sin tiempos de secado adecuados, lo que permitió la migración de aglutinantes entre
estratos. Dicha premura se puede relacionar con las dificultades en la factura de una
obra de tales dimensiones.
Tanto en los estratos intermedios como en los superficiales se presenta una gran
variedad de inclusiones, en tamaño y en color. Dentro de las que se logró identificar
para los rojos, tierras rojas de distinta intensidad, compuestas principalmente por
óxidos de hierro, así como también bermellón en inclusiones de tonos más anaranjados.
Se encontraron inclusiones de carbón y de blanco de plomo. En el caso de M8/E2 y M9/
E3, tomadas sobre un pantalón azul, el pigmento principal es lazurita.
M AT E R I A L I DA D Y T É C N I C A P I C T Ó R I C A
Los rojos de hierro corresponden mayormente a óxidos de hierro (III) en su forma 155
mineral natural de hematita, de fórmula química Fe2O3. Es un mineral muy común en la
Bermellón es el nombre histórico utilizado para las formas sintetizadas del mineral
cinabrio, que químicamente es un sulfuro de mercurio de fórmula química HgS. Es el
pigmento rojo más valioso, tanto comercial como estéticamente, para muchas culturas,
épocas y regiones, y su uso nunca declinó debido a la singularidad e intensidad de su
tono rojo levemente anaranjado, hasta la aparición del rojo de cadmio en el siglo xx
(Eastaugh, 2004: 386-387).
La lazurita es un mineral vidrioso de tono azul, con una compleja y variable composición
química de este tipo: (Na,Ca)8[(Al,Si)12O24](S,SO4). Es miembro del grupo mineral silicato,
relacionado con los feldespatos, pero con menos contenido de dióxido de silicio.
En ciertas condiciones geológicas la lazurita puede formar la piedra lapislázuli, que
también contiene otros minerales, pero lo más común es que la lazurita que se
encuentra en objetos artísticos corresponda a la versión sintética, también llamada
azul ultramar. Siempre se ha tratado de un pigmento costoso, por lo que muchas veces
se lo encuentra combinado con otros como la azurita (carbonato básico de cobre) o el
índigo. En la antigüedad se lo encuentra sobre todo en piezas de joyería, y en la Edad
Media llegó a ser tan costoso como pigmento que se utilizaba muy poco, hasta la
introducción de su forma sintética alrededor de los siglos xvii y xviii.
Con excepción de las muestras del sector del cielo, los estratos pictóricos presentan
abundancia de inclusiones de tamaños de entre 5 y 40 μm, que varían su color según
el sitio de la obra (rojas, negras y, en menor medida, azules y verdes).
156
pigmentos que se destacan por su gran vibración como los anaranjados y rosados de
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Se observan en la obra algunas zonas donde las capas pictóricas superficiales han
experimentado una disminución del poder cubriente. Esto ocurre cuando se dan
ciertas condicionantes como la delgadez de las películas de la pintura al óleo o una
determinada selección de colores y técnica de aplicación que, con el paso del tiempo,
pueden ocasionar la pérdida de su capacidad cubriente y originar una transparencia
que torna visibles las capas subyacentes. En algunos casos, estas capas corresponden a
modificaciones hechas por el artista a su composición original. Un ejemplo de esto es
visible en el sector H3, donde es posible observar indicios de una imagen subyacente.
Un estudio imagenológico completo arrojaría luz sobre los estratos intermedios y su
posible relación con imágenes subyacentes, aunque en principio todo indica el uso de
los estratos coloreados intermedios como forma de segunda preparación de la base
sobre la cual pintar las figuras definitivas. Serían necesarios estudios de imagen con
rayos X así como con radiación infrarroja para visualizar variaciones y modificaciones
en la superposición de capas. Restan además tareas como la identificación de los
aglutinantes pictóricos.
AGRADECIMIENTOS
158
04
CRONOLOGÍA
159
160
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1902 1911
Acondicionamiento de la sección Bellas Artes del Museo Nacional con Desaparición del Museo Nacional como tal. A partir de esta
la organización de la Sala Blanes, en la que se exhibía el cuadro. La dependencia se crean separadamente el Museo Nacional de Bellas
organización de la Sala Blanes fue el primer homenaje institucional a Artes, el Museo y Archivo Histórico Nacional y el Museo Nacional de
un año del fallecimiento del artista. Historia Natural, por ley Nº. 3932, 1.° de diciembre de 1911.
1941junio
“Exposición Blanes” en Teatro Solís, las butacas y escenario fueron
removidos. Desde el punto de vista museográfico, se exhibió el cuadro
de los Treinta y Tres en el fondo del escenario, en el lugar privilegiado
de la galería histórica, diseñada para la ocasión.
CRONOLOGÍA
Solicitud por parte del subdirector responsable de la sección Bellas Artes del Museo Nacional
de Historia Natural, Juan Mesa, para trasladar el cuadro desde la Secretaría de la Presidencia,
donde se ubicaba, a las dependencias del Museo (lateral izquierdo del Teatro Solís) para su
exhibición. Desde esa fecha el cuadro ingresó al inventario del acervo de esa sección del
Museo Nacional, que posteriormente se constituirá como Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes; 161
actualmente, Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales.
1941 octubre
Exposición de las obras de Blanes por el Instituto Cultural Argentino-
Uruguayo. El cuadro viajó a Buenos Aires para su exhibición en esta
exposición, que se realizó en los salones del Museo Nacional de Bellas
Artes de Buenos Aires, desde el 25 de octubre hasta el 4 de diciembre
de 1941.
1969
Aprobación de un proyecto de restauración del cuadro por parte del
director del Museo Nacional de Artes Plásticas (ex Museo Nacional de
Bellas Artes), Arq. Alberto Muñoz del Campo, en el último tramo de su
gestión. En setiembre del mismo año asumió la dirección del Museo el
profesor Ángel Kalenberg.
1975 1976
Traslado de la obra desde el Museo Nacional de Artes Plásticas y Visuales rumbo al Ingreso del cuadro al Museo Blanes, junto con otras obras del pintor, con motivo de su
Palacio Legislativo con motivo de ser exhibida en la exposición “El nacimiento de nuestra exhibición en el marco de la “Exposición Blanes”, realizada en el mes de noviembre. Se
nación”, en el marco de los eventos conmemorativos del Año de la Orientalidad. Esta realizó un comodato de préstamo de esta obra por 90 días con fecha 1.° de noviembre de
exposición fue inaugurada en la fecha patria del 18 de julio de 1975. La obra se exhibió 1976. La obra había sido expuesta previamente en el Palacio Legislativo en 1975, desde
con un marco distinto del original, elaborado para esta exposición. donde fue trasladada. Desde esta fecha hasta el presente (2017), la obra es exhibida en la
sala Juan Manuel Blanes del Museo.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES BIBLIOGRAFÍA
162
06
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
163
164
Bibliografía
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
165
HISTORIA E ICONOGRAFÍA Antecedentes del cuadro Juramento de Montevideo, 28 de febrero de 1866.
166
• Montevideo, año ii, 17 de febrero de Montevideo: 18 de marzo de 1866. Palacio Legislativo, Impresora Uruguaya
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168 Intelectual, año 2, 3, 61-98. Buenos Aires: nacionalidad uruguaya. Montevideo: Arca. Tavella, S., Taquini, G., y Bouret, D.
unsam. (2004). Marcas oficiales por artistas
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170
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
ALCANCES DE LA Avrami, E., Dardes, K., de la Torre, M., Harris, Disaster Preparedness and Planning. IFLA-
CONSERVACIÓN S. Y., Henry, M. y Jessup, W. C. (1999). PAC. 171
BIBLIOGRAFÍA Evaluación para la conservación: Modelo
European Preventive Conservation Strategy Van Bommel, M.; Geldof, M., y Hendriks, E.
European Commission. (Setiembre, 2000). (2005). "An investigation of organic red
Hacia una estrategia europea sobre pigments used in paintings by Vincent van
conservación preventiva. Reunión de Gogh". ArtMatters: Netherlands technical
Vantaa, pp. 21-22. studies in art, 3, pp. 111-137.
178 For several decades now, the need to preserve and conserve cultural assets has been included in the
country’s cultural agenda. There is a consensus that the conservation of cultural assets —, which are our
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cultural heritage— extends their life, so that they may reach the next generations in the best possible
conditions. There is already legislation in this regard, in Uruguay and in the world, which supports these
actions and enables society to see the importance of the preservation and conservation of monuments,
paintings or architectural pieces as well as other tangible or intangible heritage assets.
The project that we presented in the competition for the directorship of the Museo Blanes included the
restoration of the Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales (Oath of the Thirty-Three Patriots of the
Eastern Province) (1875-1878) as an important point in the conservation of the Museum’s collection.
The functions of a museum are several and complex: they are cultural institutions that conserve the
material cultural heritage of humanity, guard it, investigate it and socialize it. These four functions are
intrinsically linked in the dynamics of a living museum.
The restored work belongs to the Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales (mnav, National Museum of Visual
Arts), under the Ministry of Education and Culture (mec) and has been in the custody of the Museo
Blanes since 1976. The painting was brought to the Museum that year for the Exposición Blanes
(Blanes Exhibition), along with other works by the painter. Therefore, in addition to the support of the
departmental authorities, it was necessary to have the authorization of mnav and mec for its restoration.
In order to achieve this objective, it was essential to substantiate the need for the project and to give
the technical details of its conservation state, so it was necessary to devise a suitable strategy to work
on a picture of this cultural value and these dimensions (305 x 560 cm) that would justify an important
investment in its restoration. This artwork, so important for the history of Uruguay, had, among other
pathologies, detachments that compromised its permanence through time and oxidations of its varnish
that did not allow to appreciate the work in its fullness from a chromatic point of view. For the diagnosis,
different restorers were consulted, in order to obtain more than one technical opinion and to be able
to consider a teamwork effort. The dimensions of the painting and its pathologies justified that the work
team finally be organized with the participation of the restaurateurs Claudia Barra and Mechtild Endhardt.
An art museum is not only an exhibition area, but it also conserves its collection, the material heritage;
it guards it, and opens a space of research
and study of the artistic work by allowing researchers and
scientists to examine the material that makes up the museum’s collection. Restoring an artwork endowed
with the highest historical value, an iconographic piece that is part of Uruguay’s identity, in addition to
its artistic value, was a major action that prompted us to propose that the task be performed in view of
the public. Doing it in this way allowed educating the visitors of the Museum in the conservation work
that it carries out and contributing to the knowledge of the public about one of the Museum’s missions.
The heritage that we receive —in this case in particular, a pictorial artwork of the characteristics of the
Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales, offers the possibility to reconstruct our historical dimension.
The Juramento, the work of Juan Manuel Blanes, has also been transformed into a landmark of this
historic construct, since it represents one of the most significant moments of the foundation of Uruguay:
the liberating crusade. From this historical fact, Blanes relies on a possible, if not proven, oath. Blanes’
proposition in representing this oath is a classic composition in a semicircle, where the characters
transmit the importance of the heroic act they are about to carry out. The author eludes the center and
divides the represented scene into three, concentrating the attention on the place occupied by the flag,
to the right of the painting. This staging receives from its left side a powerful light that lands on the flag
and the most significant characters.
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This book aims to be an active contribution to the preservation of the pictorial artwork, in this case a 179
painting by Juan Manuel Blanes, and an account of the various reflections and actions that took place
Performing this restoration had an important cost and meant a political decision about the contribution
to the conservation of this painting, an icon of national history. Initially it seemed an unattainable idea,
due to the size of the project; nevertheless, from the presentation of the first ideas until its fulfillment
only twelve months lapsed. The restoration was carried out within schedule and resulted in a new
perspective of this artwork by Blanes.
The restoration of pictorial works is done based on a historical awareness that must necessarily take into
account the present needs and use that framework to make decisions. Thus, the entire process carried
out in view of the public was an unprecedented cultural event in our country, which attracted a large
audience. Once the works were finished, the result is excellent and it has become an example for future
conservation actions.
The recognition of the past is not in order to remain in it, but to establish a commitment with the future.
We congratulate then Mayor Ana Olivera, who believed in this project and supported us to carry it
forward, and we thank all the staff of Museum Blanes who supported the effort so it could be carried
out smoothly.
Cristina Bausero
Director of Museo Juan Manuel Blanes
Introduction
ENGLISH VERSION
180 The significance of Juan Manuel Blanes as the great creator for the southern cone of America of what
Pierre Nora described as sites of memory is still growing.
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In the last decades of the nineteenth century, he became renowned as a unique figure in the region
due to his extraordinary talent, not just as a painter, but as a creator and generator of new audiences
and spaces for an art genre that was almost unknown until then: large format or historical paintings
conceived with a philosophical-historical intent to move and persuade through the impact of its images.
Blanes also created images that are viewed as foundational of the national iconography of Chile and
Argentina. Even though his epic scale painting Últimos momentos de José Miguel Carrera (Last Moments
of José Miguel Carrera) was never purchased in Chile (it is currently at the Museo Nacional de Artes
Visuales, mnav, in Montevideo), it was, since its first exhibition in Santiago, copied and reproduced to
become the most pervasive image of Carrera, in a nation where the identity of the painter never had real
significance. In Argentina, on the other hand, Blanes received official commissions on several occasions,
and Buenos Aires saw his first public success with Un episodio de la fiebre amarilla (An Episode of
Yellow Fever) in 1871. Paraguay, after a recent find by Osvaldo Salerno, has discovered that one of the
emblematic images of Marshall Francisco Solano López —an equestrian portrait on his white horse— was
painted by our artist in Florence.2
However, a nationalistic logic prevailed over his role as a regional artist. The Uruguayan State, which
recognized Blanes as a national artist in the early stages of his career, financed his studies in Europe,
acquired some of his great paintings and established his prestige through recognitions, exhibitions,
publications and the care of his works and his personal archive, preserved in part at the General Archive
of the Nation and at the Museo Blanes.
The Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales (The Oath of the Thirty-Three Patriots of the Eastern
Province) (1877) became his first success in his native land. This image is deeply inscribed in the historical
memory of generations of Uruguayans due to its presence in school manuals and posters, in books
and magazines, bills, postage stamps, phone cards, etc. However, this excessive familiarity had probably
started to render invisible the theatrical rhetoric of those decimononical characters, in an era marked by
the spectacular circulation of increasingly light and shocking images.
The recent research and restoration of the painting recovers its history and —above al— the physical
presence of this large format canvas housed at the Museo Blanes in Montevideo. The long restoration
process carried out in front of the public through guided visits at the museum, followed by this
publication which recaptures the story of the creative process, the painting’s first reception and the
varied moments in which it was resignified, exhibited and transported, have restored the materiality and
critical fortune of this immense canvas that was a feat in the Montevideo of the 1870s.
The image’s character as a museum painting is thus restored, after having gone through every social
stratum, utilization, support, and every gaze, from children to adults. This return redoubles its public
ENGLISH VERSION
This important initiative of restoration and research opens up new perspectives and reflections on a
painting that elicited a huge interest from its inception. Its composition was carefully pondered by the
artist for over a decade, in a dialogue with the first historiographic constructions of the Uruguayan
nation. Its subject went from words to image and then in turn gave rise to a proliferation of discourses,
explanations, declarations, poems and letters, starting with those from Blanes himself. This brought 181
about a redoubling of words embodied in a spectacular image.
Blanes started imagining during his first stay in Florence the great picture or pictures he would be able
to create there, where projects of epic proportions were being realized at the time. This included Latin-
American artists like the Peruvian Luis Montero, whom Blanes met during that first trip and whose large
painting Los funerales de Atahualpa (The Funerals of Atahualpa) would be triumphantly exhibited in
Montevideo a short while later.
The commemorative painting of the recent political events that had led to the unification of Italy and
the brief period of Florence as a capital was, on the other hand, an important vein for Florentine artistic
modernity and an extraordinary stimulus for the South American painters who traveled there for their
training.
With that impulse, as shown in the research by Elisa Pérez Buchelli, Blanes started to shape his idea;
he wrote letters in which he presented himself not just as a modern artist capable of carrying out
a previously unprecedented feat in Uruguay, but also as a skilled interpreter of the events of recent
history which would likely become the tokens of union and peace for a young nation torn by faction
fighting from the exact time of its independence from Spain. The choice of a propositional moment in
the construction of an institutional bond (the oath of fidelity) for this work that would become his great
entrance as a painter of Uruguayan history can be interpreted in this sense.
At the same time, Blanes had also started working on his project about the battle of Sarandí, the large
painting he would leave unfinished in his studio in Florence, and on which he kept working until his
death, in 1901. He had arrived in Florence at a time of great political and artistic ebullience. These were
the years of the proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy and of Florence as its capital, and of the realization
of the National Exhibition of 1861 and the stylistic disputes within the Academy.4 Blanes’ peculiar style,
which has been labelled as academicism, neoclassicism, etc., is closely linked with the demands for
truth, animation and modernity proposed by the academy’s young members, both the macchiaioli and
others like his teacher Antonio Ciseri, who at the time renewed the language of religious and historical
painting.5
The artist argued that Florence in 1866 was the right place to carry out such an enterprise. Not only did
it have accessible supplies and adequate spaces, but also a climate created by colleagues and specialized
critics who would provide support and encouragement. However, Blanes did not obtain the new
scholarship he was expecting, so he worked in his Montevideo workshop. This increased the impact of the
painting as it highlighted its difficulties and minutiae, such as the one described by Fernández Saldaña,
The final milestone in the critical fortune of this work is the Año de la Orientalidad (Year of Uruguayanhood)
instituted by the last military dictatorship in 1975, and the transportation of the piece to the Museo
Blanes the following year. During those years, all of the military regimes of the region embarked on a
symbolic mission to promote commemorations and patriotic homages that became omnipresent.
182 These commemorations were held simultaneously with the systematic repression and extermination
campaign of the last “heroic” generation of young revolutionaries. They had taken the streets and
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the arms also to raise a symbolic dispute regarding the heroes and foundational facts of American
emancipation. In Uruguay, on the eve of the 18th of July of 1969, an opr-33 (Organization of the Popular
Revolution-33) commando captured the flag of the Treinta y Tres Orientales from the Museo Histórico
Nacional, which, after the disappearance of the protagonists, was never recovered.6 This event was in
tune with other symbolic thefts of remains of heroes of the emancipation wars of America, like the
curved saber of José de San Martín by the Peronist Youth in 1963 or the theft carried out by the M-19 of
the sword and spurs of Simón Bolívar in Colombia in 1964. Even much later, in 1980, the flag representing
the oath of independence in Chile in 1818 was stolen from the Museo Histórico Nacional by the Javiera
Carrera commando from the Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria (mir), as a sign of resistance to the
Pinochet dictatorship, generating huge turmoil in the press.7
It is possible to see, then, both in that gesture of the OPR-33 group and in the particular interest of
the military that defeated them for exhibiting, reproducing and publicizing Blanes’ painting (even by
highlighting the central fragment in which Lavalleja appears with the flag), the extraordinary persistence
of the symbolic power of this image of the Oath, its flag and its slogan of “Freedom or Death.”
This was, undoubtedly, the last great dispute over patriotic iconography. However, on a less grandiloquent
but still incisive tone, Blanes’ painting has been resignified by contemporary artists, who cast a new and
critical light over this image etched in the collective imagination. When in 2004-2005 two curators,
an Uruguayan and an Argentinean (Santiago Tavella and Graciela Taquini) invited artists from the two
nations of the River Plate for a collective exhibition that proposed a critical reflection based on images
about the monumentalization of memory and its persistence,8 the Uruguayan artist Pablo Uribe and
the Argentinean Leonel Luna revisited and re-signified the oath of the Treinta y Tres Orientales. In his
deconstructive dialogue with the foundational myths of Uruguay, Uribe performed a museographic
reference with Alegoría (Allegory), an installation that included a museum guard watching over the small
sketch of the monumental painting. Leonel Luna reconstructed the scene and poses created by Blanes
in a photographic take for which 33 Orientals from the Orient9 (Chinese and Korean immigrants) posed
in allusion to the problem of the insertion of new immigrants in Buenos Aires after the crisis of 2001.
The theatrical arrangement of the characters, the heroic gestures and the declamatory poses that would
seem to distance the artwork from the sensibility of the contemporary observer are perhaps elements
that contribute to the powerful anachronism of this painting, which, through time, has retained its
capacity to attract new spectators, new gazes and interpretations.
6 ..See:<http://www.pasadoreciente.com/hechos/1969/08%20Roban%20bandera%2033/16B-5-6-7-8-17-Jul-69-port,1001B.
jpg>.
