A060622 Courty

Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/ 2022 / 1
Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts on

the Moche Valley and on the Mochica (North Peru)
Microfacies de fuego y piroresiduos como traza de impactos por electrificación atmosférica en el
ABSTRACT
valle de Moche y en los Mochicas (norte de Perú)
Marie-Agnès Courty 1,*
1
PROMES UPR 8521 CNRS, Universitat de ABSTRACT RESUMEN
Perpinyà Via Domícia, Tecnosud, 66100 Per-
pinyà, France. Se estudia los efectos de los eventos ambientales para las
The effects of environmental events on living
conditions during occupation periods are studied condiciones de vida durante los periodos de ocupación,
* Corresponding author: (M.A. Courty) comparando los suelos aluviales y los pisos de ocupación
by comparing alluvial soils and occupation floors
marie-agnes.courty@promes.cnrs.fr que se formaron durante el Holoceno tardío en el valle de
that formed during the late Holocene in the Moche
valley (North Peruvian coast). The microcontextual Moche (costa norperuana). El estudio microcontextual
study comprises (1) microsurface identification in comprende (1) la identificación de la microsuperficie en
the field; (2) micromorphological analysis of thin el campo; (2) el análisis micromorfológico de secciones
sections; (3) multi-scale characterization of soil delgadas; (3) la caracterización multiescalar de los compo-
components based on digital stereo microscope nentes del suelo a partir del análisis con estereomicroscopio
and scanning electron microscope analysis. The digital y microscopio electrónico de barrido. La secuencia
alluvial sequence consists of a 6 m thick alternation aluvial consiste en una alternancia de 6 m de espesor de
of organic silty-clay, fine sandy strata with well-pre- arcilla limosa orgánica, estratos arenosos finos con estratos
Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

served ashy charcoal strata and massive grey sandy de carbón vegetal ceniciento bien conservados y lechos
beds. This cyclical pattern reflects alternation of arenosos grises masivos. Esta alternancia refleja episodios
stable episodes with a dense reed-bed vegetation, estables con una densa vegetación de cañaveral, afectada
regularly affected by wildfires and drought marked regularmente por incendios forestales que se alternan con
by sand invasions from coastal dunes during El sequías e invasiones de arena de las dunas costeras durante
Niño events. The 14C dates show that these con- los eventos de El Niño. Las fechas de 14C muestran que
trasting conditions lasted for one millennium up to estas condiciones contrastantes duraron un milenio hasta el
establishment of the Mochica empire at the Huaca establecimiento del imperio Mochica en la Huaca en 300
at 300 years cal. BC. Vesicular slags produced by años cal. AC. En las superficies impactadas se recuperaron
flash-melting of the soil components, biosourced vesicular-escoriáceos producidas por la fusión instantánea
quartz and nanostructured polymers formed from de los componentes del suelo, cuarzo de origen biológico
flash-ionization of the reed vegetation, all with y polímeros nanoestructurados formados a partir de la
FeCrNi metals coatings, were retrieved in the fired ionización instantánea de la vegetación de caña, todos
surfaces. They trace impact at the soil surface of ellos con recubrimientos de metales FeCrNi. Se rastrea el
How to cite this article: electrically charged particles, lightning-flashes, impacto en la superficie del suelo de la carga de partículas,
Courty, M.A., 2022, Fire microfacies nanoaerosol production by enhanced atmospheric los relámpagos, la producción de nanoaerosoles por electri-
and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification, i.e., flash-heating, shock vaporiza- ficación atmosférica mejorada, es decir, el calentamiento
electrification impacts on the Moche valley tion, plasma-polymerization of the vegetation and por destellos, la vaporización por choque, la polimerización
and on the Mochica (North Peru): Boletín the host matrix. The study shows the occurrence in por plasma de la vegetación y de la matriz anfitriona. El
the basal Uhle platform occupation deposits at the estudio muestra la ocurrencia en los depósitos de ocupación
de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, 74 (3),
foot of the Huaca de la Luna of similar cemented de la plataforma basal Uhle al pie de la Huaca de la Luna
A060622. http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/
ashy microfacies associated with a funerary deposit de una microfacies cenicienta cementada similar asociada a
BSGM2022v74n3a060622 un depósito funerario con ofrendas de alimentos en vasijas
with food offerings in ritual vessels and an intriguing
scoriaceous slag. The evidence for ritual disposal of rituales y a una intrigante escoria vesicular. Este depósito
imperishable offerings to deaths is interpreted as ritual de ofrendas de larga duración a los muertos se
the memorial record of the Mochica knowledge interpreta como el registro conmemorativo del conocimiento
of long-lived materials produced by lightning-trig- Mochica de los materiales de larga duración producidos
Manuscript received: January 10, 2022.
Corrected manuscript received: April 15, 2022. gered plasma processes. This integrated study of por procesos plasmáticos desencadenados por el rayo. Este
Manuscript accepted: June 9, 2022. the environmental and cultural contexts refutes estudio integrado de los contextos ambiental y cultural
previous assumptions of long-term engineering of refuta las suposiciones anteriores sobre la ingeniería a largo
the arable alluvial plain to counteract sand invasion plazo de la llanura aluvial cultivable para contrarrestar la
and torrential floods. In contrast, the establishment invasión de arena y las inundaciones torrenciales. Por el
Peer Reviewing under the responsibility of
of the Moche pyramids is shown to have occurred contrario, se demuestra que el establecimiento de las pirá-
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México. mides Moche se produjo durante un período de estabilidad
during a period of floodplain stability marked by
high-energy natural events and lightning processes de la llanura aluvial marcado por eventos naturales de alta
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-SA that offered access to durable soil resources of energía y procesos de iluminación que ofrecían acceso a
license(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/) important social values. recursos de suelo duraderos de importantes valores sociales.
Keywords: microcontextual, aerosol, light- Palabras clave: microcontexto, aerosol,