7 . See: <http://www.lidersanantonio.cl/site/edic/20031221221628/pags/20031222000422.html>.
8 . The exhibition Marcas oficiales por artistas contemporáneos rioplatenses inaugurated in 2004 at the Centro de Exposiciones of
the Municipality of Montevideo and, with some variants, in 2005 at the Centro Cultural Recoleta in Buenos Aires.
9 . Translator’s Note: The painting’s title in Spanish refers to the Uruguayan heroes as “Orientales” (Easterners), a denomination
that has been intermittently been used as a synonym for Uruguayan.
BEYOND THE IMAGE:
CONTEXTS, IDEOLOGIES AND SOCIAL PROJECTS.
ENGLISH VERSION
One Century of the Painting Juramento de los
Treinta y Tres Orientales by Juan Manuel Blanes
Elisa Pérez Buchelli 183
INTRODUCTION
This text offers a historical account about the painting Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales (Oath of
the Thirty-Three Patriots of the Eastern Province1) by Juan Manuel Blanes. It spans from the first creative
ideas of the painter around the last quarter of the 19th century to the return of the painting to the Museo
Blanes in 1976.
Because this painting is one of the most significant pieces in the national public heritage, the analysis
covers its creative itinerary and the instances of its first public presentation, as well as the key elements
behind the social construction of this image as the emblem for the national imagery of certain Uruguayan
collectives with projections into the present.
The proposition is to think about this artwork in terms of a series of milestones of promotion and social
legitimation that contributed historically to its consolidation as an icon. The purpose is to reveal the
history behind this emblematic painting, to discover some of its material and symbolic paths, to rethink
the conditions for its creation, its institutional process, and some relevant enunciation and exhibition
procedures, to finally probe into the central character that its visuality holds for our culture.
Within this account, this text selects three significant moments: the artist’s initial project and its first
public reception in 1878; the exhibition held as a tribute to Blanes at the Teatro Solís in 1941; the
exhibition El nacimiento de nuestra nación (The Birth of our Nation), organized in the framework of the
Año de la Orientalidad (Year of Uruguayanhood) celebrations in 1975 —officially proclaimed by the civic-
military dictatorship— and the Blanes exhibition held at the museum that bears his name in 1976, where
the painting has been housed since then.
The artwork Juramento de los Treinta y Tres2 by Juan Manuel Blanes constitutes one of the historic paintings
most deeply inscribed in the national imagery of Uruguayans since its first public presentation in 1878.
The painting depicts the oath of freedom or death that would have taken place after the landing at
1 Translator’s Note: The Thirty-Three Easterners/Orientals, named after the Banda Oriental (Eastern province).
2 . Oil on canvas, 305 × 564 cm, 1875-1877. Belongs to the collection of the Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales (mnav) of Uruguay.
Since November of 1976, it is on exhibition at the Museo Juan Manuel Blanes. From now on, we will refer in this text to this painting
as Juramento (Oath). Regarding the name of the painting, it should be noted that in the memorandum of the painting published by its
author in 1878, this work was referred to as Juramento de los Treinta y Tres. See: Blanes, J. M., 1878a. In other documents, the artist
referred to this same work as the Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales. See, for example: Contrato entre Juan Manuel Blanes y
Manuel Serón (1878). For the purposes of this research, we will consider the initial denomination indicated by the author at the time
of the publication of the memorandum. It is worth mentioning that the use of the adjective Orientales in the nomenclature not only
accentuates the patriotic dimension of the event regarding the construction of the nationality; it also reinforces the social role of
this image.
Playa de la Agraciada on April 19 of 18253. With this oath, the participants of the Cruzada Libertadora
(the Liberating Crusade) started the insurrection of the Oriental Province —then known as Cisplatine—
ENGLISH VERSION
against Brazilian authorities. Although there are other paintings about the landing,4 as well as numerous
works portraying national historical landmarks, Blanes’ painting has become consolidated, due to several
factors, as the image that represents and visually builds a relevant moment of national history associated
to Independence, although it was surrounded by a chain of other events.5
184 This group portrait was conceived by the artist in an imaginary but plausible fashion fifty years after the
event it depicts took place. Blanes performed a particular rendition of these thirty-three patriots when he
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
created and disseminated an image that, for the first time, individualized each one of them, specifically
identifying each participant by rendering a concrete corporeal characterization.6
In this artwork, Blanes created an artifice, a plausible image of the Thirty-Three, which, from its first
public presentation and in a sustained and progressive way, became the official representation of the
feat accomplished on April 19 of 1825 that still prevails.
Through this painting, Blanes created an elaborate and carefully meditated image that, in an
unprecedented manner, lent a physiognomy and identity to the bodies of those who, through this image
as well as other cultural productions, would enter posterity as national heroes, along with the ideas about
the building of nationhood present in the work. By visually giving these liberators their individuation,
and by representing them and their patriotic act using his personal rendering of the academic expertise
acquired during his training in Florence, Blanes offered a meaningful image for the social and cultural
construction of the modern national heroes, the founding characters of our cultural imagery.7
Having said that, how did this painting become a national icon? Which mechanisms have rooted its
sustained social projection through time? Why has this particular image become consolidated over
others as an emblem of our nationality? Why has the visual representation of the Juramento been so
powerful? What have been the impulses that have kept this painting and its visual discourse as an image
with an official “documentary” status of this patriotic act?
The diverse receptions of this painting are mediated by practices, material and symbolic operations that
have interacted to activate or deactivate the “powers” of these images as cultural artifacts. Some images
become icons based on diverse mechanisms of construction of social meaning, such as exhibitions,
publications, presence in school environments, the circulation of copies or reproductions, appropriations,
quotations, and commemorations among others. (Malosetti Costa, 2006).
3 . There has been discussion about the actual existence of the oath as such, which arises from oral and written testimony, including
the personal memories of Juan Spikerman and Luis Ceferino de la Torre. It is also present in the text of the play by Villademoros from
the year 1832 in which this act is staged. These references about the disembarkation and the oath, among others, would have been
considered by Blanes in his creation (M. J. Ardao, 1975).
4 . There is a painting previous to Blanes’ called Desembarco de los Treinta y Tres Orientales (The Landing of the Thirty-Three
Patriots of the Eastern Province), painted in 1854 by the artist Josefa Palacios, which is housed at the Casa de Lavalleja of the Museo
Histórico Nacional (mhn, National Historical Museum) in Uruguay.
5 .The official and social recognition of national independence has been established through varied mechanisms, among which is
the Declaration of Independence of August 25 of 1825, which chronologically follows the process initiated by the landing on April 19,
whose iconographic status was constructed by Blanes in his painting. The selection of the official date for the commemoration of the
anniversary of national independence has been a product of the report presented by the historian and politician Pablo Blanco Acevedo
in 1922, about the celebration of the centennial of independence, in addition to the prolific historiographic production of several
authors. See: Blanco Acevedo (1940). For a review of the traditional historiographical schools of thought related to the “classic thesis
of independentism”, as well as for the consideration of national independence as a possibility between several possible configurations,
see Real de Azúa (1991).
6 . This painting was presented to the public in 1878 together with the text of the Memoria sobre el cuadro del Juramento de los
33 written and signed by the artist. In this publication, Blanes meticulously outlined his procedures and theoretical-methodological
choices for the creation of the painting. At the end of the publication there is a lithography made by Blanes that reproduces a sketch
of the painting´s motif. It also features an enumeration of each one of the patriots, nominally identifying each one in accordance with
their position in the painting.
7 .The individuation achieved in this representation positions this artwork as a collective portrait and sets it aside from other
paintings of national historical events, many of which were also authored by Blanes but did not receive the same recognition within
the collective imagery as the Juramento.
The Juramento was exhibited at the artist’s studio before an audience of leading Montevidean politicians
ENGLISH VERSION
at the beginning of 1878, during the provisional government of Colonel Lorenzo Latorre. From then on,
it became established as a cultural icon of great repercussion that has contributed in a decisive way to
the construction of certain national collective imagery of Uruguay.
Since the exhibition of the original painting during official celebrations in Uruguay and Argentina in
the late 19th century, its iconography has been reproduced in countless supports and media, ranging
from photographs, paper money, school manuals, Tabaré sheets8, covers and pages of history books, 185
magazines, catalogs, reviews and press releases to quotes and appropriations in a regulatory framework,9
The reasons behind this pervasive effect can be related to its historiographic correlations and to some
relevant moments in the painting’s history as well as to the countless reproductions in different media and
formats that have circulated, all of which have weighed in the social construction attributed to this image.
FROM THE IDEA TO ITS REALIZATION: THE PROJECT OF THE HISTORICAL PAINTING
ABOUT THE TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES BY BLANES
In the context of the late 19th century in Latin America, cultural productions were particularly decisive in
the construction of political and symbolic operations that contributed to the consolidation of the modern
national States, of which they were, largely, agents. Certain literary, iconographic and historiographic
productions gradually influenced the construction of national imagery (Burucúa y Campagne, 2003).
In this regard, the social function of images, in particular those depicting historical themes, was mostly
associated with educating and civilizing, in a progressive sense, towards the consolidation of the Nation.
The images, as well as the discourses that surrounded them, were useful contributors of visual and
discursive elements of social cohesion. (Malosetti Costa, 2006).
The creation of the Juramento must be contextualized in this complex weft of ideas and cultural, social
and political projects. Particularly, through this painting, Blanes was able to achieve a historical image
that, within the context of its creation, promoted a representation of the past that was functional to the
legitimation of the project for national political modernization driven by the ruling elite. Therefore, the
painting was recognized and legitimized from its first public presentation. This artwork and its favorable
reception afforded Blanes his first recognition as a historical painter, as he had envisioned for his
professional career. Later on, during the 20th century, this image was appropriated and legitimized within
different contexts by means of varied strategies of promotion, dissemination, circulation and recognition,
which contributed new instances of resignification in the context of different national projects.
Not every historical painting created by Blanes was presented and received in the same way. Other
works by the artist which delve into topics or events of national history, such as the paintings Artigas
en la Ciudadela (Artigas in the Citadel) and Batalla de Sarandí (Sarandí Battle) —both thought to be
unfinished—, were shown publicly during the first years after the painter’s death. Artigas’ portrait by
186 Blanes became, during the second half of the 20th century, the most widely known image of the national
hero (Malosetti Costa, 2013).
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
The date of creation of the Juramento has been established between 1875 and 1877 in Montevideo
(Fernández Saldaña, 1931; de Salterain y Herrera, 1950). However, over a decade before carrying out the
definitive creation of the painting, Blanes had come up with the idea of producing a historical painting
on the subject.
Immersed in a network of intellectual and political collaborations, Blanes seems to have perceived
the necessity and effectiveness of monumental historic painting as a contribution to the symbolic
construction of nationality, an issue of particular importance in the creation of this work.13
The theme of the Thirty-Three was present in the political and intellectual spheres of Uruguay during the
1860s and 1870s, regarded as a means to consolidate a cohesive national imagery indispensable to avoid
a possible dissolution of the State (Rocca, 2000: 241).14
There is no doubt that the idea for this painting was developed several years before its definitive realization.15
This research takes as an accurate antecedent a letter sent by Blanes to Andrés Lamas in 1865. This document
has been mentioned by de Salterain y Herrera (1950: 157) and by Fernández Saldaña (1932: 1; and 1939: 17)
albeit without a deep analysis of its contents. In this document, Blanes mentions to Lamas16 an anecdote about
13 . As Pierre Bourdieu has stated (2003: 208) in his social theory regarding the relationship between fields, the particular interplay
between a socially constituted habitus and the field of instituted positions is what creates the “creators”. However, during the last
quarter of the 19th century the artistic field was in its initial structuring phase in the River Plate.
14 . In 1864, the monument to commemorate the Thirty-Three was built at the Agraciada beach, where the disembarkation took
place, an initiative promulgated by Law Nº 764, dated April 18 of 1863 (Armand Ugón, Cerdeiras Alonso, Arcos Ferrand y Goldaracena,
1930: 6, 11-12). According to Salterain y Herrera (1950: 165), this initiative was promoted and paid for by Domingo Ordoñana, a
wealthy ranch owner from Soriano, and a member of the commission in charge of drafting the rural code of 1875. He later founded the
Asociación Rural del Uruguay. He was also a close friend of Blanes. A competition to select the National Independence monument was
organized in 1876. The winning monument, made by the sculptor Juan Ferrari, was inaugurated in 1879 and placed at the Asamblea
square in the city of Florida.
15 . The historiographer that dares to locate the most remote antecedent for this creative process is Professor María Julia Ardao
(1975: 18). In her text about the Juramento, Ardao argues that on the upper left corner of the document establishing the act of
donation of two fragments of the flag of the Thirty-Three Orientals, a vignette or decorative calligraphic sign can be recognized. In this
image, according to the author, Lavalleja is placed in the center of the vignette surrounded by the patriots who form a circle. In this
way, she identifies an iconographic precedent that provides an advance of the outline of the final composition by Blanes. The author
also identifies two signatures in the same document that may be linked to the creators of the image. According to the author, Juan
Manuel Besnes e Irigoyen and Juan Manuel Blanes. According to Ardao: “We are inclined to believe that the drawing is the work of
Blanes, which would constitute an interesting precedent for the 1878 canvas” (1975: 18). On the other hand, de Salterain y Herrera
(1950: 159) reproduces in his book a sketch that he describes as an iconic “primitive partial study” for the Juramento de los Treinta y
Tres Orientales. The author situates the production of this image in Florence in 1864, only to be known in Montevideo in 1901. It should
be noted that the origin of this sketch is not mentioned, and the author does not elaborate on aspects of its realization by Blanes. This
attribution is later mentioned in a quote of de Salterain y Herrera, in the biographical synthesis of the publication “Juan Manuel Blanes:
La nación naciente (1830-1901)” in Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor, 2001: 23.
16 . Andrés Lamas, born in Montevideo in 1817, was a prominent politician and intellectual whose thoughts and ideas were
decisive for a great deal of the political and cultural processes that took place during the 19th century in the region. He held posts
in the Government for the Defense during the Guerra Grande; he was a political chief in 1843 and Minister of Economy in 1844. He
was appointed and fulfilled diplomatic duties as minister in Brazil, where he negotiated in 1851 the treaties for the establishment of
borders between Uruguay and Brazil. He authored the manifesto published in 1855 denominated Andrés Lamas a sus compatriotas.
Lamas was Minister of Economy during the government of Pedro Varela, in 1875 and 1876, when the painting about the Thirty-
Three Orientals was being created. Throughout his intellectual itinerary, his reflections took into consideration the need to seek and
the idea of making the painting, a project that ultimately would not be realized under those circumstances:
ENGLISH VERSION
Speaking about historical paintings and in regards to the improvements to be carried out by
the government here at the Government House, Mr. D. Juan Ramón Gómez had the good idea
of speaking to me about the opportunity to create a painting about the landing of the thirty-
three patriots. This idea, which is not new for you, flattered not just my desire to shrug off the
meanness and the grief of my material life, but also appealed to my desire to demonstrate my
worth as a historical painter, to move beyond what I receive as a portraitist, as one is called 187
around here. I made a draft as requested, and I realized it without knowing the place of the
This fragment, written a year after his return from Europe, evidences some elements of great interest for
our analysis. On the one hand, this source makes possible the documentation of the previous exchange
between Blanes and Lamas18 about creating this historical painting. On the other, this manuscript makes
explicit what this commission would imply for Blanes’ career: to lessen his economic hardships, but
especially, to publicly demonstrate his mettle as a painter of historical pictures. This project would allow
him to transcend the image of a mere portraitist, legitimizing him as a historical painter, something he
wished to consolidate for his professional image, to set himself apart from other painters of his time.
Thirdly, this passage describes in a succinct way some aspects of his artistic methodology for tackling
such a painting. Faced with the idea and the possibility of its execution, he elaborated a first draft of the
general composition, even though he did not know the physical place (and this would have been desirable
according to his ideas).19 He wrote a text detailing the conditions that a responsible historical painting
should fulfill, stipulated prices in accordance with the dimensions of the figures to be represented, and
stated the moral content that this painting would advocate.
Another point of interest is the fact that when the project did not proceed from an agreement with
Juan Ramón Gómez20 Blanes more or less discreetly suggested to Lamas the possibility of becoming the
supporter of the enterprise:21
I bring this to your attention because, if you do not wish to get the glory of realizing this idea
alone, and if a reason should arise to bring forth this matter, do not forget that after going to
Europe to study painting and upon returning to the Homeland I have had the noble ambition
legitimize Americanist cultural elements, typical of the young nations that were starting their independent life. This philosophical
and intellectual coincidence fostered social contacts and letter exchanges that brought Lamas and Blanes together as interlocutors
between 1864 and 1891. Lamas was also an important collector of art, books and historical documents. For an approximation to the
relations between Blanes and Lamas, see the text by Magdalena Broquetas and Inés Cuadro, “Colores políticos. Juan Manuel Blanes en
el espacio rioplatense “ in Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor (2001). For an in-depth study of the figure and
regional influence of Lamas, see the work by Sansón (2015).
17 . The documentary transcriptions in Spanish keep the original spelling.
18 .In Andrés Lamas’ archive, preserved at the Archivo General de la Nación (agn) of Uruguay, there is no previous reference to
this topic in his correspondence with Juan Manuel Blanes. It is possible that this exchange was oral or that it is based on previous
correspondence that has not been kept, is lost, or in another document collection.
19 . We have no knowledge of the existence or eventual location of this first draft. It could be the one mentioned by de Salterain
y Herrera (1950).
20 . Juan Ramón Gómez was Minister of Economy of Uruguay between 1865 and 1866, during the interim government of
Venancio Flores.
21 . In fact, it is possible that Blanes’ narration to Lamas of this anecdote had this ulterior purpose.
of sharing with my compatriots the wealth acquired through my studies. Be kind enough to
forgive me if I make a nuisance of myself, but I want to believe that you understand me well.
ENGLISH VERSION
(Blanes, 1865a).
Beyond the genealogy in these accounts, the forms of creation that Blanes utilized for producing his
historical paintings is what should be highlighted, along with the close relations he held with the political
power and the intellectual circles that could offer the support required to carry out these enterprises and
188 to define the pictorial themes he created, in reality, or potentially.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
A year after this correspondence, at the beginning of 1866, Blanes wrote a letter addressed to the
Economic-Administrative Council of Montevideo22, in which he promoted, as a personal initiative,
the painting of two historical canvases —one of them about the “thirty-three patriots”— for which
he requested the economic support of said council (Blanes, 1866a).23 As an argument to support this
initiative, Blanes provided a detailed project for the creation of historical paintings in which he described
his artistic concept and the conditions under which those enterprises could be carried out.
This is an important precedent in the conceptual preparation of the Juramento, written ten years before
the definitive creation of the painting. It is of particular interest for this research that Blanes explained
the need for financial and political support on the part of the government for the realization of the
painting. Likewise, the examination of this document and its interpretation provide input to analyze the
subsequent practices regarding the material creation of the artwork and the strategies developed so that
the painting would become part of the State’s cultural heritage.
With this initiative, Blanes wished to obtain a new official sponsorship following the scholarship granted
in 1860 by the Uruguayan government24 through which he studied painting under Master Antonio Ciseri.
In this proposal of 1866 Blanes requested funds for carrying out two historical paintings in Florence: one
about the Thirty-Three Orientales (which he had already conceived as the “dawn of April 19 1825 in the
Arenal Grande”)25 and another one about a battle in Sarandí, Rincón or Ituzaingó. However, his request
referred mainly to the painting about the Thirty-Three (Blanes, 1866a).
The first edition of the Bosquejo histórico de la República Oriental del Uruguay (Historical Outline of the
Eastern Republic of Uruguay) by Francisco A. Berra26 is dated in the same year. It built an unprecedented
historiographical story about the episode of the landing of the Thirty-Three intended for primary schools
(Ardao, 1975: 26). This book was based on chronicles and accounts about these events, in circulation at
the beginning of the 1860s. On the other hand, the Bosquejo histórico… was widely used in Uruguayan
educational institutions (Oddone, 1959: 17) between its first publication and, at least, its third edition
in 1881.27
22 . The Economic-Administrative Councils were the political organizations at departmental level, according to the Constitution
of the Eastern State of Uruguay of 1830. Article 126 of Chapter II, section X of said constitutional charter established that: “Its
main purpose will be the promotion of agriculture, prosperity and advantages of the Department in every aspect: to watch over
primary education, as well as the conservation of individual rights; and to propose to the Legislative Body and the Government all the
improvements that they deem necessary or useful”. Recovered from: http://www.parlamento.gub.uy/constituciones/const830.htm. In
his manuscripts, Blanes refers to this entity as the “Economic-Administrative Commission”.