ning, plasma, flash, heating, polymeriza- rayo, plasma, destello, calentamiento,
tion, preservation. polimerización, preservación.
http://dx.doi.org/10.18268/BSGM2022v74n3a060622
2 / Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/

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INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction et al., 2020). In the absence of a robust present-day

database on the impact at the Earth’s surface of
Evaluating how instantaneous natural phenomena charged aerosols produced by electrification pulses,
triggered by external or terrestrial causes would their possible occurrence in the past has been so far
have occasionally exerted a major threat on the ignored. Most studies dealing with past records of
living conditions of ancient societies remains so atmospheric electricity fluctuations have focused
far a key challenge (Courty et al. 2008; DeMeno- on the formation of fulgurites by lightning-strikes.
cal 2001; Bunch et al., 2012; Boslough et al. 2012; The distinctive tubular glassy morphology due to
Wolbach et al. 2018; Holliday et al. 2020; Bunch et local flash-fusion along the electric discharge path-
al., 2021). This refined knowledge of past critical way in quartz sands with their unusual minerals
situations at the finest temporal and spatial scales is has been for long been an object of fascination
greatly expected to better predict the consequences (Grapes and Müller-Sigmund, 2010; Pasek and
in a near future of accidental extreme events that Pasek, 2018), whereas the glassy vesicular materi-
could be accelerated by the ongoing climate warm- als formed in clay soils have not received the same
ing (Bell et al., 2018; Swain, 2020; Tierney et al., attention (Gifford, 1999). However, the scarcity of
2020). In the last five years, the marked increase fulgurites in ancient or present-day environments
of uncontrolled megafires in Australia, USA and and their more common occurrence in sandy des-
Siberia was observed to have rapidly propagated erts show that these are only incidental footprints
across long distance by intense lightning (AghaK- of electrification processes. These curiosities are
obviously insufficient for tracing in past or recent
ouchak et al., 2018; Tedim et al., 2018; Khaykin et

al., 2020). This coupled effect that has remained so soils effects of atmospheric electrification that
far unexplained has incited to question the exact presently occurs throughout the entire planet with
linkages between accumulation of electrostatic an average frequency of 44 lightning-flashes per
charges on vegetation cover and enhanced flam- second, mainly over land areas (Christian et al.,
mability of the related biomass fuel (Veraverbeke 2003).
et al., 2017). The common occurrence of vitrified The effects of atmospheric electrification have
pyrolytic residues in archaeological firing-assem- been for long known to be strongly constrained
blages has been recently suggested to trace past by air moisture content, aerosol ionization and
episodes of enhanced atmospheric electrification dust electrical charging in the lower atmosphere
as a consequence of high dust loading (Courty (Harrison et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2021). Electric
et al., 2020). Effects of triboelectricity in highly arc explosion would convert air to species such
turbulent volcanic plumes on the aggregation of as O3 and NOx with production of abiotically
charged fine aerosols and on the production of fixed nitrogen in the lightning channel air and
glass by fusion has been well documented and potential greenhouse effect (Nna Mvondo et al.,
experimentally reproduced (James et al., 2008, 2001; Babrauskas, 2018). Nitrogen liquefaction in
Gaudin and Cimarelli, 2019). Similar mechanisms the lightning discharge could even form polymer
of charge production from high-energy collisions walls of wax on the channel in the presence of
would likely occur in the megafire stratospheric carbonaceous aerosols (Bychkov, 2002). It is also
carbonaceous vortex that has been recently iden- well established that the soil moisture content and
tified (Khaykin et al., 2020). Charging processes the properties of the host-materials control the
and nanoaerosol formation caused charging by propagation of the lightning conductive channel
dust exposure to cosmic radiation are known to be at and within the soil surface (Pasek et al., 2012;
involved in pulses of atmospheric electrification, Kim et al., 2016). The complexity of these con-
possibly in lightning, but the exact links are not yet trolling parameters explains why the vertical path-
fully understood (Lushnikov et al., 2014; Izhovkina way with the resulting tubular fulgurite is simply
INTRODUCTION / MATERIALS
AND METHODS
an exceptional pattern of weak environmental phenomena would at first imply to perform a
relevance. In fact, the effects of the considerable meticulous high-resolution contextual soil study
energy deposition of lightning into the target soil to search for the preserved records of these
surface are similar to the ones of hyper-velocity super-fast events with their complex spatio-tem-
impacts, but more local in spatial extent and poral patterns (Courty, 2018). Unfortunately, the
more ubiquitous (Feng et al., 2019). Vaporization ongoing debate on the sedimentary records and
of aerosols, vegetation and organic compounds is microresidues assemblage of hypothetical cata-
expected to produce filamentary aggregates from strophic Tunguska-class airbursts prefers to ignore
the charged gas-suspended particles acting as the basic principles of microcontextual study of
electric dipoles (Abrahamson and Marshall 2002). natural soil sequences or occupation deposits of
The lightning strike fusion would lead to silicate archaeological sites (Moore et al., 2020; Bunch et
liquid immiscibility, production of metal droplets al., 2021).
by extreme reduction and spatial spreading of the We present here the simple case study of the
flash-melted droplets by the electric arc explosion Moche valley in northern Peru that integrates
(Essene and Fisher, 1986; Babrauskas, 2018; Feng within a small region a floodplain sequence and
et al., 2019). the occupation deposits at the Huaca de la Luna.
Our pioneering exploration on these chal- This dual study is aimed to further explain the
lenging issues have allowed to identify in diverse innovative microcontextual methodology that has
archaeological contexts a range of polymeric to be performed for elucidating the exact nature
components formed from aerosols and/or soil and the spatio-temporal pattern of exceptional

organic components by lightning-triggered firing events triggered by enhanced atmospheric
plasma processes (Courty et al., 2012, Courty and electrification.
Coqueugniot, 2013; Courty, 2017; Courty et al.,
2020). With these diagnostic attributes in hands,
the next critical step is now to integrate the poly- 2. Materials and methods
meric components within the microcontextual
study of ancient soil surfaces in order to define 2.1. THE STUDIED CONTEXTS
periods of enhanced aerosol electrification by a
distinctive suite of soil microfacies with their rel- The study area belongs to the flat littoral fringe
evant assemblage of pyrolytic microresidues and of the North Peruvian coast (Figure 1a) that is
related components. We formerly explained why hyper-arid with less than 20 mm of rain per year.
our previous confusion of these polymeric com- The rain shadow effect of the Humboldt Current
ponents with possible impact on the soil surface along the Pacific coast of South America main-
of extra-terrestrial hyper-velocity bolide collision tains desert conditions on the landscape formed
is at first a question of soil archive quality (Courty of sand levees and large dune fields. This extensive
et al. 2008). Effects at the Earth’s surface impacts flat sand blanket accumulated from deflation of
of lightning events and extra-terrestrial bolide the continental plateau during the late Pleistocene
impact share in common sudden air ionization, marine regression.
aerosol plasma processes and hyper-sonic shock- In the Moche Valley, annual temperatures
waves (Courty and Martinez 2015; Feng et al., average 20° Celsius, with approximately 4 mm of
2019; Murphy, 2020). They would obviously differ precipitation near the ocean to approximately 30
by the timing of flash-related processes and the mm near the Andean foothills (ONERN, 1973).
related spatio-temporal patterns of their specific The occasional precipitation is sustained in part
effects at local to regional scales. The distinction by a layer of low hanging cloud fog that is created
between the two types of high-energy atmospheric when dry winds hit the lower western slope of the