23 . This document was mentioned by Gabriel Peluffo Linari in his text “Los íconos de la nación. El proyecto histórico-museográfico
de Juan Manuel Blanes”, and partially reproduced in Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor (2001). Peluffo’s analysis
of this document focuses on the museographic principles described in Blanes’ project, but it does not provide a deeper analysis of this
piece as a precedent of the Juramento.
24 . Law Nº 615, passed on April 12 of 1860, granted Juan Manuel Blanes a study grant for the period of five years, “to study
in Europe the art of painting”. On June 15 of 1863, the amount of this stipend was increased through Law Nº 783 (Armand Ugon,
Cerdeiras Alonso, Arcos Ferrand and Goldaracena: 6, 26-27).
25 . According to testimonials of the protagonists, the disembarkation took place during the night.
26 . The book called Bosquejo histórico de la República Oriental del Uruguay by Berra had in subsequent years three editions
with controversial reformulations because of his concept of History as a discipline and the anti-artiguista vision he promoted. The
controversies were mainly about the fact that the text was an exception in the context of the efforts being made to shape a cohesive
national imagery (Sansón, 2006).
27 . The second edition of the Bosquejo Histórico… by Berra is dated 1874, a year before Blanes started his work on the definitive
It is possible to consider an incidence of Berra’s historiographic discourse in Blanes’ initial formulation, as
in his final conceptualization of the work. Berra also published an extensive article about the Juramento
ENGLISH VERSION
in the El Siglo newspaper a few days after its public presentation on January 9 of 1878. Possibly both
discourses, the iconographic one by Blanes and the textual one by Berra lent reciprocal support in the
context of the presentation of the work (1878) and contributed to a more effective communication of
the symbols implicit in both of them.28
If the proposal of 1866 is considered as an approach to the circumstances and context that surrounded 189
Blanes, it is possible to interpret that the painter produced himself as an artist, in the sense that during
In this sense, it is possible to interpret Blanes as an active artist who grew professionally as he contributed
elements, even in an initial phase, for later structuring on the artistic field.
For the conceptualization and formulation of his proposal to the Economic-Administrative Council in
1866, Blanes based it on the regional reference of the Peruvian painter Luis Montero, alluding to the
painting Los funerales de Atahualpa (The Funerals of Atahualpa) and the creative career of this artist.
In his letter, Blanes argued that should his request be heeded, “the Republic may proudly become the
second country in America to house in its Museum some of its most notable pages” (Blanes, 1866a).
Upon returning to his country (Peru) after being pensioned for six years in Italy, Mr.
D. Luis Montero has been commissioned by his government to create in Florence the
painting of the tumultuous funerals of the Inca Atahualpa — A draft of this painting is
held by Blanes (Blanes, 1866a).
To materialize his request, Blanes argued that working abroad would reduce the manufacturing costs
and that he would be able to access technical supervision and specialized reviews, elements that were
not available in Uruguay, as he pointed out in his substantiation. (Blanes, 1866a).
In his arguments, Blanes recognized the civilizing (in the sense of progress), economic modernization and
social discipline endeavors of the Economic-Administrative Council. The painter thus associated himself
with the mission he recognized in the departmental government, possibly as a means of persuasion but
also in tune with his ideological context, because [his request] responded to “the improvements that
should provide the people with comfort, recreation and education” by “fostering the means of education
in general” (Blanes, 1866a).
He also identified in the Council a spirit of national construction, as it took care, in his opinion, “of
providing the Department of the Capital with everything it lacks” (Blanes, 1866a). In this context, Blanes
associated himself to these ideas by proposing:
... to represent the Republic with dignity, and to say to those abroad that, although in a small
scale, the country bases its progress on the application of the elements that not only instruct
Juramento.
28 . Additionally, a Fragment of Berra’s article of 1878 was reproduced in 1941, among the texts included in volume 1 of the
catalog for the Juan Manuel Blanes exhibition at the Teatro Solís, providing a different time frame for this close connection between
text and image.
29 . This strategy for production and management can also be appreciated in a previous request by Blanes to the Parliament that
he be sent to Europe on a scholarship (Fernández Saldaña, 1931: 48-51).
the people, but also stimulate and direct them towards the will to receive that precise instruction
(Blanes, 1866a).
ENGLISH VERSION
In his project, Blanes proposed to the departmental government to support the realization of his works,
which would in turn become part of the collection of the Museo Nacional.30 In his substantiation, he
considered the deficiencies of the museum, in his view, in relation to its paintings, understanding that
it was in the antipodes of the aspirations of what a museum worthy of “national pride” should hold.
190 According to his ideas, providing the Museo Nacional with a historical painting of a large format would
lend this institution a more “respectable character […] and would turn it into a monument of recreation
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Through this initiative, Blanes mentioned the bearing of his proposal, as what was at stake was the
“moral importance” of a painting which he projected as “a serious, artistic, historical and true-to-life
depiction of one of the most brilliant episodes of our clouded history, and of the history of America as
well.” (1866a).
To this end, Blanes justified his professional skill as a painter capable of undertaking this type of works
based on his art studies in Europe. In his 1866 text, Blanes constructed an image of himself that would
set him apart from other painters of his time, who devoted themselves to the “anti-liberal and obsequious
art of the portraitist” (Blanes, 1866a).
In his 1866 proposal, in exchange for the financial compensation for the execution of the two
aforementioned historical paintings, which he stipulated as a contract between both parties, Blanes
undertook to artistically carry out both paintings (that of the Thirty-Three and the one of the Sarandí
Battle), in the following manner:
... with figures two thirds of their natural size, conforming to the most vigorous European art
practices and precepts, namely: -Truthfulness, unity and verisimilitude of representation -
Truthful depiction of customs - Truthful coloring - Philosophy of composition - Grandiose
chiaroscuro, that is to say, a fair distribution of the masses - Correct drawing- Fairness of
perspective- Historical accessories - Characteristic movement- Identity of all those characters for
whom it is possible to acquire portraits, (however bad) - Topographic truthfulness- Sentiment-
Expression- Truthfulness of the action expressed- Special character in the figures - Unity and
perspective in the common action, and duration of the work (Blanes, 1866a).
Likewise, the artist proposed travelling to the places where the scenes to be represented had occurred,
and to procure a person who would relate the facts to the artist for their creation. In turn, he also
planned a quota of personal creation for the composition, including a clause in which he set forth:
...allowing myself the licenses that art deems possible, as long as these licenses do not
compromise the history and unity of the matter to be represented- In this regard, and among
others, (relative to the painting of the Thirty-Three) the proponent artist suggests and favors
altering the historical time; changing nighttime to dawn (Blanes, 1866a).
These aspects describe the project for iconographic creation that Blanes was imagining: a plausible
representation that would make possible the conceptual and ideological elaboration of the artist’s ideas.
In other words, the historical paintings that Blanes planned, far from proposing a mere reproduction
30 . The Museo Nacional was the first museum of Uruguay. It was created in 1873 and housed collections of natural history
and later of fine arts and history. In 1911, by Law Nº 3,932 of December 1, the following units were created separately from that first
institution: The Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, the Archivo y Museo Histórico Nacional and the Museo Nacional de Historia Natural.
The collections from the former Museo Nacional were distributed among the new units as appropriate (Ministerio de Instrucción
Pública y Previsión Social and Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1966: lxi).
of reality as close as possible to the historical fact or to a supposed “historical truth”, proposed instead
ENGLISH VERSION
the artistic option of iconographic construction. This conceptual and creative element in Blanes’ work
distinguished him from other artists and from other paintings.
As mentioned before, Josefa Palacios had painted a picture about the Desembarco de los Treinta y Tres
that, unlike Blanes’ later rendering, depicts a generic image of the patriots without individuating or
lending them heroic connotations. This composition locates the scene in the middle of a dark night, 191
without engaging the artist’s subjectivity. Palacios recreated this feat in a distant manner, as if she
Blanes’ ideas on the subject, his particular conceptualization, methodology and the feasibility regarding
the creation of historical pictures that he systematized in his document of 1866 were present in the final
rendering of the work, which he finished in December of 1877.
The request made in 1866 was formally accepted by the Finance Commission of the Economic-
Administrative Council with some objections. The artist was informed via a note that the support he
was requesting had to be approved by the national government, an authority to which the Council was
subjected. In addition, it was stated that as the project involved a large sum of money, it was suggested
that only one of the works be realized (Administrative-Economic Council, March 18, 1866).
Blanes’ proposal requested that these two historical paintings be created in Europe, but it would not
be accepted in this instance. In a new letter addressed to the Economic-Administrative Council dated
July 11 of 1866, Blanes made a counterproposal. He suggested the creation of a Drawing Academy in
Montevideo under his direction with the aim of training professional artists.31 (Blanes, 1866b).
What we wish to highlight with respect to the formulation of the initial project for the creation of the
two historical paintings and its reception by the departmental administration in 1866, is that it set the
feasibility guidelines of such an undertaking: only one of the two works proposed could be afforded, and
the obtainment of the necessary financial support required the collaboration of the national government.
The conditions for the development of this venture were met in the mid-1870s. Blanes then started to
work on the painting he had conceptualized more than a decade prior. As we will see later, Blanes was at
that time able to obtain the support for the realization of this work, which was included in the national
collection immediately after its presentation.32
Blanes’ involvement with historical painting can be traced throughout his career, from his early self-
taught works, through his period of work for General Urquiza in the San José palace in Entre Ríos.
However, it was during his time of academic training in Florence (1860-1864) that Blanes was able to
31 . This drawing academy directed by Blanes was active between1866 and 1868 in Montevideo.
32 . The other painting Blanes had planned to create in 1866, Batalla de Sarandí, was started after the creation of the Juramento,
around 1880 in Florence, and continued until his last days (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y Teatro
Solís, 1941: I, 130). This painting and its draft became property of the State in1925, by Law No 7825, of April 22, when the National
Parliament, gathered in the General Assembly, approved the purchase of works by Juan Manuel Blanes from his heirs (for the amount
of 18,000 pesos) to be housed at the mhn and the Museo de Bellas Artes. Among the works acquired in this instance, considered
“artistic- historical pieces of the said national painter” are: the chromatic draft of the Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales, Artigas
en la Ciudadela, La Jura de la Constitución, Batalla de las Piedras, two portraits of Artigas in charcoal on paper, Retrato de la familia
Blanes, Retrato de la esposa del pintor, notes on historical documentation, about other academies, drafts and objects. This acquisition
of artworks to be added to the National public collection was promoted by Pablo Blanco Acevedo during his tenure as Secretary of
State at the Ministry of Public Instruction during the years before the acquisition of the works. See: Antecedentes del cuadro Artigas
en la Ciudadela, s/d.
elaborate a clearer vision of his possible contribution to the nascent South American nations.
ENGLISH VERSION
From this stage, Blanes elaborated a strategy that would allow him to identify socially fundamental
themes that would appeal to government officials and intellectuals —people who could become patrons,
promoters and buyers—, and in particular, to the urban gentry of high social sectors, on whom the power
of painting could exert its symbolic and moralizing effects over the values of the new modern society
being formed.
192
During the years between his initial idea and the final realization of the Juramento, Blanes devoted
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
himself to developing other personal projects which were significant for the political circles he frequented,
among which are the works Muerte del general Venancio Flores (The Death of General Venancio Flores)
(1868), Asesinato de Florencio Varela (The Assassination of Florencio Varela) (1870), Un episodio de Fiebre
Amarilla en Buenos Aires (An Episode of Yellow Fever in Buenos Aires) (1871), Revista de Rancagua (The
Review in Rancagua) (1872), and Últimos momentos de José Miguel Carrera (Last moments of José
Miguel Carrera) (1873).
These works depict Blanes’ interest in history, thought in terms of regional interactions, and they provided
posterity with snapshots of memories about events that were ichnographically constructed by the artist
(as an author) based on previous studies, which included historiographic readings, testimonials and the
review of oral traditions about the characters, places, weapons and clothing.33
The traditional story about the creative process of the Juramento states that exactly fifty years after
the landing of the Thirty-Three on the Agraciada beach, Blanes visited at dawn the precise location of
the landing, close to Ordoñana’s ranch, together with his friends, naturalist José Arechavaleta, ranch-
owner Domingo Ordoñana and his own son Juan Luis Blanes, to familiarize himself with the observable
characteristics of the place, its light and climate.
The narration of this inspiring and patriotic visit has been reproduced in historiography by several
authors, including Fenández Saldaña (1931), de Salterain y Herrera (1950) and Peluffo (1999). The story
is based on a testimony of Ordoñana’s published in the press in the context of the public presentation of
the painting in 187834. The narration has been quoted, for various reasons, as a fundamental element in
explaining Blanes’ creative methodology in the preparation of this artwork.
We consider that this narration, aside from considerations about its veracity, possibly contributes to
legitimizing the artist and his work in the long term, through the different temporalities in which it has
been quoted, as it discursively positions the painter as an almost material witness of the facts, in spite of
the fifty years that mediate between the historical event and the painting.
This account about the presence of the painter and his friends at the site where the events took
place contributes to the painting’s truthfulness, granting the artwork an official status as the “true”
representation of the Thirty-Three through his immersion in the physical space, as the surroundings have
been painted from nature, in spite of the chronological gap.
During the creative process of the Juramento, Blanes produced several drafts on different supports, such
as paper and canvas, with pencil and oil, including studies with partial figures, studies of the landscape,
details pertaining to the composition or approximations to the whole picture. It is worth mentioning that
this emblematic painting is related with other partial fragments that provide an account of the specific
creative process of the artist.
33 . Whenever possible, Blanes sought to visit the places (or scenarios) where the events to be depicted in his paintings had
taken place, or at least procured documents such as photographs, historiographic texts or other representations or stories (Fernández
Saldaña, 1931).
34 . Originally published in La Tribuna on January 2, 1878 and reproduced in Salterain y Herrera (1950: 165).
The drafts designed in pencil on paper and painted with chromatic oils kept at the Museo Blanes35
represent the first compositional attempts known. Like essays, they are partial approximations from
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which Blanes came closer to the definition of his final work rendered in the large format canvas. The
artist used these studies to bring about this particular iconography, to define his peculiar composition
while carrying out a meticulous study of the details to be represented. It is possible to observe in them
details of the main and secondary figures; of the body poses of individuals and reduced groups; the
definition of phenotypic traits of the faces and hands, their individual expressions and, on occasion, the
static representation of movement, the imaginary gestures of some of the patriots during the oath, the 193
discreet use of weapons, the design of the recreated clothes, the hats, the objects in the surroundings
It is important to note that there is a broad concordance in general lines between the designs of the
drafts, at least those considered so far, and the finished work. Due to this iconographic correspondence,
it is possible to think that these drafts were made in the years immediately prior to the final realization
of the painting. This aspect reveals to us that, in his creative process, the artist was conceptually aware
of the iconographic representation he sought. The image was approached from the drafts, but it is
not possible to identify a change in its conceptualization. The representations in the drafts correspond
largely with the image of the definitive painting.37 However, it is possible to identify in the pencil sketches
a greater expressive subtlety, due to the characteristics of the medium as, due to their being a study or
approximation, a partial and exploratory approach to the final design of the work can be perceived.
Another work linked to the Juramento, which is kept in the national public collections is an oil38 draft
that belongs to the mhn collection, named after the picture it makes reference to, which is considered a
“chromatic study, for the execution of the large picture Juramento” (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública,
Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 133). This oil sketch of small dimensions was
shown in the exhibition organized at the Teatro Solís in 1941. It became part of the collections of the mhn
since the aforementioned purchase by the Uruguayan State of several works, from the painter’s heirs in
192539. This piece bears a formal correspondence with the images depicted in the definitive work, but it
differentiates itself, as a draft, on its technical realization.
Another piece that may be considered a preparatory study for the Juramento is the oil on paper Paisaje
de la Agraciada (Landscape of the Agraciada).40 According to the catalog for the 1941 exhibition, this
oil is a “natural sketch created by the artist at the Agraciada beach, by the mouth of the Guardizábal
River, where the Thirty-Three Easterners disembarked. This […] landscape serves as a background to
the painting of the Juramento” (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes
y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 174). It is possible that this chromatic sketch was drafted during the inspiring
visit to the Agraciada beach on the eve of the fiftieth anniversary of the disembarking. Another related
work is the painting El baqueano de los Treinta y Tres (Andrés Cheveste) (The guide of the Thirty-Three).41
It is an isolated figure of the main painting, a portrait of that patriot. This was possibly painted a few
months after the conclusion and presentation of the Juramento in 1878. According to the testimony of
35 . A selection of these drafts was exhibited at the Museo Blanes in 2015, at the presentation of the restoration of the Juramento.
36 . In the drafts on paper, the predominant colors are red, blue and black against the white backdrop of the paper.
37 . There are at least two works by Blanes, Muerte del general Venancio Flores (1868) and Un episodio de la fiebre amarilla en
Buenos Aires (1871), in which there is a notable difference between the drafts and the finished work. Both are oil drafts. So much so,
that the idea of two different paintings about the same topic may be entertained.
38 . Dimensions: 31 × 56.5 cm.
39 . See footnote N ° 32. This draft was utilized by artist Pablo Uribe in his work Alegorías of 2004.
40 . Dimensions: 25 × 52 cm. Exhibited during Juan Manuel Blanes exhibition in 1941 at the Teatro Solís. The catalog states that
it then belonged to Dr. Alfredo Navarro.
41 . Oil on canvas, 100 × 71.5 cm, 1878. Belongs to the collection of the Museo Blanes. It was acquired by the Departmental
Council of Montevideo from Mr. Octavio C. Assunção on April 27, 1961 and delivered to the museum by the Caja Nacional de Ahorros
y Descuentos on May 25, 1964.
the collector Octavio C. Assunção42 (1994) regarding its provenance, Blanes would have presented it to
José María Montero.43
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It is possible to establish some relations and differences between the Juramento and Blanes’ last series
about gauchos. There is, on one side, a coincidence in the time of creation of these images, which were all
painted between 1865 and 1879 (Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor, 2001: 142).
On the other, these iconographies refer to a similar spatial environment. Some figures of the gauchos
194 were depicted by Blanes with an emphasis on corporeal weight, distributed between flexed legs. In these
representations, the body postures require in many instances external supports, such as trees, tethering
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
posts or horses.44 These characteristics depict bodies that have not been used in a disciplined fashion45,
and which, if interpreted as a metaphor of the passage from a “barbaric” to a “civilized” society, needed
an external device to stay within the limits of what was deemed socially desirable according to the ideas
held by the dominant groups with which Blanes agreed.
On the other hand, the patriots depicted in the Juramento were represented for the most part in heroic
and solemn body poses adopting academic conventionalities. Verticality predominates, indicating the
presence of muscular tone through upright self-sustained poses, theatrically exhibited in an “outward”
fashion, evident for the viewer. In this painting, there are several academic corporeal representations that
can be traced either to pictorial tradition or to analogies of coded corporeal uses in military education,
and even of academic dancing.46
The representation of the bodies of the Thirty-Three was mediated by a philosophical, moral and political
conceptualization that contributed to their vindication as “civilized” heroes, linking them to ideas of
progress and education for the new sensibilities which were being consolidated in that context. Through
this iconography, the ideals of a Nation-State that Latorre’s government strived to consolidate were
embodied by the painter in his canvas.
Another fundamental relation within the immediate context in which this painting was created and
presented lies at the heart of Latorre’s policies: the reform proposed by Varela and consolidated through
the Decree-Law of Common Education of 1877, which enshrined compulsory schooling following the
concept of “the education of the people”. On the other hand, Francisco Berra published in 1878 his work
Apuntes para un curso de pedagogía (Notes for a course on pedagogy), in which he considered the
incidence of the education of the body. (Rodríguez Giménez, 2010: 63)
A conceptual construct predominates both in the Juramento and gaucho paintings, which veers away
from a mere representation of reality and towards a construction of verisimilitudes.
Approaching his work through drafts does not seem to have been in Blanes so much a matter of
artistic experimentation, but rather a practice based on practical purposes. In his large pictures of
historic events, the artist used sketches to establish dialogues, oral or epistolary, with intellectuals
and politicians from the River Plate with whom he worked on several of his regional creations.47
Based on his drafts, Blanes consulted their opinions on the matter, gathering ideas that weighed
42 . The collector, in his own words, “recovered” this painting, which was in Brazil, by purchasing it to then sell it to the Municipality
of Montevideo, with the final destination of the Museo Blanes.
43 . In the event that it was a gift to José María Montero (Jr.), which would be very likely in that context, it would be a courtesy to
the then Minister of Government of Latorre. In this case, it would be a further clue to consider when thinking about how the Juramento
came to be in the hands of the Uruguayan State. Later we will go deeper into this issue.
44 . This is the case, for example, of the following works by Blanes: Tomando mate, Descanso, Crepúsculo and Aurora, among
others.
45 . Although Blanes in some cases utilized academic resources for its representation
46 . In this last case, we specifically refer to the position of the legs in the representation of the majority of the patriots, which
brings to mind the fourth position of the feet in ballet. Also to the erected faces and the gaze held slightly above the horizon.
47 . One of the intellectuals with whom Blanes held a profuse correspondence was Ángel J. Carranza, who was his friend and
wrote the prologue of the Memoria sobre el cuadro Juramento de los 33.
in the evolution of the iconographic creations or the topics to be represented.
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A hint regarding these creationist practices can be discovered in a letter sent by Blanes to Andrés Lamas
in 1865, in which the painter stated:
However, I would like to produce something new, and would appreciate it, should you have made
up your mind about the episode to be represented, if you sent me a written text and the portraits
that should help me dream up and, slowly execute a composition, of which I will send a draft for 195
you to analyze. (Blanes, 1865b).
Therefore, we have identified huge relevance of the relationship between Blanes and Lamas with respect
to the production of two of the main national iconographies of Uruguay: the painting about the Thirty-
Three and the portrait of Artigas, as both themes were suggested by Lamas and realized by Blanes
sometime later.
KEY CONCEPTS OF THE JURAMENTO AND ITS DISSEMINATION IN MONTEVIDEO’S PUBLIC SPHERE IN
EARLY 1878
A singular moment in this painting’s history took place during the public presentation of the artwork
concluded in January of 1878, as well as in the process of dissemination of the painting’s proposed
conceptualization.
At the end of December of 1877, Blanes finalized his work on the painting and sent out invitations
for its inauguration to political officials49. In the first days of 1878, the painter opened his studio for
a public exhibition of this painting (Fernández Saldaña, 1931: 146). At the same time, on January 5,
members of the Society of Arts and Sciences50 of Montevideo gathered for the presentation of the
memorandum of the painting. At this gathering, the artist explained the fundamentals of his artwork and
the substantiation for that particular representation51 (Blanes, 1878).
In turn, the text of this memorandum was published in the Boletín de la Sociedad de Ciencias y Artes,52
48 . Blanes also painted a portrait of Lamas’ wife, Telésfora Somellera. Oval shaped oil on canvas, kept at the mhn, donated by the
Lamas family in1923. This portrait dates from around1870. See the catalog Miradas de la Banda Oriental (2011: 80).
49 . See: Blanes, 1877.
50
. An association of catholic and mason rationalist intellectuals, created for the dissemination and teaching of scientific
knowledge (concentrated on mathematics and related subjects) with the purpose of contributing to “civilization” and “progress”
(Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor, 2001: 102). In 1877, it started to publish a newsletter that continued until
1887, the year when the School of Mathematics and Related Subjects was created within the Universidad de la República. Some of the
persons related to this society were Melitón González, Nicolás N. Piaggio, Jaime Roldós y Pons and Ramón Benzano.
51 . The text was read by Ángel J. Carranza.
52 . The text of the memorandum was published in parts, but it was completed in the following editions: Boletín de la Sociedad
de Ciencias y Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria, year II, January 13, 1878, 2, 18-23, Montevideo; Boletín de la Sociedad Ciencias y
Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria, year II, January 20, 1878, 3, 28-33, Montevideo; Boletín de la Sociedad Ciencias y Artes. Publicación
Hebdomadaria, year II, January 27, 1878, 4, 41-44, Montevideo; Boletín de la Sociedad Ciencias y Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria,
year II, February 3,1878, 5, 51-55, Montevideo; Boletín de la Sociedad Ciencias y Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria, year II, February
10,1878, 6, 64-68, Montevideo; Boletín de la Sociedad Ciencias y Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria, year II, 17 February 17, 1878, 7,
75-80, Montevideo.
and as an independent book by the same Society,53 in an edition that included a lithography of the
painting as well as the precise identification of the characters represented.
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Blanes thus presented publicly for the first time this particular image of the Thirty-Three simultaneously
with a lecture, the inclusion of the text in several issues of a scientific magazine and a separate publication
of the memorandum of the painting.
196 Blanes’ conceptual and iconographic proposition captured in this painting thus became a social event
that, by being publicized through press releases and invitations, captured the interest of certain groups
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by adopting different dissemination forms in its thinking and visuality. The painting became a subject of
consideration within public opinion in Montevideo due to the attention given by the press to the events
of its presentation, in the form of commentary, analyses and reviews.
Since a wide array of strategies was deployed for the presentation of this artwork, it invites to ponder
about the reason for the writing of the memorandum and the public presentation in a lecture, as well as
for its editorial dissemination, as these were not too usual phenomena in regards to a painting.54
From the text of the memorandum itself, we know that Blanes presented this lecture as a retribution for
having been accepted as a founding member of the Sociedad de Ciencias y Artes (Blanes, 1878), since,
in fact, to be admitted as a founding member of the society and according to the organization’s bylaws
(article 8, numeral 2), the applicant had to be endorsed by three founding members, and was required to
present a “thesis on issues that refer to the object of the Society” which in turn had to be approved by a
majority vote (Boletín de la Sociedad de Ciencias y Artes. Publicación Hebdomadaria, 1878: 151).
However, the strong presence of the painting in that context and of the ideas it represented in the public
domain of the time lead us to conclude that it might have been a strategy for the diffusion and primary
legitimation of the image so as to set the initial bases for a favorable reception. In fact, a great part of the
promotion of the picture, its public presentation and its dissemination was sponsored by the Sociedad de
Ciencias y Artes, due to the ideals of progress, civilization and nation that its iconography represented.
It should be noted that Juan Manuel Blanes himself took part in the publication of the society’s bulletin
as editor-in-chief between January 13 and May 5 of 1878, that is to say, from the first issue in which
the memorandum of the painting started to be published to a week after the public presentation of the
text before that society.55
Blanes’ painting emerged after prolonged study and meditation during many years; it was a forceful,
uplifting, moralizing painting. His aim was, in his own words “to bring to the surface the historical truths
that dwell confused amidst the noise of political and social unrest, to make with them this art that not
only attests to the history of nations, but must also support their principles” (Blanes, 1878a: 8).
With these words, Blanes visually and discursively built an emblematic icon that from its first public
presentation arranged and gave sense to certain imagery of national history, performing a profound
iconographic operation, in the sense that it gave direction to the visual characterization of the Uruguayan
nationality that it propounded.
53 . To know more about the relationship between Juan Manuel Blanes and the Sociedad Ciencias y Artes, see the text by Isabel
Wschebor “Fe y razón en la pintura patriótica. Blanes y la Sociedad de Ciencias y Artes”, in Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo
y Wschebor, (2001). For a study of Blanes’ works and his ties to Masonry, see the book by Álvaro Laborde (2015).
54 . Upon painting his famous work about the independence of Brazil, Independencia o Muerte! (1888), Brazilian artist Pedro
Américo publicized his work together with a text that explained his conceptual and aesthetic decisions. For a study of the relationship
between images and words in this work, see: Valladão de Mattos y Salles de Oliveira, C. H. (1999). For a study about historical painting
in Brazil, see: de Castro Vieira Christo (2010).
55 . Other editors-in-chief for said bulletin who shared that activity with Blanes were Jaime Roldós y Pons, C. Olascoaga, Ramón
Benzano, R. Camargo, and Nicolás N. Piaggio.
A large part of the initial success of this painting relies, possibly, not just on its formal values (the
technical dexterity, the composition, the uses of color and chiaroscuro), but also on the conceptual
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elements that the painting posits, which were socially disseminated through multiple channels from its
context of enunciation.
As indicated in the memorandum of the painting, a large part of the deliberations in tension since the
stages of its preliminary project were related to decisions about the subject of the representation, as well
as its characterization and pictorial staging. The power of this painting in its context of presentation 197
possibly lies in the selection, conceptualization and symbolic creation that Blanes elaborated regarding
The history of Uruguay, albeit brief, does not lack interesting edges; but having vacillated in
the selection of one over others as primary starting points, due to their colonial, provincial,
confusing and insufficiently affirmed characteristics, they could not be rendered in painting
before history, after being written in its definitive form, had consecrated them in such a way that
they would not be contested by any person.
Renewed efforts of a patriotic nature that sparked in the first years of this century tempted me
with their genius, but I doubted I could obtain support for an artwork that would be based solely
on narrations still being contested. On the other hand, the Independence of Uruguay, a cause of
my predilection, was only incipient, and its developments were nothing but preliminary steps,
which, although preparatory, did not achieve a status that would have the majesty that art seeks
when contemplating a great image.
Only April 19 of 1825 had this meaning for me, as on that day, national independence had found
a firm foothold in this land.
I then had to search for that first and memorable footprint, and I found it, sirs, in the sandy
beaches of the Agraciada… (Blanes, 1878a: 9).
The Thirty-Three were the main icon of the fight for independence before the re-appreciation of Artigas as
a national hero. The painting remained, until the early part of the 20th century, the main visual “patriotic”
motif capable of having an impact on the national imagery56 (Irigoyen, 2000). A heroic painting of Artigas
with an idealized construction of his figure was only realized later, and it became gradually consolidated
in the collective imagery.57
The painting Artigas en la Ciudadela started by Blanes in 1884 on a commission from the Senate
(Fernández Saldaña, 1931: 178-179) was brought to Montevideo from Florence and presented in public
56 . When considered from our present in the 21st century, a painting depicting the Uruguayan independence could be associated
to a relevant moment of Artigas’ revolution, such as the events celebrated during the last years to commemorate the oriental
revolution that started in 1811. See, for example: http://www.bicentenario.gub.uy/bicentenario-uruguay/que-se-conmemora/. Law N°
18,677 dated August 13 of 2010, declared “2011 as the year of the ‘Celebración del Bicentenario del Proceso de Emancipación Oriental’,
in the frame of the struggle of the American peoples for their self-determination and independence, acknowledging the central
participation of the figure of José Artigas in it.”
57 . The first known iconographies of Artigas are dated from the 1860s, like that of Alfred Demersay, a portrait from life made in
direct contact with Artigas before his death, and published between 1860 and 1864; that of Pedro Valenzani (Artigas in Purificación),
or that of Eduardo Carbajal (Artigas in Paraguay), completed in 1873. These do not represent the character as a hero of the history
of Uruguay. An image of Artigas as a national hero was progressively made viable after the construction of his image in a patriotic
sense and the new meanings lent by national historiography. This was gradually made possible, among other elements, based on the
allegation presented by Carlos María Ramírez in 1881 against the anti-Artigas stance that Berra had been progressively radicalizing
in the successive editions of the Bosquejo histórico de la República Oriental del Uruguay. In fact, it was in this context, under the
presidency of General Máximo Santos, that the circulation and use of Berra´s manuals —who had to go into exile in Buenos Aires— was
banned, and the portrait of Artigas was then supported. Blanes was commissioned for this emblematic new creation, which resulted
in the painting Artigas en la Ciudadela.
in 1908. In his study about the life and work of Blanes, Fernández Saldaña (1931: 179) wrote about this
painting: “Had he been able to finish it, the Artigas en la Ciudadela would have contributed to Blanes’
credit as a painter of history”. It is possible to think that the visual recognition and construction of this
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portrait as the image of Artigas, which has an almost photographic status analogous to the one of the
painting of the Thirty-Three, coincided with a new instance of revaluation of the image and history of
Artigas around the centenary of his death in 1950 (Malosetti Costa, 2013).
With respect to the construction of the Juramento chosen by Blanes, it is inescapable to relate its visuality
198 with the works of the neoclassicist French painter Jacques-Louis David, particularly in connection with
his works Oath of the Horatii 58 (1784) and The Tennis Court Oath (1791).59
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
It has been surmised that Blanes may have seen David’s picture of the Horatii in his visit to the Louvre
(Sullivan, 1994: 145). Other authors emphasize the relationship of the image of Blanes with the
composition of The Tennis Court Oath, suggesting that Blanes knew this painting, if not directly, at least
in an indirect way (Irigoyen, 2000: 127). On the other hand, Sullivan (1994: 126) emphasizes that Blanes’
training in Europe was mainly under Italian neoclassicists inspired by David, a reason why relations
between both iconographic references can be established.
We agree that the painting The Tennis Court Oath bears some coincidences with Blanes’ image of the
Thirty-Three, for example, in the fact that both iconographies depict a foundational patriotic act60 based
on a collective oath. Both paintings represent patriotic actions in semicircular-shaped compositions, with
an analogous treatment of certain corporeal positions during the oath: a central figure is represented
facing the viewer (in the case of David’s painting, it is located in the middle of the image, while in Blanes’
work Lavalleja is positioned off-center to the right of the viewer); the presence of some hats held high
in both oaths, and the possibility of subdividing both paintings in three horizontal bands —in the top
one a roof or the sky (respectively), in the middle, the men, and in the lower one the ground, feet and
shadows—.
In the case of the painting by Merson (1883), who worked directly on the image by David that we have
been analyzing, there is a similar use to that of Blanes of the direction and delimitation of lights and
shadows. This coincidence may be attributed to a common use of light within neoclassicism, as well as
to the effects of the distribution and circulation of the images.
Several authors agree on the fact that immediately after the public presentation of the Juramento in
early 1878, Blanes donated the painting to the Uruguayan State. This has been interpreted as a patriotic
action and has been subsequently reported in books, biographies and articles about the painter and
about this painting in particular.61
The donation of this picture to the State was a widespread notion, particularly in the context of the Juan
Manuel Blanes Exhibition held at the Teatro Solís in 1941, under the government of Alfredo Baldomir,
forty years after the artist’s death62. It was a relevant moment in the recognition of Blanes by national
58 . Le Serment des Horaces, oil on canvas, 330 x 425 cm, part of the collection of the Louvre Museum in Paris. See: http://www.
louvre.fr/oeuvre-notices/le-serment-des-horaces.
59 . Le Serment du Jeu de Paume, drawing of David, is kept at present at the Palace of Versailles, where a canvas by Luc-Olivier
Merson (1883) that resumes this iconography is on exhibition. See: http://es.chateauversailles.fr/es/history-/the-significant-dates/
chronologie/1789--serment-du-jeu-de-paume-en-en-en
60 . French democracy and the fights for national independence, respectively.
61 . See, for example: Fernández Saldaña (1931: 152) and de Salterain y Herrera (1950: 165), among others.
62 . Fernández Saldaña had previously mentioned this donation, although without citing the source for such a claim, in the
following manner: “Blanes [...] presented his painting to the Country, putting it in the hands of the Governor of the Republic, so that
he would give it a suitable destination” (1931: 152).
public authorities, and although a large part of the artist’s work was displayed, the picture of the Thirty-
Three had a central place in the staging of that exhibition.63
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Some documents about the issue of the donation of the Juramento were published in the catalog for
this exhibition, although no reference was made to the origin of the sources that reported the donation
of the painting to the national collection (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas
Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 93-94).
199
Under the title La ofrenda a la patria (The Offering to the Nation), this catalog reproduced a note from
In another publication linked to the same exhibition of 1941, published as an appendix to this catalog,
Agustín Benzano wrote in a laudatory tone about the figure of the painter, stating his “generosity” and
“solid patriotism”. Emphasizing the moral qualities of the artist, he affirmed that Blanes “in a magnificent
gesture of detachment, giving a beautiful lesson of selfless life, donated to the State his famous painting
El Juramento de los 33 after the resounding success of its exhibition to the public...” (1942: 16).
From our point of view, the “disinterested” donation on the part of Blanes, and its subsequent promotion,
including its mention by Fernández Saldaña in 1931, after the 1941 exhibition, became a discourse that
sought legitimization and consolidation. While studying about Blanes and his work and learning through
his personal manuscripts about the painter’s recognition of the value of intellectual and artistic property,
we felt the need to rethink the status of this donation as a possible acquisition by the Uruguayan State.
After the first public exhibition of the painting in 1878, the first journalistic commentary regarding the
acquisition of the painting on the part of the State focused on the remuneration that the government
could offer the artist for his work on a national historical topic. According to the journalist:
Another journalist was of the opinion that the painting should be “acquired by the State” due to the effect
that it had caused in the public of the time (El cuadro de los Treinta y Tres, in La Nación, January 15, 1878, 1).
The chronicle mentioned Blanes’ intention of taking the Juramento to the International Exhibition in
Paris, to which the press stated:
63 . As stated by Broquetas y Cuadro (Amigo, Broquetas, Cuadro, Kalenberg, Peluffo y Wschebor, 2001: 95), that same year the
historiographic work Historia de los partidos políticos en el Uruguay by Juan E. Pivel Devoto was honored with the Pablo Blanco
Acevedo award. This text became one of the most influential historiographic references in the 20th century about the construction
of the nation.
We believe that [the painting of the Thirty-Three] should be acquired by the government, helped
by the patriotism of every oriental. A national subscription must be initiated for the acquisition
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of such a jewel, which we are sure, will be enthusiastically seconded by the citizens of the
republic, each one contributing with the amount allowed by their position. Let’s do it! (El cuadro
de los Treinta y Tres, in La Nación, January15, 1878, 1).
Let us remember that after his training in Florence, Blanes became a producer as well as an artist. He
200 promoted his own artistic works in accordance with other agents of the intellectual and political fields
through the realization of large paintings that sought to cause an impact in the countries of the region.
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As it was previously mentioned, within the project involving the creation of two historical paintings that
Blanes presented in 1866 before the Economic-Administrative Council, the painter established a work
contract for the realization of those paintings that befitted a professional artist:
The Commission [it refers to the Economic-Administrative Council] shall commit with the
undersigned to pay, on a monthly basis, and for the space of five years, the amount of two
hundred pesos national currency; reaching by this means to pay the total sum, equal to the
value of the works, in the years mentioned (Blanes, 1866a)
The compensation proposal of the artist, expressed in several clauses, reveals his ideas about the value of
his works of art and his praxis, at that particular stage of his professional development. The recognition
of the value of the works implied that Blanes hierarchized the value of intellectual and artistic property.
The painter was able to calculate the price for his works, in relation to their characteristics, the work
they demanded and the material costs implied, and in consequence, claim an economic compensation
for his works. In the 1866 project, Blanes expressly left to the consideration of the Council the possibility
of opting for:
…paintings of a higher category (life-size figures) providing that it is understood that the value
would not be the same given to those established before. In the case of pictures with life-size
figures, the number of years devoted to the work should be modified together with the monthly
payments, which would increase by a 40% over the proposed value (Blanes, 1866a).
To which the artist added, in ending the letter: “The paintings mentioned in the present proposal could
legitimately be worth twice the price stated here” (Blanes, 1866a).
The act of reproducing the discourse of the disinterested donation of the Juramento to the State,
publicized from the 1930s and 1940s, loses sight of the dimension of the remuneration of the work in
Blanes’ practices, within a society that was beginning to adapt to the capitalist world. At the same time,
highlighting the donation was, in practice, another element that elevated the painting as a national
emblem, as well as helping to promote the image of Blanes himself as a patriot.
It is indispensable to contextualize the moment of the delivery of the Juramento to the State, comparing
it, for example, with the purchase by the Uruguayan State of the painting La Revista de Rancagua
(painted by Blanes in 1872), to be presented to the Argentinean Nation on the centenary of the birth of
General San Martín, in February of 1878, a few weeks after the public presentation of the painting of the
Thirty-Three (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: I, 95).
Beyond the disinterested actions surrounding Blanes’ paintings, and considering the background to the
creation of the Juramento and other indications in its path, we are inclined to interpret the assignment
of the Juramento as property of the Uruguayan State as part of a plan of diverse compensations.
Shortly after having finalized the Juramento and after the delivery of the painting to the government,
Blanes authorized the photographic reproduction of this work and of the painting La Revista de
ENGLISH VERSION
Rancagua. This venture involved a form of social dissemination of its iconography as well as a business.
For this reason, Blanes signed a contract authorizing the reproduction and sale of photographs of these
paintings —in Montevideo and Buenos Aires— with the photographer Manuel Serón. This contract accorded
the painter a percentage of the profits (Contrato entre Juan Manuel Blanes y Manuel Serón, 1878).