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MATERIALS AND METHODS
Andes. The Moche hydrographic regime is con- tunity to examine long catena with fresh sections
trolled by seasonal variations of heavy rainfall over of the late Holocene deposits downstream to the
the upper catchment basin in the Occidental Cor- ‘Cerro Blanco’ hill, just at the foot of the Moche
dillera of the Andes at 4000 m altitude. The rather archaeological complex (Figure 1b).
overall stability of the braided, weakly incised river In the northern coastal region of Perú, the
bed in the lower floodplain is considered to have Mochica people occupied contrasting environ-
been initiated at about 3,000 years ago (Sandweiss ments in the lower elevations of the Andes (0–500
and Richardson, 2008). The El Niño Southern masl) and adjusted to natural constrains by land-
Oscillation (ENSO) is known to have occasionally scape conversion from coarse-grained desert out-
triggered extreme weather phenomena known as wash to fine-grained arable floodplain (Goodbred
the El Niño events throughout the prehispanic era et al., 2020). Their increased urbanism and social
up to the present period (Waylan and Caviedes, complexity with construction of the grand pyra-
1986). The extensive heavy rains that are caused mids and massive expansion of agricultural capac-
by the warm oceanic currents have repeatedly lead ity is assumed to have emerged through large-scale
to turbulent flooding and severe erosion of the irrigation technology (Dillehay et al., 2004).
levelled pampas formed of complex colluvial-al- The Mochica sequence in the great pyramids
luvial deposits from the Cretaceous granodiorite of the Moche valley, has however shown recurrent
out-crops. Low to moderate El Niño events occur invasions of aeolian sands, possibly linked to El
every 2–8.5 years (Rodbell et al. 1999), whereas Niño events along to the 800 years occupation
more extreme events occur approximately every (Chauchat et al., 2021): Moche I and II (100– 200
15 years. In the twentieth century, the most recent AD), Moche III (200–450 AD), Moche IV (450–
severe El Niño events occurred in 1925–1926, 650 AD) and Moche V (650–800 AD). Evidence
1982–83 and 1998–99. This latest severe El Niño for irrigation canals bringing the Andes precipita-
event deeply impacted the agricultural lands with tion from the upper inland was only encountered
considerable soil loss marked by a deep incision during this ultimate Moche occupation phase
throughout the lower alluvial plain. This extensive (Chauchat et al., 2021). El Niño events are inter-
vertical entrenchment has offered a unique oppor- preted to have shaped Moche cosmologies and
Figure 1 Location of the study area. 1a. Location of Huacas de Moche site along the Pacific Ocean coast, north Peru. 1b. Location of
the two studied contexts, the Moche valley (brown circle), the Moche archaeological site with the Huaca del Sol and Huaca de la Luna.

rituals, possibly reflected in particular themes of ish microstratified, ashy sandy silt and the fine
the Moche iconography related to human sacrifice interstratification of bow-shaped microstratified
and death as well as animals and plants (Bourget, ash lenses. The abundance of unusual coarse-tex-
2016). A possible link between a large El Niño tured ceramic fragments and the dense assemblage
event and the collapse of the Moche urban center of crushed bones all showing in situ fragmentation
was debated (e.g., Kolata et al. 2000; Moseley et al. suggested to consider the ashy deposit as feast
2008). remains and repeated ritual offerings. A meticu-
The excavation performed for eleven field sea- lous surface cleaning of the occupation complex
sons in the Uhle platform that is located at the foot revealed the occurrence of a vesicular slag, a
of the western façade of the Huaca de la Luna has unique object of this kind so far encountered in
allowed to document the evolution of the mon- pre-Hispanic archaeological contexts of South
umental architecture and the associated human America. Facing the impossibility to properly
activities in this part of the Moche site (Chauchat excavate this remarkable occupation complex for
et al., 2008; 2021). The platform (57 m long, 25 logistic reason, a microcontextual study of the
m wide, and 2-3 m high) is associated to marginal puzzling slag and of the microstratified deposits
areas on all four sides, including a group of dwell- was performed in order to further test their cul-
ings to the southwest, a large enclosed plaza to tural and environmental relevance.
the north, and a space at the foot of the Huaca to
the east. This area was identified to have been at 2.2. FIELD SURVEY, SAMPLING AND ANALYTICAL
first a place of public activities (Moche phase I), STRATEGY