In this contract, dated March 2, 1878, authorized by the notary José Cabral, Blanes stated that: 201
After the closing of the agreement regarding the photographic reproductions, Blanes issued an
announcement in the press in April of 1878 in which he announced to the public his authorization for
the reproductions to be made by this photographer:
In the contract with Serón, and in the above press clipping, Blanes declared the existence of a recognition
on the part of the government of the artistic property of the Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales
painting dating from November of 187664, that is, one year before the completion and public presentation
of the work, when he was in the middle of the creative process of the painting. These documents offer
important indications of a prior agreement between Latorre’s government and the artist about the
creation of this painting, which is significant for the purposes of our research and calls into question
the donation.
The way in which the work became part of the national collection is worth highlighting, as well as the
mechanisms of creation and legitimation of this painting, which, as we have mentioned, went beyond
the original and singular idea of the artist and the visual composition of the work, particularly in the
case of a painting that became a national iconographic emblem since its first public exhibition and has
remained so for over a century.
As a builder of visual images, Blanes contributed to political, social and cultural definitions and images
that, with different meanings, would in turn be available in the long term. In the case of the Juramento,
we can appreciate the appeal of a disciplined, masculine, clean and radiant national construction;
illuminated by the rising sun, within the national borders and with the river as a boundary, in clothes
with the colors of Artigas’ flags (this is the chromatic palette that prevails in the painting, which was
also used by the Thirty-Three), adopting heroic and disciplined poses, discreetly carrying weapons and
raising hats as if raising thoughts to heaven —unfailingly celestial and white in correspondence with
the colors of the national pavilion—. In this heroic representation, there are no signs of violence, which
64
. At that time, Lorenzo Latorre’s interim government had started, and he continued in office at the time of the public
presentation of the painting in 1878.
are deliberately excluded as well as rendered invisible in the struggles for liberation. These symbols
have served as vectors for the representation of the Uruguayan State since the first presentation of the
ENGLISH VERSION
painting in the late 19th century, throughout the 20th century and remain as such until the present.
The immediate events after the initial presentation in society of the Juramento were varied and reveal the
attributions of socially constructed meaning around this image. In July of 1878, the painting was sent
to Buenos Aires together with La Revista de Rancagua to participate in an exhibition. In this particular
202 context, the photographic reproductions of both works made by Manuel Serón were sold to people who
could consume these patriotic images, as well as exhibit and preserve among their personal objects these
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
reproductions authorized by the artist. (Contrato entre Juan Manuel Blanes y Manuel Serón, 1878).
In 1880, the Ministry of Government announced to the Economic-Administrative Council —where the
painting was then housed—, through a note dated April 6, that the government had decided to transfer
the Juramento to “decorate” the reception of the new Government House65 (Nota del Ministerio de
Gobierno a la Junta Económico Administrativa, April 6, 1880).
In 1890, Juan Mesa, Deputy Director of the Fine Arts Section of the Museo Nacional, requested from
the Minister of Public Instruction, Dr. Carlos A. Berro, authorization to transfer the Juramento from the
Secretariat of the Presidency, where it was located, to said museum with the aim of “giving prominence
to the Fine Arts and History section” (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública y Previsión Social y Museo
Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1966: xxxvii). By that time, the different sections of the Museo Nacional were
located in the left wing of the Teatro Solís.
On September 26, 1890, the Juramento was inventoried in the Fine Arts section of the Museo Nacional
under number 86 (Libro inventario del Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales). In 1902, a year after Blanes’
death, the fine arts section was refurbished, and the “Sala Blanes” (Blanes Hall), was set up to exhibit
the painting.66
In 1914, the Museo Nacional de Bellas Artes changed its venue and was moved to the Pabellón de Higiene
located in the Parque Urbano (the present Parque Rodó). This pavilion had been built for the Exposición
de Higiene del Congreso Médico Internacional. To house the museum, the building was remodeled by
architect Alfredo Campos and two lateral rooms were added.67 (Ministry of Education and Culture and
Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales, 2011: 195). The Juramento was moved together with the entire
collection of the Museo de Bellas Artes.
In 1941, the Commission of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Instruction wished to showcase the
works of Blanes in their entirety, and therefore exhibited them at the Teatro Solís.68 . A great part of the
painter’s work kept in public and private collections of the region was reunited in this theater space,
shaping a true retrospective of his work. It was a great official event in which national and Argentinean
authorities participated, offering a particular interpretation of Blanes’ work69. In this event, the main
ENGLISH VERSION
The orchestra seats were removed, as was the stage, to adapt the theatre for the exhibition. In this
context, the scenic and exhibition space was organized according to galleries divided by collections
or themes.
The Juramento occupied a great space at the back of the history gallery, where the stage usually
was, alongside Artigas en la Ciudadela and El altar de la Patria (Altar of the Nation) and other smaller 203
paintings. In this commemorative exhibition of the works of Blanes, the Juramento was used as an
During this event, a grand official tribute to Blanes was held, forty years after his death. It enshrined
his figure as a major painter, as it officially legitimized him as a patriotic artist. Montero Bustamante
solemnly expressed at the opening conference of the event:
… All those of us present here, who can rightly invoke the representation of the country´s
culture and sociability, hereby enshrine in a definitive way the name and artwork of Juan
Manuel Blanes, whose everlasting oeuvre shall not be tarnished neither by the disputes
of men nor by the passionate judgement of his contemporaries. Blanes is immortal, and
his spirit, purified by the lustral waters of history, glides over this room, descends upon
these sacred canvases and infuses them with the mysterious power that shall render them
impervious to time and oblivion. (Ministerio de Instrucción Pública, Comisión Nacional de
Bellas Artes y Teatro Solís, 1941: II, XIV).
At the end of the same year, another large exhibition of Blanes’ work was held by the Instituto
Cultural Argentino-Uruguayo in Buenos Aires. The Juramento traveled to Buenos Aires along with
other paintings by the artist for this exhibition, which took place in the halls of the Museo Nacional de
Bellas Artes between October 25 and December 4, 1941 (Instituto Cultural Argentino-Uruguayo, 1942).
Another official recognition occurred in 1947 at the inauguration of the statue honoring Juan
Manuel Blanes. The statue, cast in bronze and pink granite by José Belloni, is located in Montevideo,
on the corner of Juncal and Buenos Aires streets, next to the Teatro Solís. On the sides of the
monument, the inscriptions read: “He was the painter of the heroes and the glories of his homeland”
and “In his work the national tradition endures” (Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo, 1986: 31).
In 1951, Law Nº 11,659, passed on May 14, established the transfer of Juan Manuel Blanes’ remains
to the National Pantheon with the highest honors.
By initiative of the National Commission of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Instruction, the
exhibition De Blanes a nuestros días (From Blanes to our Time) was held in Punta del Este under
the curatorship of Fernando García Esteban. This exhibition comprised a historical retrospective of
national visual arts.
While a print of the Juramento is reproduced in the catalog of that exhibition, it is not recorded
in it that this work was moved and exhibited in this context, given that it is not mentioned in the
correlative list of works in the catalog. In any case, the name of the event itself gave great relevance
to Blanes, setting him as the “origin” of the artistic history of Uruguay. In the words of Fernando
García Esteban: “if we take the work of Juan Manuel Blanes as a starting point for our painting’s
70 . In this way, the Teatro Solís housed once again, albeit in a transient way, fine arts collections, as it had done around
1890, and the painting Juramento occupied this theatrical space once again, although not in a lateral sector, but as the main
backdrop of this spectacular space.
history [...] we set, at the same time, the foundations of that phenomenon” (Ministerio de Instrucción
Pública, Comisión Nacional de Bellas Artes, 1961).
ENGLISH VERSION
In 1969, a project for the restoration of the Juramento was approved by then Director of the Museo
Nacional de Bellas Artes, architect Alberto Muñoz del Campo, during the last year of his tenure. The
restoration process was started around 1971. It consisted of a lining or “re-lining” of the canvas, under
the direction of Carlos Giaudrone, right after the appointment of Ángel Kalenberg as the new director
204 of the institution. This restoration process was carried out in several moments throughout the 1970s
(Antecedentes del cuadro Juramento de los Treinta y Tres, s/d).
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
On August 8, 1973, a few weeks after the coup d’état that started the dictatorship, the Presidency of the
Republic requested the Juramento on loan to be displayed in the Government House. This is the first time
that this painting was requested by the dictatorial government for its exhibition as an iconography of its
incipient project. However, it was around 1975 when the agents of the dictatorship were able to organize
some elements of their cultural policy. In this authoritarian cultural project, the Juramento became an
image of great relevance, and it was used for different purposes during the de facto government.
During 1975, the Sesquicentenario de los Hechos Históricos de 1825 (Sesquicentennial of the Historical
Events of 1825) was commemorated and the Año de la Orientalidad (Year of Uruguayanhood) was
officially proclaimed. This commemoration was organized by the Comisión Nacional de Homenaje de
los Hechos Históricos de 1825 (National Commission for the Commemoration of the Historical Events of
1825), formed by General Esteban Cristi (President) and Professors Fernando O. Assunção and Alfonso
Llambías de Acevedo, as Deputy President and Secretary respectively.
As Isabella Cosse and Vania Markarian (1996) have pointed out, during the Año de la Orientalidad, a
promotional use was made of the iconography of the Juramento, as it became the most significant
element in the visual proposition of the commemorations promoted by the organizing committee.
Through this process of transformation of the publicity of the image, “its previous symbolic baggage was
reconverted [...] because the ideological contents of the dictatorship were associated with an image that
had always represented the ‘national essence’” (Cosse y Markarian, 1996: 29).
One of the commemorative actions of the Comisión Nacional de Homenaje, was the production of
the exhibition El nacimiento de nuestra nación, inaugurated on July 18, 1975 at the Palacio Legislativo
(Parliament building) —a monumental material and symbolic space of democracy, by then overthrown—,
which was in turn commemorating the fiftieth anniversary of its inauguration.
This exhibition was presented as “historical-didactic” and sought to materialize the tributes and memories
related to the period stretching from 1811 to 1830, when “the nation was born.” It included what was
considered “the set of facts of courage and sacrifice, of pain and glory.” In this manner, it intended to
promote a “cult of nationality, its values and traditions” (Presidencia de la República Oriental del Uruguay,
Consejo de Estado, Ministerio de Defensa Nacional, Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, Ejército Nacional,
Armada Nacional, Fuerza Aérea Nacional e Intendencia Municipal de Montevideo, 1975).
Through this exhibition, we aspire to establish one more landmark so that all Orientals can gather once
again to forge the new Uruguay. Let the example of sacrifice, courage, disinterest and pure patriotism
of those heroes serve to galvanize the spirit of those who, being the heirs of those legendary Orientals
that were part of the epic, must feel every day the responsibility of a higher duty: to be worthy of
them and, ultimately, able to deliver to our children and grandchildren, unharmed and “up-to-date”
the wonderful Homeland that they bequeathed us. This is the vow that our soul pronounces in the
Año de la Orientalidad (Presidencia de la República Oriental del Uruguay et al., 1975).
This exhibition appealed to a sense of nationality of an emotional rather than a critical or
rational nature by uniting past and present in a timeless conception of history and national
ENGLISH VERSION
identity. (Cosse y Markarian, 1996: 61). At the same time, the Año de la Orientalidad, which
governed that dictatorial time, was presented as an inheritance and a direct derivation of
the facts and meanings of the events of national history, which had built “the Homeland”
through “sacrifices” and “patriotism”. In this way, the dictatorship appealed to a “we” collective
that sought to legitimize itself based on a common national past, to project and consolidate
itself in the present-future (Presidencia de la República Oriental del Uruguay et al., 1975). 205
In November of 1976, under the program for the commemorative events of the 250th anniversary
of the foundational process of Montevideo, the Exposición Blanes was inaugurated at the Museo
Juan Manuel Blanes. This event gathered once again an important number of works by the artist,
although in a smaller scale than in 1941. This exhibition was based on the collection of the museum,
with the addition of works on loan from other public, foreign and private collections. (Intendencia
Municipal de Montevideo y Comisión de Actos Conmemorativos por el 250º Aniversario del Proceso
Fundacional de Montevideo, 1976).
In this way, the Juramento entered the Museo Blanes temporarily, along with other works by the
painter. A notarized loan for use contract (commodatum) for ninety days was executed for the
painting, as from November 1, 1976, prior to its transfer from the Palacio Legislativo, where it was
then housed. (Antecedentes del cuadro Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales, s/d). From this
date to the present, the work has remained in the custody of this institution, where it is permanently
exhibited in the Blanes Room. The same did not happen with the other works temporarily loaned
out, as they were returned to their original institutions. Since then, the Juramento became one of
the most representative of Blanes paintings in the museum that bears his name.
Throughout its material and symbolic path, the Juramento has held a significant meaning in the
construction of the national history of Uruguay, as it establishes correlations between events,
political actors and historiographic productions of great influence. Beyond the image, the Juramento
continues to awaken new meanings and interpretations with the passing of time.
REFERENCES
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EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
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com/watch?v=BBp6UwhVbds [Access: 15-06-2015]
ENGLISH VERSION
By Claudia Barra, Fernando Marte
Human actions to preserve objects of cultural interest have taken place since ancient times. Until the 211
18th century, those actions were handcrafted and there were few theoretical or ethical guidelines to
Restoration became the main solution to solve deterioration-related problems. Restoration treatments
were too frequent and invasive; the lack of suitable places to exhibit or store the artworks led to increas-
ingly shorter periods between successive interventions.
The Athens Charter of 1931, together with subsequent international agreements regarding conservation
of cultural heritage property, established the theoretical basis and main guidelines for conservation
interventions. More recently, there have been significant transformations in the way conservation/resto-
ration is carried out due to political, religious and philosophical influences as well as to the incorporation
of new materials and techniques for diagnosis and intervention. The situation was a major concern
until the beginning of the 19th century, when natural scientists discovered solutions that marked the
beginning of a scientific approach to conservation. The scenario becomes increasingly complex due to
the growing number and diversity of cultural heritage objects and to the trend to facilitate access to and
public use of art collections. Consequently, there has been an exponential expansion in scientific research
on the factors that cause deterioration and in the search for new preventive strategies that respond to
the current needs (Clavir, 1998; Coulombié and Ladrón de Guevara, 2009).
CONSERVATION AREAS
Conservation, preventive conservation and restoration/conservation
Conservation is divided into two major areas: preventive conservation and direct intervention, which in
turn comprises curative conservation and restoration.
For decades, there had been different definitions regarding conservation and its areas of activity until
international consensus was reached by the Conservation Committee of the 15th Conference of the In-
ternational Council of Museums (ICOM/CC, 2008).
Preventive conservation was thus defined as the set of actions and strategic measures applied to cultural
assets with the purpose of preventing or minimizing deterioration. Preventive conservation is involved
with and affects the methods for documenting and registering cultural property, its storage, exhibition,
manipulation, packaging and transportation, control of environmental conditions, emergency planning,
staff training and public outreach. It comprises all the areas of the museum and it would be fitting to say
that it is integrated in the museum’s mission, its policy and its management.
On the other hand, conservation/restoration actions are performed directly on the object. Conservation/
restoration is involved with the diagnosis and the intervention treatments carried out on a cultural
asset. This disciplinary area comprises several treatments of curative conservation and restoration. The
differences between these direct actions lie on the type of procedure and on the intention of the
conservation expert. Curative conservation is intended to stabilize the structure of the object by
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means of procedures such as fixing, consolidation and others applied on an object that is stable,
but in which the image is distorted by some kind of deterioration. In some instances, restoration is
required in order to recover the perception of the image. Restoration involves procedures such as
reconstruction of the surface or absent parts. The scope of restoration is based on a theory of res-
toration together with the sensitivity of the conservator-restorer and the knowledge of areas such
212 as history and natural sciences
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PREVENTIVE CONSERVATION
What justifies preventive conservation?
Institutional lack of awareness about preventive conservation has potential consequences on the
conservation of cultural property. Some damages, such as discoloration of pigments due to excessive
radiation, detachment of polychromies due to inadequate humidity, destruction caused by insects
and many others are unrecoverable; in a best-case scenario they can be restituted, which inevitably
entails some loss of the object’s original character. If the degree of deterioration demands a direct
intervention, the task will imply treatments of curative conservation or restoration. However, the
scope of direct conservation is quantitatively inefficient when compared to preventive conservation
that applies simultaneously to all the objects in a room or even a complete collection; curative con-
servation and most particularly restoration interventions are limited to only one or a few specific
objects. Another aspect worth considering is the effectiveness of direct interventions. Every object
undergoes a natural deterioration process and it is very likely to require more than one direct inter-
vention instance throughout its lifetime. These intervention cycles1 will be shortened if the objects
are placed after treatment in an environment that lacks adequate conditions for their preservation.
No matter how high were the standards applied to the restoration treatment, the artwork will still
need to be placed in a specific environment for its proper care.
Every action that implies a direct intervention on the object requires the participation of a conserva-
tor-restorer, who will very probably need to perform a scientific assessment of the object’s materials
in order to reach a diagnosis and an intervention proposal. During the past decades, technicians
have been required to have an increasing level of expertise and to combine their knowledge of con-
servation/restoration with natural sciences, history and the inevitable practical experience acquired
during their work under expert supervision. Thus, the deterioration of a cultural asset has multiple
implications. Even if the object can be restored, the information it contains may be compromised,
particularly if we are dealing with archeological and natural sciences study collections. If we also
consider losses in terms of the object’s values, the need for specialized staff and economic resources,
which are always scarce, and the ethical motivation for preservation, there are more than enough
reasons to choose the path of deterioration prevention (European Preventive Conservation Strategy
European Commission, 2000).
Different strategies have been proposed to study and approach the problem of deterioration. A
deterioration-risk management system widely accepted by the conservation community was first
proposed by Robert Waller (1995) and was later expanded by researcher Stefan Michalski. In an
ideal situation, preventive conservation professionals should be able to quantify the risks to which
a collection is exposed in order to determine the most economical way to reduce them. In order to
evaluate the risks of deterioration it is necessary to have a very precise estimation of the magnitude
of the risks to which the collections are exposed. Thus, Michalski selected a set of deterioration
agents and a method to estimate the probability of deterioration due to the action of one of those
agents or a combination thereof. Such agents are fire, water, inadequate relative humidity, inade-
1 . Intervention cycle is the period elapsed between two interventions of curative conservation and/or restoration.
quate temperature, pests, radiations, physical forces, contaminant agents, together with the risk of theft,
vandalism and finally, an agent that is usually overlooked: dissociation. Dissociation, which is usually
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underestimated, involves the loss of objects from a collection, or parts of the objects, as well as the loss
of information related to the objects or the loss of the capacity to recover or associate the objects with
their context. The absence of policies and procedures to document and control the acquisition and trans-
portation of objects or neglectfulness during these activities is one of the major risks to which collections
are exposed. Dissociation is, for example, the loss of an identification tag, the lack of proper recording of
the information regarding an object, or the loss of context information regarding archaeological objects 213
(Waller and Cato, 2009; CCI, 1994).
Additionally, there can be intrinsic processes that are related to the materials and the techniques em-
ployed in the execution of the artwork. These processes start at the time of the creation of the object
and they are inevitable. In the case of paintings, if the artist uses unstable pigments in the search for
some visual effect or in an attempt to reduce costs, there will be an irreversible transformation of these
pigments with time. Although we cannot prevent deterioration, we can prevent the action of radiation
and contaminant agents that would enhance it. The artworks of Vincent Van Gogh are a case study to
understand these processes of transformation of pigments (Van Bommel, Gedolf and Hendriks, 2005).
The study of the deterioration agents and the way to approach them is the central theme of preventive
conservation. It is necessary to learn to identify them in their early stages, to determine their causes,
quantify them and propose strategies to prevent or mitigate them. Interdisciplinary assessment of the
data obtained is indispensable for decision-making regarding preventive conservation (Thomson, 1986).
Inadequate relative humidity is most probably the deterioration agent that is responsible for the most
part of the damages to cultural property in Uruguay. This is because most of the collections have or-
ganic materials that are highly hygroscopic.2 Hygroscopic materials absorb humidity, leading to certain
physical changes, such as the deformation by swelling that occurs in wood, paper, leather, textiles and
others. Inadequate humidity also favors chemical processes such as oxidation of metals, efflorescence
and deliquescence of salts. Another very relevant aspect is that hygroscopic materials present a high risk
associated to biodeterioration,3 and this risk increases when relative humidity is above 65%. However,
unlike other deterioration agents, humidity cannot be eliminated completely. Organic materials require
certain level of humidity in order to maintain their structure. Lack of humidity leads to drying, cracking,
deformation and loss of flexibility, and objects become brittle and therefore, fragile. On the other hand,
objects of different natures may have incompatible requirements making the issue even more complex.
In order to determine which are the best conditions of relative humidity4 and temperature, there must be
a measurement program in different areas of the institution: exhibition rooms, storage areas, and also
outside the building; the conditions inside cabinets and showcases must also be assessed (Michalski,
2000).
In ideal conditions, the data should be collected during a year in order to identify real risks, daily fluc-
tuations, seasonal variations and the response of the rooms to external weather conditions. Once this
2. Hygroscopicity is the characteristic of some substances of absorbing and exhaling humidity according to the environment.
3. Biodeterioration is deterioration due to biologic activity.
4. Relative humidity is the ratio expressed in percentage between partial pressure of water vapor and saturation pressure of water
vapor at that same temperature.
information is available, we can start evaluating the deterioration risks and take the control measures
that will work best considering the resources available. Based on this reasoning, it is obviously not con-
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venient to use dehumidifiers without a previous study and a plan for a gradual process of adaptation of
the collections to eventual changes in the parameters of relative humidity and temperature.
Collections must be illuminated in order to be visualized, but lighting irreversibly deteriorates a large part
of the objects’ materials. Even minimum exposure to visible, infrared or ultraviolet radiations leads to
214 deterioration with an irreversible and cumulative effect on the object’s lifetime. It is worth noting that
the visualization of an object only requires visible light. Infrared light does not enhance visibility and
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ultraviolet radiation is only useful for fluorescent materials. Thus, infrared and ultraviolet radiations are
unnecessary and should be avoided. The traditional strategy has been to modify the intensity of light
sources according to recommendations based on the minimum visible light required to view objects.
Other approaches have focused on blocking or filtering ultraviolet radiations originated from the outside
and from artificial sources and avoiding intense light sources directed on sensitive objects at close dis-
tance. All of these are excellent approaches to which new strategies are being added, such as selecting
the location of the objects to avoid exposure to excessive radiations, selective variation of light level in
different spaces, transition lighting of exhibition spaces for gradual adaptation of vision to rooms with
less intense lighting, and many others. The illumination issue is solved in the interrelation between light,
object and observer in such a way that the visual process takes place correctly while keeping radiation
levels within ranges that are less damaging to the artifacts (Michalski, 2009).
Biodeterioration can occur due to the action of microorganisms, insects, rodents, birds and other small
animals, which we refer to as pests.5 The probability of deterioration by pests is related to the nature
of the constitutive materials, the type of pest and environmental conditions. Traditionally, the control
of microorganisms and insects has implied massive and indiscriminate use of biocides.6 These products
have caused serious toxicity issues in the exposed staff and they can alter the physical and/or chemical
properties of the objects under treatment. Consequently, new strategies have been developed focused
on limiting the possibilities of pest proliferation. Such new strategies involve building remodeling and
improvement of environmental conditions and cleanliness of the museum spaces. Some simple mea-
sures are very effective for pest control in the short term, such as mesh protections in windows and air
ducts, systematization of cleaning routines, improving location and frequency of litter removal, use of
mousetraps and others. These measures are intended to prevent the entry of pests and the formation of
microclimates that favor biological contamination, thus minimizing or eliminating the need for biocides
(Strang and Kigawa, 2009).
Vandalism, including theft, is directly related to security conditions, including security policies and sys-
tems. It is a major aspect of preventive conservation that requires training and commitment of all the
members of the staff.
Fire, water and major physical forces caused by natural catastrophes, terrorism and wars configure an-
other group of damaging agents. Physical forces also include other processes with less impact, such as
banging, pressure exerted over objects, or some gradual impacts such as vibrations and abrasions. These
forces are related to procedures for exhibition, storage, manipulation and transportation (Van Bommel,
Gedolf and Hendriks, 2005; Thomson, 1986).
For catastrophic factors, prevention is focused on building characteristics and prevention systems, as
well as emergency plans that enable a quick and organized response in case of a disaster. Priorities and
action procedures must be established in order to act with effectiveness and efficiency. Every emergency
plan must have the preservation of human life as its first priority, followed by the preservation of records
5 . Pests are living organisms that produce biological deterioration of cultural property.
6. Biocides are chemical agents that have broad-spectrum microbicide and insecticide action.
and vital equipment for the operation of the institution and its cultural property. It is important to iden-
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tify beforehand which are the most important objects of the institution in order to ensure the protection
of its heritage. It is recommended to establish priorities in terms of vulnerability, values and different
types of significance that the object may have for the institution and the community. We must also men-
tion the utmost importance of performing evacuation drills. The abilities developed during the practice of
such drills will undoubtedly make a difference in the case of a disaster (Ilwaine and Varlamoff, M. 2006).
215
ARE INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS APPLICABLE TO OUR MUSEUMS?
We have mentioned the need of considering the environment around the objects in order to plan for
their proper conservation. The building that contains the collections has its own structural characteris-
tics that may create microclimates in the exhibition rooms and in the storage areas. The geographic lo-
cation will determine climate conditions; urbanization and level of industrialization of the surroundings
will generate the environmental pollution to which the objects are exposed. The number of visitors, the
access to and use of the collections and other factors of the surroundings determine the risk of damage.
Deterioration factors do not work independently from each other, but rather relate in a complex reality.
Thus, the diagnosis of the situation requires a prior process of assessment of the general conditions of
conservation and characteristics of the cultural objects. There are tools currently available to evaluate
and manage deterioration risks that can be very helpful in order to establish priorities in a plan of pre-
ventive actions.
Once awareness has been raised of the importance of evaluating the institution’s conditions, small fea-
sible actions may be developed in order to avoid incurring in major economic investments and efforts
that fail to fulfill their goals. There is a tendency to try to solve environmental conditioning by means of
technological equipment when the problem may be permanently solved by modifications of the infra-
structure; the decision must be made by comparing the investments and the real capacity of maintain-
ing sophisticated systems. Ultimately, we must aim at the best results without underestimating small
achievements. Preventive conservation is built upon the awareness of every person who works in the
museum and they in turn should transmit it to the visitors. The great challenge of the preventive conser-
vation plan is to foster teamwork, through the integration of different disciplines and the involvement
of the staff, all focused on the goal of preventing the deterioration of the museum’s cultural property
(ICCROM, 2009; Cassar, 1995; GCI-NIC, 1999; Toby, 2009).
Restoring in sight of the public
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216 In the awareness that the Museo Blanes has the mission of preserving its heritage for the enjoyment
of present and future generations, we approach conservation in its broadest scope. Our intention is
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to preserve both the material and the non-material heritage, expressed in the multiple meanings held
and acquired by artworks with time. In practice, this entails the management of a conservation plan
focused on prevention, without forgetting the need for conservation-restoration, which involves the
prioritization of multiple actions. When exploring and assessing the different factors involved in the
conservation of our cultural heritage, we concluded that the restoration of the painting Juramento de los
Treinta y Tres Orientales (Oath of the Thirty-Three Patriots of the Eastern Province) by Juan Manuel Blanes
was a national priority.
A laboratory designed to conserve-restore 1 an artwork of this size was beyond our institutional
possibilities. This difficulty led to the idea of performing the conservation and restoration works in the
exhibition hall, in sight of the public. We had seen this kind of actions abroad, but it had never been
attempted in paintings in our country.
The possibility of showing the process of intervention suits our mission of communicating the conservation
needs and builds awareness in the audience of the enormous investment in terms of economic and
human resources that is demanded by the direct intervention on our heritage. This instance highlights
the importance of acting in preventive conservation, not only as a way of optimizing resources, but also
satisfying an ethical commitment to minimizing or avoiding damages whenever possible. We conceived
this task as an opportunity to share this dream with our visitors, particularly with the children who have
been enriched and stimulated by participating in this project.
This was the beginning of a project to devote an open space for the conservation and restoration of the
painting Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales. It consisted in bringing down the painting from the
wall, removing its frame and relocating it to a place where it could be conserved-restored in sight of
the public.
A transient dismountable structure was designed to place the painting in its new position. The floor was
covered in the area of the room where the laboratory elements were to be placed, in order to prevent damages
by these materials. The laboratory was separated from the public by a free-standing glass that allowed the
restoring experts 6 meters of working space behind the glass across the entire width of the room.
The type of intervention required by the artwork allowed placing the painting horizontally or vertically in
the selected space. However, when the painting was positioned horizontally, it was difficult to access the
central sector and the reverse of the piece. Thus, it was decided that the restoration would be done with
the paining in a vertical position, with the front side facing the public.
A system for dismounting the painting was designed in order to take it to the working space for its
conservation-restoration.
1 . Conservation-restoration refers to the set of direct actions for Remedial Conservation and Restoration in accordance with the
terminology adopted in the 15th ICOM Conference held in 2008.
This change of location required preventive measures to control the risks involved in moving such a large
painting, so a work plan was devised for this task.
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The conservation-restoration space was organized before moving the painting to ensure that it would be
placed in its work position immediately upon arrival, avoiding the risk of further movements. The process
of taking down the painting from the wall and removing it from its frame required the development of
a system. A scaffold on wheels was designed in order to bring down the painting from the wall. This
movement had to be kept to a minimum in order to reduce vibration risks. This mobile structure pinned 217
the artwork in three points, granting a stable movement. Once the painting was separated from the wall,
These movements were coordinated jointly by the company that supported the movement of the
painting (Villa Fortín) and the employees of the museum, under the supervision of the restoring team
that controlled the manipulation of the artwork.
Finally, the working area was ready. The conservation-restoration laboratory had been created allowing
public access, with a freestanding transparent glass window separating it physically from the visitors.
Two mobile scaffolds enabled the restoring experts to access all the surface of the painting, moving
both horizontally and vertically by elevating the supporting platforms. These scaffolds were painted in a
neutral color in order to prevent the public’s perception to be affected by their original color.
The working space was thus ready for performing the conservation-restoration of this important artwork
in sight of the public.
This process gave rise to a thorough consideration of the physical space where the artwork will remain
for many years. The room where the artworks of Juan Manuel Blanes were exhibited did not have the
required environmental conditions for their preservation. Thus, the project also included the general
improvement of the room’s characteristics.
It was determined that it is important to control relative humidity daily to keep it around 55% with a
variation range that does not exceed 3%. Thus, the room now has dehumidifiers and the air conditioner
was repaired to keep the temperature between 19ºC and 21ºC. Thermo hygrometers were set up to measure
relative humidity and temperature to maintain the required conditions for preventive conservation.
The reconditioning of the room also included a new lighting strategy to improve the appreciation of the
paintings’ qualities. Since the artworks are exhibited on a permanent basis, the illumination parameters
were selected within the range of minimum exposure to radiations. Two aspects were considered:
blocking solar radiation and regulating artificial lighting.
The first preventive actions were taken while the final project of the room’s ceiling was being implemented.
These actions involved the complete insulation from solar radiation and the modification of the type
of lighting, changing incandescent light bulbs for LED technology to prevent ultraviolet radiation and
reduce infrared radiation.
The roof of the two main rooms of the Museum was severely damaged. A project was designed to
restore the roofs in a manner that would suit the lighting needs. These interventions are carried out in
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contemporary museums through different actions, ranging from high technology solutions for skylights
to simpler solutions such as setting up filters on the windowpanes; the latter solution was adopted in our
museum. The original skylights were recovered, a film was applied on them to filter undesired ultraviolet
and infrared radiations and a second film was applied to reduce the visible light on the drop ceiling,
which has a heritage value. This film was selected according to real luminance2 measurements on the
218 artworks during the summer and during the hours of maximum solar incidence.
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Natural lighting was thus recovered and artificial lighting was designed as a complement to be added
when necessary. There is an illumination control procedure for the room, which combines natural and
artificial lighting. The museum’s staff was trained to perform the controls required and to take actions
according to the illuminance received by the artworks.
Nowadays, two years after the restoration of the painting Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales and
the execution of these improvements, the Blanes room offers acceptable conditions to conserve the
exhibited artworks.
2 . This is the superficial density of the luminous intensity in a given direction that can be measured in luxes with a luxometer.
ENGLISH VERSION
Painting Intervention
by Claudia Barra and Mechtild Endhardt
219
Figure 1.
Technical specifications1
FACT SHEET
Artist: Juan Manuel Blanes
The technical specifications of the painting’s material components were first assessed through visual
Title: El Juramento de los Treinta y Tres
Orientales (Oath of the Thirty-three Patriots examination enhanced by the use of magnifying lenses and ultraviolet radiation. This assessment led to
of the Eastern Province) the drafting of an initial diagnosis and the presentation of an intervention proposal. At a later stage, a
Date: 1877
series of scientific-analytical studies was performed in order to determine the painting technique applied
Technique: oil on canvas
Size: 305 × 560 cm (dimensions recorded by Blanes on this particular artwork and be able to contrast results drawn from initial examination.
in 2015) The proposed analyses provided us with information regarding the supports’ textile fibers, pigment
Location: Blanes Room / Museo Juan
composition, paint-layer and ground-layer weight, and thickness and superposition of paint-layer films.
Manuel Blanes / Montevideo Municipal
Government Project results are discussed in the following chapter.
SUPPORTS
The primary support1 is made of natural-fiber cloth. This is evident on the edges and in spots where
paint-layer loss has caused cloth exposure.
Given the painting’s size, chances are that this support is made up of cloth patches put together.
However, this assumption cannot be confirmed because a secondary support2 covers the reverse side of
the artwork, and from the front side there are no visible signs of patch joining.
A note written by Prof. Angel Kalenberg, director of the Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales (National
Museum of Visual Arts), confirms that the secondary support is made of Belgian linen (see Annex I).
STRETCHER FRAME
The tailor-made, mobile-structure, wood stretcher-frame was made using bars 10 cm wide by 3 cm thick
(approximate size). Corners have mortise and tenon joints. There are two vertical rungs and a horizontal
one. There is a total of 14 wedges: double ones in the corners and simple ones in the rung joints. Each
of the two mergings between vertical and central bars are reinforced by 40-x-40 cm plywood sheets.
The stretcher frame is attached to the frame by metal hoops screwed to both elements.
At the bottom side, between the stretcher-frame and the frame, small pieces of wood reinforce the
stretcher-frame’s structure.
Several grey lines match a similar pattern of lines painted on the frame in order to fit the rungs. This
1. In painting, primary support is a structural surface on which preparatory and/or chromatic layers are applied.
2. In painting, secondary support is a structural surface added to a primary support either to consolidate the structure of an
artwork or to strengthen a primary support’s weakened structural function. In this case, it is the fabric used for lining.
confirms the hypothesis that we are standing before the original stretcher-frame, and that the marks
were used as guidance to lay the canvas on top of the lining.
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GROUND LAYER
The ground layer is white, uniform-looking and, judging by its characteristics, based on animal-glue. It
shows signs of primary support texture, visible at paint-layer level.
220
PAINT LAYER3
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Based on visual evidence, and considering Blanes’ prevailing painting technique in his artistic work at the
time, we can assure that, in this case, he also applied oil paint on canvas. Nevertheless, we cannot discard
the presence of tempera in underlying layers.4 Thickness variation suggests the incorporation of texture
to the artwork as required by technical needs. Spots with additional texture are very few and are mainly
associated to accessories such as belt buckles or weaponry.
Contrary to what has been found in much of Blanes’ artistic production at the time, this artwork shows
minimal use of glaze.5 Glaze is a challenging painting technique, in terms of execution, that Blanes
applied to many of his paintings, especially to his smaller pieces. In Juramento de los Treinta y Tres, he
made moderate use of this technique, only for the sky and portions of foliage, and slightly on faces or other
character-carnation spots. Even though glazes are layers extremely sensitive to solvents, the hypothesis
that they might have been wiped off in previous interventions does not have enough backing, given
execution aspects of this particular artwork and lack of evidence suggesting the presence of this technique.
Based on the large number of drawings associated to this particular painting, there is no doubt that Juan
Manuel Blanes worked meticulously on this project. Indeed, thorough analysis of anatomy, composition
and color, through these initial drawings, must have been a common denominator throughout the whole
execution. Objective verification of this assumption would be possible using infrared-reflectography
equipments to generate images of all the underlying layers. In addition, X-rays should be used in order
to successfully penetrate the paint layers and reach the underdrawing. Implementation of these studies
will remain on standby until there is local access to this technology in our field.
VARNISHING
The artwork’s surface suggests the presence of natural-resin varnish. However, this is not the original
varnishing, but one applied during a later intervention, possibly in 1971, by restorer Carlos Giuadrone
and his team. It is a moderately thick layer applied with moderate homogeneity. The results of solubility
tests and the aging pattern noticed indicate that this might be Dammar varnish. In the 70s, unlike
nowadays, adding anti-aging substances to varnish was not a common practice, which explains why
varnishes darkened faster. They were affected by polymerization processes unleashed by radiations and
atmospheric oxygen.
3 . The paint layer is a stratum of pigments and binding media made up of one or more layers. It is usually applied on top of a
ground layer.
4. The painting techniques of the Florence Academy, where Blanes studied, favored the use of tempera as an intermediate layer
between the support and the oil paint.
5. A painting technique that consists of superimposing translucent layers of color on an opaque surface. Artists usually apply this
technique in specific areas, if suitable.
FRAME
ENGLISH VERSION
The carved wood frame shows that a gypsum-based preparation was used in the gilding process. Each
of the four miter joints have been reinforced by two pieces of sheet metal placed in a right angle and
screwed to the back of the frame. In addition, there are five decorative elements, described below.
Previous interventions
So far, reports on prior interventions have not been found and currently available data have been
gathered from press releases6 and oral accounts.7 The existence of prior interventions, however, is visible
upon examination with the naked eye. Throughout this report, positive and negative aspects of such
interventions will be discussed. We must say that the materials and techniques applied are in agreement
with conservation-restoration principles and practices prevailing at the time. By no means do we intend to
judge, in the light of currently available intervention knowledge and criteria, projects carried out in the past.
CHRONOLOGY
Other interventions
There is evidence of other minor interventions performed on the painting after 1971.
6 . Publication by visual artist Ernesto Laroche in El Día newspaper (missing date; see Annex I).
7. Restorer Eduardo Luciani was part of the team in charge of the 1971 intervention.
8. Fidencio Alabés: Spanish visual artist, 1863. He lived on both sides of Rio de la Plata since 1870.
9. He was born in Montevideo (1926-1980), and was the first director of the Taller de Restauración del Patrimonio Artístico
Histórico y Cultural de la Nación ( National Artistic, Historical and Cultural Heritage Restoration Workshop), (see Annex I).
10. Colleta-based lining uses animal glue. Application of this treatment began with the Italian restoration school and is still
favored by some renowned restoration centers.
11. Data provided by Prof. Angel Kalenberg, former director of Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales (see Annex I).
DESCRIPTION OF PREVIOUS INTERVENTIONS
ENGLISH VERSION
Support
Secondary support is made up of a single piece of linen cloth. The wax-resin technique was applied for
lining. This lining is currently functional.
throughout the whole artwork. In most cases, they are visible because of their specific characteristics or
transformations. Some retouches have undergone color transformation due to aging or instability and
stand out from the original polychromy. Sky area reintegrations, for instance, are quite evident.
Some of the inpainting has visibly altered the texture of the paint layer due to its hardness, while other
inpainting, done on top of cracks, has become invasive.
In addition to these inpaints and retouches, some mends also stand out due to their texture and hardness.
Inpainting done on losses not mended prior to color reintegration are also noticeable. Such interventions
probably took place after 1971.
Given the large size of this artwork, a grid was used to subdivide its surface into different work areas.
Coordinates were drawn every 60 cm and identified with numbers from 1 to 5 on the ordinate (vertical)
axis, and with letters from A to H on the abscissa (horizontal) axis. Areas or quadrants resulting from
coordinate intersection were identified by a code made up of a letter followed by a number. This way, the
lower quadrant starting from the left was assigned the A1 code, and so on.
DIAGNOSIS
An initial diagnosis, shared below, was made before accessing the artwork through scaffolds.
INITIAL DIAGNOSIS
The canvas is apparently in good condition; there is a slight deformation at the bottom edge. Final
examination, from the back, required moving the artwork, which had not been done at the time due
to its size. The paint layer shows craquelure of different size throughout the whole surface. In some
areas, there are minor losses. Areas that have developed craquelure and loss, currently under threat of
detachment, are concentrated at the bottom edge.
The surface is practically matte. Varnish is slightly oxidized and color saturation is poor.
ENGLISH VERSION
There are retouches throughout the whole surface, especially evident in the sky area. This is probably due
to color transformation caused by oxidation of reintegration materials and stands out to the naked eye.
FINAL DIAGNOSIS
Once the scaffolds were installed, access to the entire artwork, from both sides, was possible. The whole 223
surface was thus examined and the degree of instability of the paint layer could be finally assessed. This
SUPPORTS
As mentioned earlier, this painting had been lined, obtaining a secondary support made up of linen cloth.
Lining criteria and some lining techniques have substantially changed in recent decades. Nowadays,
lining is applied when the canvas or primary support loses its structural capabilities. In the past, however,
restorers resorted to lining with an additional objective in mind: consolidating12 paint layers. The lining
applied to Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales was meant to fulfill both objectives. A wax-and-
resin lining method was used, which, from a technical perspective, adversely affects the consolidation
of paint layers. The passage of the wax-and-resin mixture applied on the reverse side, all the way to
the color film, and previously permeating through the canvas and ground layer, may not be effective
enough to successfully consolidate the paint layer. This process depends on the permeability of the
system. However, when reverse-side impregnation actually reaches the paint layer, previously going past
all the underlayers, and consolidation occurs, a treatment is considered to be extremely invasive. When
this happens, pictorial elements end up being encapsulated by wax, and this is an irreversible process.
Nowadays, paint-layer consolidation procedures are performed before lining and using specific materials
to that end.
The artwork’s current lining fulfils its function by providing support reinforcement. There are no perceivable
adhesion defects between primary and secondary support. Nevertheless, paint layer cohesion and adherence
show a considerable defect. This aspect will be discussed in the paint layer section of this work.
The support system13 shows areas with deformations without apparent adhesion problems between
original support and lining. Deformations on the upper right side stand out, such as a convex deformation
encompassing quadrants H3, H4 and H5. There is also a smaller, convex deformation worth mentioning,
located near the lower central edge. Finally, near the center of the artwork, a smaller concave deformation
can be perceived. The edges of the original support are very damaged, showing loss of ground layer and
color in several areas. Due to the large size of this artwork, the edges withstand great tension force.
Ambient-relative-humidity fluctuations generate changes by contraction and expansion of the support’s
textile fibers, specifically affecting the edges. Another cause of support stress, particularly affecting the
edges, are the tension-shift movements generated when the artwork is relocated.14
The original support has three tears, 3 to 5 cm long, located on the left (A1 quadrant), lower (H1
quadrant), and upper (H5 quadrant) edges.
12. Consolidation is a technique to restore the cohesion of painting materials on a paint layer and the adherence of multiple
paint layers.
13 . By support system, we mean the original support together with the lining support.
14 . Right side, from the observer’s perspective.
STRETCHER FRAME
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The state of conservation of the stretcher frame is good. Moreover, it remains functional by providing
enough tension to the artwork. Its mobile structure enables it to adjust to canvas tension shifts resulting
from humidity fluctuations.
The lower bar shows a slight plane curvature in the central area.
224
As mentioned earlier, the stretcher frame has two reinforcement plates between the rungs. One of them
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
shows severe damage and seems to have been in direct contact with water. For this reason, we have
decided to remove said plate and replace it by a similar one.
GROUND LAYER
The ground layer is exposed in some areas where the paint layer has been detached due to layer- adhesion
failure. Adhesion defects between ground layer and primary support are also visible. In both cases, small
detachments expose areas of white ground-layer as well as areas with wax-based ground layer. In other
spots affected by loss, there is textile-support exposure.
Areas with exposed ground-layer show a penetrating, thin, aging-crack network15 that has made its way
to the support.
Ground layer is also visible on the edges, particularly on the upper edge, where there is a 2-to-3-cm
strip missing paint layer.
Most of the ground-layer losses have been mended during previous interventions. Mends were
made using different materials, and some of them ended up becoming extremely invasive and stiff.
PAINT LAYER
The current intervention has resulted, in great measure, from the instability threat perceived at paint-
layer level. This instability is evidenced by small detachments affecting various spots throughout the
surface. As mentioned in the previous section of this document, these detachments also affect the
ground layer. In most cases, their size is similar to ground-layer losses showing prevalence of micro-
detachments,16 or detachments up to 10 mm wide. A series of internal and external factors lead to the
paint-layer deterioration process. However, its main cause is inherent to the oil-paint materials applied
on the canvas and their response to ambient-relative-humidity variations. Each element in a system
that is made up of a paint layer, a ground layer, and a textile support undergoes specific volume shifts,
depending on their hygroscopicity. Therefore, if layers originally bound together end up being affected
by internal shifts, of different magnitude, they will tend to separate and generate cracks. And this may
eventually evolve into paint-layer detachment.
The instability process originated from cracks on the surface of the artwork. In fact, it consists of a
pattern of cracks of variable depth and dimension, ranging from a few millimeters to 2 cm, which have
intersected and led to paint-layer craquelure. These patterns actually vary depending on the tension
forces affecting a given area and on layer composition. Whereas in several spots, the cracks are horizontal,
15 . Age cracks, or cracks of aging, occur as time goes by and materials suffer deterioration caused by interaction with their
environment.
16. Micro-detachments are detachments smaller than 1 mm per side.
elongated and deep, there are also diagonal cracks, matching the support’s twill-type interlacing. 17
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Quadrant F4 shows very fine, superficial, aging cracks forming a very regular and dense grid-like pattern,
with a 3-to-4 mm crack separation. The same area suggests the presence of originating cracks, with a
width greater than 1 mm, in greater dispersion and forming a slightly regular pattern. Aging cracks have
developed on top of these originating cracks.
We see the presence of different-size losses. They range from 1-mm spots to greater areas, called 225
lacunae, occupying surfaces of up to 20 cm2. Fortunately, losses are practically non-existent on faces and
In the sky area, paint-layer discontinuity is perceived as an irregular, dark stain affecting the E5 and F5
quadrants. In this area, the more superficial color layer is missing. This was a layer heavily based on white
pigment that Blanes had applied as glazing to paint the clouds against the light-blue background. The
shape of this irregularity indicates that the missing superficial color must have been wiped off by the
spilling of some liquid substance.
The A3 quadrant shows the footprint of an iron, which, we assume, accidentally remained in contact
with the artwork during excessive time. Several areas of the painting were damaged suffering texture
deformation, loss of plasticity and, in some cases, loss of paint layer.
Some spots also show paint-layer abrasions. These are surface alterations caused by wear due to, for
instance, inadequate cleaning or friction with another object. Wear shows as small specks of color loss.
Abrasion has led to exposure of visible underlying surface.
The front and back of the artwork show the presence of grime caused by deposited ambient dust. Dirt
enters through texture interstices, cracks and paint-layer craquelure.
Paint-layer has shifted in several spots. This type of deterioration occurs if, during previous fixation
treatments, paint-layer detachments were not reattached to their original position. These small
detachments were mistakenly attached to other spots on the adjacent paint layer, as can be seen on the
E1-quadrant image.
Some areas show loss of paint-layer texture resulting from previous fixation and consolidation
treatments. This type of crushing usually occurs when applying pressure using a spatula or an iron with
excessive heat or pressure.
The characteristics of a dark, rectangular stain in the H3 quadrant suggest that it might have originated
in the underlayers. In fact, it might be a pentimento,18 now visible to the naked eye due to paint
polymerization. Whereas sometimes pentimenti are clearly visible to the naked eye, in other occasions
they can only be spotted resorting to imaging techniques such as IR reflectography or X-rays.
Varnish
Varnish is glossy and shows irregularities with presence of dull spots. It reflects the crazing and
craquelure of the paint layer. There is no evidence of additional crazing originating in the varnish coat
17. Twill textile-weaves show combinations of interlaced fibers producing stepped patterns with typical diagonal stripes.
18 A pentimento (an Italian term that means repentance) is the alteration of a painting, when artists change their minds about
a specific aspect of their work.
itself. It is moderately polymerized, with visible yellowing. The shades of light-blue from the sky have
turned slightly greenish and the shades of white look warm.
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Frame
There is abundant surface grime. Mouldings have been partially inpainted in bronze color. There are
cracks and some minor paint losses.
226
Intervention
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INTERVENTION CRITERIA19
Intervention was based on thorough analysis of the artwork in order to grasp what it actually represents
as well as its uniqueness in terms of its aesthetic, historic and social value. Our project also took into
consideration knowledge derived from the study of the painting’s materiality and history, as an artifact
that is part of our cultural heritage.
We created an interdisciplinary team and, with this approach in mind, we assessed obstacles, artwork
deterioration and its probable causes, as well as the influence of the artwork’s environment. In fact,
we examined the artwork’s current and future environments, aspects that have a direct impact on
conservation tasks.
Once we came up with a justification for intervention, we set conservation and restoration criteria in
order to ensure the safekeeping of the tangible and intangible worth of this artwork, which gathers the
highest values of our nation’s identity.
First of all, we adopted the criterion of minimal intervention as a basis to respond to the essential
conservation needs of the artwork. From a structural perspective, this involved working on stabilization
processes to help the support regain its function and hold the artwork’s paint layers. It also involved
consolidation and fixation processes. In practice, minimal intervention means proposing methodologies
and materials that are the most effective and the least invasive. This is directly related to another criterion
guiding our participation in this project: maximum reversibility of materials and processes implemented.
Although technical limitations seldom allow total reversibility, we seek the application of treatments that
will not hinder future interventions. In this regard, we select materials not only based on their intrinsic
reversibility potential, but also on their application requirements. A given material might be reversible
or irreversible depending on the application technique adopted. Therefore, when selecting materials and
procedures, we seek maximum reversibility and stability. These measures, together with the preventive
conservation principles adopted, will ensure that upcoming interventions take place further away in
time, thus expanding the reintervention gap.
The first obstacle that we had to deal with in order to place the painting in the desired position was its
large size. We needed access to the artwork from both sides in order to perform the treatment. On the
other hand, the pedagogical aspect of our project, which implied performing our tasks in front of the
public, required good visibility of the painting and also adequate protection. Thus, we decided to place it
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Three types of scaffolding were built to adapt to the different intervention stages: separating the frame
from the painting, moving the painting to an alternative fixed structure to perform the conservation-
restoration intervention, and accessing the whole surface by means of mobile scaffolds.
Before relocating the artwork, the frame’s decorative elements were removed and placed in the museum’s
storage area, where they remained safeguarded throughout the whole intervention process. Once the 227
artifact’s restoration was completed, the surface of these elements was cleaned and they were placed
During intervention, the artwork was mounted on a temporary stretcher-frame, so that it could be
fastened to the scaffolds.
Lighting applied during the intervention process has to allow visualization of even minimal details.
Particularly, during the color reintegration stage, color temperature and luminance conditions are
expected to match, as much as possible, the prevailing conditions upon painting display. For this reason,
LED spotlights were located on a provisional structure over the upper edge of the painting at a distance
of approximately 1.5 m. In addition, a spotlight was fastened to the mobile scaffold to provide the
working area with direct lighting. In stages requiring greatest light intensity, white-tube-light-bulb
lamps were used to enhance lighting.
Consolidation and fixation treatments enable cohesion recovery for materials used in ground and paint
layers. In this case, we used sturgeon glue in dilutions according to the needs of the artwork. We applied
this consolidant through Japanese tissue, exerting adequate pressure and administering controlled heat
levels by means of a thermal spatula. We treated areas where we identified instability. Consolidation is not
applied in a preventive fashion, but rather where cracks and craquelure occur, allowing the consolidant
to penetrate. These treatments do not stop a painting’s internal shifts, which means that they do not
lower the risk of deterioration in the face of inadequate surrounding conditions. Internal shifts along
with the materials’ aging process will follow their course and new instances of treatment will eventually
be required. According to the initial diagnosis, 30% of the surface required consolidation and/or fixation.
However, after a definitive diagnosis, and based on digitalized records, this value practically doubled.
Cleaning the paint layer and taking off the oxidized varnish21
Once paint layers were consolidated, the varnish was taken off. Solubility tests were carried out and
different A-class organic solvents were applied. Gel-based cleaning applied through Japanese tissue
proved to be the most appropriate method.
risks and benefits for each situation. For instance, in some cases presenting high levels of inpaint-stiffness
and fragility of adjacent paint-layers and underlayers, we decided against total removal. Instead, before
doing the inpainting, we reduced excess inpaint-thickness as much as possible. Most of the previous
inpainting was satisfactorily removed.
228 Varnishing22
Once the paint structure stabilized and the previous inpainting was removed, we applied an initial coat
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of varnish in order to separate the original painting from the materials used in upcoming treatments.
The application of this so-called intervention varnish complied with reversibility-process criteria and,
ultimately, was a way to show respect to the artwork’s original paint layers. Mends, and afterwards, chro-
matic reintegration were executed over this initial layer. Once we finalized color reintegration, we com-
pleted the multi-layer varnish system23 by applying an aliphatic-hydrocarbon-based synthetic varnish in
order to protect the natural resin and the retouches we had done. Both applications were performed by
aspersion using an air-compressor spray gun.
Polymerization and subsequent varnish darkening shortens reintervention periods. It also favors repetition
of removal procedures and varnish recoating, all of which represents an intrinsic risk for the paint film.
In this regard, multi-layer varnishing, which is based on superposition of different varnish coats, is an
asset when it comes to isolating the natural-varnish coat, adhered to the painting, from contact with
the atmosphere. An ultraviolet-stabilizer additive is applied in the final coat. This stratification favors
gradual cleaning because it allows the elimination of superficial layers of synthetic stabilizing-varnish,
while keeping the natural resin protected.
Chromatic reintegration
We carried out chromatic reintegration using different retouching techniques based on loss size and
characteristics. For smaller losses, we did imitative or illusionistic reintegration. For greater losses or
lacunae, we did the reintegration by means of line patterns. Small brushstrokes cover the surface loss,
blend with the image, and observers can only notice the inpainting when standing less than a meter
away. Chromatic reintegration was done using paints produced for oil-paint inpainting treatments.
It should be noted that all chromatic reintegrations will be visible under ultraviolet-radiation light in a
dark environment, and that art-conservator expertise will be needed to draw meaningful conclusions
from this type of examination.
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Photographs were taken while exposing the painting to UV radiation applied by means of UV-light tubes,
placed on the sides of the surface to be examined. The whole painting was scrutinized using this method,
and photographic records were made of previously selected areas. UV radiation provided information
regarding previous inpainting and varnishing applied to the artwork and, in particular, regarding varnish
characteristics. For instance, we worked with a selection of photographs that showed the presence of 229
inpainting not only under visible light, but also under UV radiation.
A1, D2 and E2 quadrants were selected to document different intervention stages: initial state, process,
and outcome.
Digital graphics
We recorded not only defects but also intervened areas, and used color graphics to highlight the condition
of each damaged area before intervention. A graphics-drawing tablet was used to apply different
graphics, depending on the highlighted areas. For instance, areas suggesting paint-layer instability had
been marked in green. Now, these areas match consolidated and fixated areas. Areas suggesting paint-
layer loss had been marked in yellow. Now, these areas match restored areas with subsequent chromatic
reintegration. Previously inpainted areas had been marked in sky-blue, and now they match, in general
terms, areas that underwent chromatic reintegration during our intervention. Other special defects, or
defects identified in more specific spots, were recorded in photographs attached herein, under Annex II.
The paint layer has been stabilized applying fixation and consolidation treatments. Consolidated areas
make up between 50% and 60% of the painting’s surface. Treatment longevity will depend, in great
measure, on the surrounding’s environmental conditions and, in particular, on the stability of ambient
relative humidity. It should be noted that not only the intrinsic characteristics of the materials used in
this painting, but also the artist’s technique, will determine paint-layer stability. Required stability mainly
depends on a structural pair made up of painting support and stretcher frame. In following sections, we
will share some considerations regarding their impact.
The sky area revealed the greatest color variation after varnish removal. Before intervention, darkened
varnish due to aging disguised subtle hue variations in the sky area, which altered the artwork by
suggesting a flatter representation than originally intended. The artwork’s final state, however, shows
the light effect that Blanes originally expressed by placing the luminous source on the left side, thus
impregnating the image with warm colors that we can see gradually turning colder towards the right
side of the painting.
For chromatic reintegration, we used highly stable pigments and protected them with a final varnish film.
In spite of their noble qualities, these pigments are subject to deterioration resulting from radiation and,
in some cases, the presence of atmospheric gases. Fortunately, risk of radiation-based deterioration has
been substantially lowered thanks to efforts made by the museum’s management, with the installation
of LED lighting in the exhibition room where the artwork is currently on display.
Removal of dirt and polymerized-varnish enhanced the color intensity of the paint layer unveiling new
hue gradations. The varnish applied during intervention has increased pigment saturation.
SUPPORTS
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The support is stable. In the upper central area, close to the right edge, a slight deformation remains,
which can eventually be restored in a future intervention involving stretcher-frame removal.
The lining treatment done in the 70s is still effective. However, although the lining method applied
was widely used in the past, and is currently favored by different international restoration centers, it
230 poses some problems. Its wax-and-resin composition darkens by oxidation, which can cause permanent
darkening of the paint layer. Artworks that have undergone this treatment also develop a dull appearance,
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proportionally intensified by the amount of material used. In addition, artworks become heavier, which
has a direct impact on edge tension and a reduction of the flexibility of the whole system. Finally, this
kind of treatment impregnates the support in an irreversible fashion, leading to total loss of permeability
from its reverse side.
The advantage of this lining method is that adherence between supports remains functional for a long
time, as proved by this Blanes’ artwork.
STRETCHER FRAME
Given the large dimensions of this painting, the stretcher frame providing support structure plays a
preponderant role in the conservation of this artwork. Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales currently
has a mobile-type stretcher frame that accompanies the movement of the canvas caused by variations
in ambient relative humidity. This means that when the canvas absorbs moisture and stretches, the
stretcher frame also gains volume, maintaining support tension while reducing support-and-paint-layer
tension. The adaptable behavior of mobile-type stretcher frames is a great advantage compared to fixed-
type stretcher frames.
Nowadays, there are different stretcher-frame designs that can minimize movement caused by
fluctuating relative humidity more effectively. Our intervention did not find a justifiable reason to change
stretcher frames, which would have implied disassembly of the artwork for this sole purpose. In the
event of stretcher-frame removal from the painting, we suggest that the convenience of incorporating
advanced stretcher-frame technology be assessed.
Periodic inspections are of great value in order to safeguard the future of the artwork. Although
professionals appointed in due course will know which aspects of the painting should be examined, we
would like to stress the need to assess lining effectiveness, since more than four decades have passed
since it was first applied.
Another aspect worthy of attention will be the evolution of cracks and craquelure. Even though they
have been stabilized in the course of our intervention, their natural aging cannot be completely stopped.
Moreover, their future conservation state will be directly affected by environmental conditions.
There are no signs of pests or pest action in the different elements that make up the artwork; nonetheless,
we recommend regular examination.
With regard to lighting management, nowadays, planned exposure strategies are favored (Michalski).
These strategies consist of selecting the radiation levels to which museum artifacts are exposed,
considering aspects such as exhibition script, visitor profile and time frame during which a given
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principles is limited because this artwork is on permanent display. With this in mind, and considering the
fact that radiation damage is cumulative, a higher light-exposure limit must be set, in order to ensure
visual access for visitors. It should also be noted that any action leading to the reduction of radiation-
exposure time will result in greater conservation of the artwork. This requirement has been taken into
account during intervention and has actually led to the selection of a varnish system that will protect
the painting from radiation. 231
While on display, general precautions and artwork environmental conditions will be the same as those
required for easel-painting preservation. In the case of Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales, the
protection applied on its reverse side will buffer the effects of the ambient relative humidity. As stated
in the chapter on preventive conservation, the ideal parameters of relative humidity and temperature
will be determined by examination and assessment based on multiple aspects. In a room where only oil
paintings are exhibited, relative humidity may be set to a maximum of 60%, and this will not set the
artwork at risk, as long as fluctuations do not push this limit past 65%. Beyond this value, mold growth
is highly probable. The following standard values can be used as reference while studies are carried out
for this particular artwork: 20 ºC temperature with a maximum fluctuation of 2 ºC, and 50% relative
humidity with a maximum fluctuation of 5% (Michalski, 2009).
In short, the use of a team approach to perform assessment and examinations leading to the design and
implementation of a preventive conservation project should pave the way for safeguarding this deeply
treasured heritage piece.
Annex I
BACKGROUND DOCUMENTS
Article on Carlos Giaudrone, restorer in charge of the 1971 intervention; text by Ernesto Laroche (visual
artist and former director of the Museo Nacional de Artes Plásticas, now Museo Nacional de Artes
Visuales) published by the El Día newspaper; missing date.
Article making reference to intervention on the frame of Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales; text
by Ernesto Laroche (visual artist and former director of Museo Nacional de Artes Plásticas, now Museo
Nacional de Artes Visuales) published by the El Día newspaper; missing date.
Article making reference to logistical matters regarding the intervention work carried out by Carlos
Giaudrone and his team; text by Prof. Angel Kalenberg (former director of Museo Nacional de Artes
Plásticas, now Museo Nacional de Artes Visuales).
Mr. Cantú’s letter, in 1953, stating the need to intervene the artwork for safekeeping purposes.
Studies on the materiality and
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painting technique
Federico Eisner, Fernando Marte y Claudia Barra
232
INTRODUCTION
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Within the project for the conservation of the painting Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales by
Juan Manuel Blanes (305 × 560 cm, circa 1875-1878), conservation scientists conducted studies on the
materiality and technique of this work of art. The analytical goals were to start with the identification
of pigments and fillers of the paint and ground layers of the Juramento de los Treinta y Tres Orientales,
contributing in that way to painting technique studies of the Uruguayan artist Juan Manuel Blanes.
This research represents one of the first and scarce opportunities in which this kind of studies has been
executed both in Uruguay and in Juan Manuel Blanes’ work, since as far as we know there has been no
previous material analysis on the artist. Although it has not been standardized this kind of facilities in
Uruguay, the current team has impulsed and participated in earlier investigations, as well as in a pioneer
project in this field at the Facultad de Química de la Universidad de la República.1
METHODOLOGY
The studies and techniques were based on cross-section analysis of paint layers by optic and fluorescence
microscopy, and pigment identification by Raman microscopy.
In order to carry out the analysis, samples of approximately 1 mm were taken from the painting.
Sampling was made during restoration treatments, before any kind of chromatic reintegration, and for
their selecting sample`s UV light-induced fluorescence images were used.
Sampling selected areas were on margins and sectors with pre-existent lacunea or adhesion loss. No
carnation samples from human figures were taken due to their good state of conservation, in order to
avoid further deterioration.
The number of samples were selected to allow the study of the pallete and painting technique. Extraction
areas are shown in Figure 1, while complete samples listing is presented in Table 1. Some of them were
selected for composition analysis by Raman microscopy, according to criteria of representativeness and
seeking to cover the maximum of the color palette in the work while minimizing the number of samples.
Table 1: List of samples from paint layers, its characteristics and studies (go to page 133)
Samples were taken with scalpel from the painting surface. Then were observed under microscope and a
fragment of each one was selected to be included in auto-setting acrilyc resin (Buenos Aires, Argentina).
Once the resin set with the sample included, it was polished with watered sandpaper between P240
1 . Project CSIC 347: “Scientific conservation of cultural objects in Uruguay”, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República,
2007-2009, Horacio Heinzen; Claudia Barra; Fernando Marte; Federico Eisner; Laura Franco; Leopoldo Suescun and Fernando Trucco.
– P2500 range, continuing with Micromesh 2400 – 12000 (Wachowiak, 2004). Polished samples were
registered under polarized microscope Leica DM EP, with fluorescence system and objectives of 5, 10 and
20x throughout a Leica DFC280 digital camera at maximum resolution.
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RAMAN MICROSCOPY
Spectroscopic techniques are those in which the behavior of the sample interacting with a determined
region of the electromagnetic spectra is measured. Spectroscopic techniques are, among others, Raman
spectrometry, X ray fluorescence and X ray diffraction, all of them of common use in cultural material 233
studies.
Raman spectra were collected from samples over selected points throughout 50x and 100x objectives of
an Olympic microscope coupled to a Lab RAM HR spectrometer (Horiba Jobin Yvon), using an excitation
laser line at 632,8 nm, within 10 to 50% of power and 5 accumulations, between 100 and 2000 cm-1.
Laser power was adjusted to avoid possible sample´s alterations.
Spectra interpretation was guided by the use of diverse data bases of public use available online.3
Results
SAMPLE M1/H1
Description: sample collected as fragment and powder from the brown ground on quadrant H1.
1. Ground: whitish layer with translucent particles showing angular edges and equatorial orientation,
maximum sections of 40 micrometers (μm). Maximum observable layer height is 85 μm,
approximately.
2. Light ochre intermediate paint layer, with large inclusions of carmine red particles (18 μm, approx.)
and orange-red color. Maximum observable layer height is 50 μm and 18 μm minimum.
3. Dark ochre surface paint layer with more fillers than the underlying, of green, blue, red and black
colors, showing diverse shapes and wider size distribution. Maximum observable layer height is
32 μm and 8 μm minimum. Above this layer another one is observed of 4 μm high approximately,
lighter color, probably an optic distortion.
2 . For further information on Raman spectrometry on cultural heritage see Campos y Aguayo (2015), Aguayo et al. (2011) and
Analytical Methods Committee (2015).
3 . Barthelmy, David. Mineralogy Database, 2012. webmineral.com/data/Sodalite.shtml#.Vk8R4srIvdA. Bell, Ian M., Clark, Robin J.H.
, Gibbs, Peter. J. Raman Spectroscopic Library of Natural and Synthetic Pigments. University College, London, 2010. http://www.chem.
ucl. ac.uk/resources/raman
Figure 2 (go to page 135)
Sample M1/H1 image with incident polarized light, using a 20x objective.
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SAMPLE M2/H1
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from the black pants of the man, left bottom corner
of the painting.
1. Ground: whitish layer with translucent particles showing angular edges and equatorial orientation,
maximum section about 40 μm. Maximum observable layer height is 172 μm, approximately.
2. Dark brown intermediate paint layer, plenty of white, red and black particles of very diverse shapes.
Maximum observable layer height is 72 μm and 20 μm minimum.
3. Dark brown surface paint layer (almost black) with less particles than the underlying, without white
particles. Maximum observable layer height is 48 μm and 16 μm minimum.
4. Protection layer: natural resin, typical fluorescence is observed.
SAMPLE M4/C2
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from a pre-existent lacunae at the ground or sand
over ochre color, at the bottom middle zone of the painting.
1. Ground: whitish layer with translucent particles showing angular edges and equatorial orientation,
maximum section about 40 μm. Maximum observable layer height is 132 μm.
2. White (yellowish) intermediate paint layer, thick and regular, between 72 and 112 μm. Plenty of red-
orange, green and blue particles, although color description is difficult for their tiny size. The higher
zone is observed as a layer but of undefined limits, shown as a gradient or darkening of the layer.
However under UV light a marked fluorescence difference is observed: this pseudo layer presents a
blueish fluorescence while the inferior one shows less fluorescence and different color.
3. Thin and white paint layer of regular 8 μm high.
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4. Paint layer similar to layer 2, but with a greater number and size of observable particles. In this case,
besides are observed carmine red particles, which are the bigger ones. Maximum observable layer
height is 24 μm and 12 μm minimum.
5. White surface paint layer, darker in the lower part: presents carmine red and green particles (probably
from the underlying layer). Maximum observable layer height is 44 μm and 16 μm minimum. Over
this stratum a dark zone is observed, probably black, on the surface, very subtle and thin (less than 235
2 μm), conformed mostly by particles than as a layer.
SAMPLE M5/G2
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from the red shirt over the man in the right zone of
the painting.
1. Ground: white layer with translucent particles showing angular edges. Shows a differentiated
fluorescence, stronger at the lower part (more yellowish). Maximum observable layer height is 100
μm. The ground stratum shows discontinuous height due possibly to the fabric threads ripple.
Possible remains of an inferior ground layer are observed under the resin.
2. Carmine red paint layer of 10 to 30 μm height. The stratum disappears towards the left zone of the
sample following the ripple of the ground. This layer must be compared with its analog M16/F3.
3. White paint layer, slightly reddish, with little red particles. Thickness of the layer is between 20 and
52 μm. This layer levels off the ripple of the underlying ones.
4. Surface painting layer, intense and pure red, almost without inclusions. Its thickness varies between
5 and 24 μm, with some discontinuities.
5. Subtle fluorescent varnish layer, at the middle zone of the sample, showing 10 μm high, similar to
those observed in samples M1/H1 and M2/H1.
Table 3: Raman analysis data for points over sample M5/G2 (go to page 140)
SAMPLE M7/B2
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Description: sample collected as a little fragment from a pre-existent lacunae at the white pants on the
lower left zone of the painting.
1. White ground layer with maximum observable height of 32 μm. Large to middle translucent
particles up to 50 μm horizontally.
2. Yellow paint layer of regular height between 28 and 44 μm. The stratum shows multiple small
particles of several colors: red, blue, green and black. Similar to layer 2 in M1/H1 and to layer 2 in
M4/C2.
3. White paint layer of regular height between 50 and 90 μm, presenting few inclusions, some of them
elongated yellow particles equatorially oriented and one reddish are observed. No protection layer
is observed.
Table 4: Raman analysis data for points over sample M7/B2 (go to page142).
SAMPLE M8/E2
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from a pre-existent lacunae at the dark blue pants on
the central zone of the painting.
1. White and thick ground layer, up to 120 μm, with translucent particles showing angular edges,
mostly elongated with equatorial orientation, up to 50 μm long.
2. Ochre paint layer of 16 to 32 μm high, presenting multiple inclusions of diverse sizes, particularly
red and black; these ones are bigger up to 15 μm, equatorially oriented.
3. Blue paint layer, thicker to the left of the sample and disappearing to the right, possibly due to
some riddle in the painting surface. Stratum height varies between 16 and 28 μm, presenting black
particles.
4. Fluorescent protection layer observed exclusively over the blue stratum. Its thickness doesn’t exceed
10 μm.
ENGLISH VERSION
Figure 19 (go to page 143)
Sample M8/E2 image, with Raman analysis areas.
Table 5: Raman analysis data for points over sample M8/E2 (go to page 143)
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SAMPLE M9/E3
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from a pre-existent lacunae at the blue pants on the
central zone of the painting.
5. White ground, maximum observable height of 80 μm. Presents translucent particles of angular
edges, mostly elongated with equatorial orientation, up to 20 μm length.
6. Ochre paint layer of 20 to 70 μm high, presenting multiple little inclusions, mainly red, blue and
black particles; being these last ones the biggest, up to 10 μm, in equatorial orientation.
7. Blue paint layer that disappears to the right of the sample. The height of the layer varies between
12 and 32 μm. The stratum shows less black particles than the analog layer in M8/E2, so the hue
is a lighter blue.
8. Fluorescent protection layer covering all the sample. Its height does not exceed 10 μm.
Table 6: Raman analysis data for points over sample M9/E3 (go to page 145).
SAMPLE M14/G4
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from a pre-existent lacune at the sky/clouds.
SAMPLE M15/H4
Description: sample collected as a little fragment from a pre-existent lacunae on the sky at the left area
of the painting.
1. White ground with yellowish hue. Observable layer height reaches up to 120 μm. It shows few but
large translucent particles up to 30 μm sized.
2. White paint layer of subtle grain, of 30 to 80 μm high.
3. Surface white paint layer of 5 to 20 μm high, with blue particles.
4. Thin layer with little fluorescence. Possible protection layer or a different material.
Table 7: Raman analysis data for points over sample M15/H4 (go to page148).
SAMPLE M16/F3
Description: sample collected as a little fragment and scraping from the yellow grip of the sword of
character in the centre of the painting.
1. White and thick ground up to 120 μm high, showing translucent particles with angular edges up
to 50 μm.
2. Ochre paint layer of 36 to 88 μm high, showing multiple particles of varied size distribution, mainly
red and black.
3. White paint layer of 10 to 40 μm high, showing red and blue particles.
ENGLISH VERSION
4. Homogeneous yellow paint layer of 70 to 110 μm high, showing some translucent particles at the right
of the sample and one big particle formed by little red inclusions at the left.
5. White paint layer of 10 to 50 μm high, showing a large amount of small red inclusions.
Table 8: Raman analysis data for points over sample M16/F3 (go to page 149).
CONCLUSIONS
The painting presents a clear ground layer composed of lead white as main component and middle size silica
particles showing angular and clean edges, possibly sized for the preparation of the fabric. The height of the
ground layer, as expectable, is very variable depending on the topography of the textile support, but it was
possible to determine a maximum height of 180 μm, with particles of maximum horizontal section of 50
μm. This ground is found in all the studied samples and is consistent in its characteristics, which allows to
conclude that the full fabric was prepared possibly in one step with a layer of the same composition. One
may wonder if the fabric could have been acquired already prepared or if the ground was made by the artist.
Lead white, also known by its ancient names like albayalde or cerussite, is chemically a basic lead carbonate
with formula Pb3(CO3)2(OH)2. This is not a natural mineral, but, although is found in nature, historically was
synthesized from carbonatation of metallic lead. It’s been the white pigment of wider use in occidental easel
painting until its fall in disuse in the 20th century, when was replaced by titanium white, of similar covering
power and far less toxic than albayalde. It is found described in all classic painting handbooks, where is
highlighted by its oil drying and adherent properties, as well as by its great covering power.
A singular fact is that in every cross-section it was observed an intermediate layer between the ground and
the paint layer. This is one of the main and most striking aspects of the characteristics on the colored paint
strata superposition. The full paint layer seem being consistently built by two strata of similar or frankly
different tonality, so to propose a chromatic explanation to such an overlap is problematic and remains
open to an interdisciplinary discussion and further investigations. These intermediate layers shows variable
heights, between 10 and 110 μm, and in general they present a larger variety of fillers than in the surface
paint layers.
Even more, in cases such as sample M5/G2 (red shirt), there are two intermediate paint layers, while sample
M4/C2 (sand) presents a cross-section that suggests to be a repaint. At least in three samples (M1/H1, M4/
C2 and M7/B7) a second or intermediate layer with common characteristics is found, which would suggest a
certain continuity in some parts of the painting for the use of colored intermediate layers, all corresponding
to the bottom of the painting, which figuratively represents the sand on the shore. This is a yellow ochre
layer with multiple small particles of various colors and blue UV fluorescence. Would have been the complete
sand painted before the figures? It is, certainly, a possibility that would inform us about a strict and
scheduled work by the artist. In M8/E2, at middle height of the painting, over a shadowed dark zone of
ENGLISH VERSION
the sand, the intermediate layer is of a more intense and dark ochre and richer still in inclusions, very
similar to intermediate layer of M16/F3, situated at the same height but approximately one meter to
the right. However M9/E3, being very close to M8/E2, shows a second ochre layer which averages the
characteristics of lower samples and M8/E2, that is to say that the preparation by areas of the fabric
could be a little more complex than a smooth color for an entire area, which in this case it would be
240 finally the sand.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Another similar situation is that of the sky (M14/G4 and M15/H4), where the intermediate layer is a
“purer” white than that of the ground, with few observable particles (possibly subdivided into two phases
of diffuse limit due to lack of drying). As observed in both cross-sections, to achieve the variety of light
blues and the marbled clouds in the sky, it was needed to start from a white background that could
highlight by contrast even the more subtle blue pigment particles. Is this allowing us to conclude that
the intermediate layers were applied by area as the background color for different figures? It is possible,
but some questions still remains, such as for example, what function would have the two intermediate
layers in M5/G2 and if indeed layer overlap in M4/C2 is an overpaint, and if it’s so, if correspond to a
restoration or a correction of the artist himself, given that it does not seem to have a very noticeable
change in materials.
On the other side, can be observed diffuse interfaces between intermediate and surface painting
layers, what is elucidated under UV fluorescence due to binder enrichment towards the upper limit
of the intermediate layers (M1/H1 and M4/C2). This can give us indications of a certain urgency in the
implementation of some layers without adequate drying times, which allowed the migration of binders
among them. Such urgency may be related to difficulties in the creation of a work of such dimensions.
Both in intermediate and surface layers it’s been found a great variety of filler inclusions, both in size and
color. Among the identified ones for reds, there are red grounds of diverse intensity, mainly composed
by iron oxides, as well as vermilion in inclusions of more orange hues. Lead white and carbon black
inclusions were founded too. In the case of M8/E2 and M9/E3, taken from the blue pants, the main
pigment is lazurite.
Iron reds correspond mostly to iron (III) oxides in its natural hematite ore form, with formula Fe2O3. This is
a common mineral in Earth’s crust exposed to the atmosphere and its use goes back to the most ancient
archaeological remains. Is normally economic and thus very common in paint layers, although their
possible origins can mean differences both in its purity and its hue due to the presence of other iron ores
and different inorganic species (Eastaugh, 2004: 183).
Vermilion is the historical name for the synthesized forms of cinnabar mineral, chemically a mercury
sulfide of formula HgS. Is the most valuable red pigment, both commercial and aesthetically for many
cultures, ages and regions, and its use never declined due to the singularity and intensity of its slightly
orange red hue, until the incorporation of cadmium red in the 20th century (Eastaugh, 2004: 386-387).
Lazurite is a glassy and blueish mineral, of a complex and variable chemical composition of the kind
(Na,Ca)8[(Al,Si)12O24](S,SO4). Is a member of the silicate mineral group, related to feldspars, but with less
proportion of silicon dioxide. In certain geological conditions lazurite can form the stone lapis lazuli,
which also contains other minerals, but the most common situation is that lazurite found in art objects
corresponds to the synthetic version, also called ultramarine blue. It’s been always an expensive pigment,
so many times it is combined with others such as azurite (basic copper carbonate) or indigo. In ancient
times is found especially in jewelry pieces, and in the middle ages came to be so expensive as pigment
that was used very little, until the introduction of its synthetic form around 17th and 18th centuries.
With the exception of the sky samples, the paint layers are plenty of particles, sized between the 5 to 40
μm, varying their color according to the area (red, black, and in lesser extent, blue and green).
ENGLISH VERSION
This research has given us the opportunity to enter in the material dimension of Blanes’ work to
inquire about his painting technique and the elements chosen by him for the execution of Juramento.
We immersed ourselves in his world of matter and color, studying overlays, effects of mixtures, and
stratification in relation to the tonal scale.
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All the recognized pigments in this investigation corresponds to the expected for an artist as Juan
Certain areas are detected where the paint layers have decrease its covering power. This occurs when
some conditions are given such as the thinness of the oil painting films or a certain color selection
and application technique, that as time goes by, can produce loss of covering capacity and to origin a
transparency that turns visible underlying layers. In some cases, this layers corresponds to modifications
made by the artist in the original composition. One example of it can be seen in sector H3, where signals
of an underlying image can be observed. A full imaging study would illuminate us on the intermediate
layers and its possible relationship with underlying images, although in principle all indicates the use of
the intermediate colored layers as a form of second preparation of the background over which to paint
the definitive figures. It would be needed imaging studies such as radiography and infrared visualization
to look for variations and modifications on the layers overlap. And of course still rests other tasks as paint
binding media identification.
The labors of research on the painting technique does not end here. We can say, on the contrary, that is
just beginning, because the study of an artist technique require of the analysis of a representative number
of its works allowing that way to make conclusions on its creative production on its different moments.
The undertaken task has opened a pathway and the proposed objectives have been accomplished,
among them, new analysis for these samples are promoted under confocal Raman microscopy and X ray
diffraction in Uruguay by researchers from the Facultad de Química de la Universidad de la República.5
This will allow us to expand research on this work of art supplementing the results already obtained
and investigating on a larger number of samples. In the light of the obtained results it is also opened
a space for interdisciplinary studies integrating the contributions of disciplines such as art history and
conservation.
4 . Blanes made his first trip to study in Florence (Italy), where he attended the Academy of Master Antonio Ciseri since 1861 to
1864.
5 . Dr. Ricardo Faccio. Instituto Polo Tecnológico de Pando, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Uruguay. Dr. Leopoldo
Suescun, Cátedra de Física, Facultad de Química, Universidad de la República, Uruguay.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ENGLISH VERSION
To Cristina Bausero who promoted and supported research in every moment. To Néstor Barrio, Dean of
the Instituto de Investigaciones sobre el Patrimonio Cultural, Universidad Nacional de San Martín, for his
unconditional support and collaboration to this investigation. To Noemí Mastrángelo for her enormous
help on processing the samples here studied. To Mechtild Endhart for her permanent support to this
242 investigation and for her collaboration to transporting samples.
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
A special acknowledgement to Ruben Barra for sowing the seed of the scientific research applied to
Conservation field in Uruguay.
ENGLISH VERSION
244
EL JURAMENTO DE LOS TREINTA Y TRES ORIENTALES
Los bocetos utilizados en este libro son los originales de Juan Manuel
Blanes para el y pertenecen al acervo del Museo Juan Manuel Blanes.
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