probably of worship to a stone idol whose piece
was found, with various rituals such as pilgrim- A systematic field survey of the fresh sections that
ages. From Moche phase II, the platform turned were accessible throughout the lower floodplain was
to be exclusively devoted to funerary practises with performed in order to sketch the spatial variability
a complex pattern of tombs. The excavation of of the exposed sequences. Considering the sharp
57 tombs has revealed a great variety of forms, contrast between the microstratified dark brown
offerings and remains of funerary rituals, with organic-rich strata and the homogeneous sandy
well-preserved human remains, animal offerings, and silty-clay massive units, great care was devoted
personal objects and high quality ceramics. In to define at the finest spatial scale the lateral extent
its final stage, the excavation exposed at the base of each individual microstrata by following its
of the Uhle platform an empty, non-constructed lower and upper limit. The vertical section exposed
space with a well-preserved occupation complex at the Pampa del Cacique location was showing
that strongly contrasted from the loose, sandy the most complete record with deep exposure of
activity layers of Moche phases I-II, III and IV. the lower microstratified dark brown strata with
The lateral section showed that this thick occupa- charcoal-rich lenses. This sequence was selected for
tion complex (designated as layer 21 D occupation sampling a series of ten undisturbed blocks (Figure
complex) rested directly on the sandy substratum 2b, Table 1). This discontinuous column devoted
corresponding to the dune formations that cov- to the preparation of thin sections was performed
ered the rocky base, before the construction of the in the core of homogeneous sandy facies and at
monumental architecture of the early Moche I distinctive boundaries for the microstratified ones.
phase. The excavation of the upper 30 cm of layer While cutting the blocks, 100 g of bulk sediments
21 D complex has not allowed to comprehensively was sampled for a selection of microstratigraphic
explore the lowermost occupation sequence. units that were defined by their sharp lower and
The occupation complex showed the spatial upper limits on the freshly exposed cuts. The
association of massive, densely compacted, green- microfacies integrity of the bulk samples was

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Table 1. Moche valley stratigraphic sequence.
Stratigraphic units Microfacies Diagnostic features and components

Unit IV 150 -220 cm Massive, weakly layered yellowish grey Loose packing to incipient channel
Moche and Chimu pottery silty sand with discontinuous yellowish microstructure; weakly expressed
sherds brown silty clay and dark brown bioaggregation along root channels
carbonaceous lenses
Unit IIIb 35-60 cm Micro-stratified grey silty sand, Fine fissural microstructure.
yellowish brown silty clay and dark Lenses with abundant reed charcoal,
brown carbonaceous laminae with char vitrified charred reed, polymer films and
lenses filaments, polymerized reed fragments,
baked-clay aggregates, carbonaceous
aggregates, metal-splashed angular quartz
and vesicular slags
Unit IIIa 50-75 cm Interstratification of finely-layered grey Fine fissural to massive microstructure
Diffuse upper limit silty sand, massive yellowish brown Common metal-splashed angular quartz,
silty clay and micro-stratified, polymerized baked-clay aggregates,
carbonaceous microfacies charcoal with polymer films and
filaments
Unit II 110 -150cm Homogeneous finely layered silty sand Massive to fissural microstructure.
Sharp upper limit Subangular to subrounded sands
Unit Ib 75-135 cm Interstratification of finely-layered grey Massive to fissural microstructure.

Diffuse upper limit silty sand and dark brown carbonaceous Subangular to subrounded microstructure
with charcoal laminae calcium sulphate crystals, reed charcoal;
polymerised reed fragments; rare metal-

splashed angular grains.
Unit Ia 30-45 cm Densely compacted, composite micro- Fine fissural microstructure
Sharp upper limit stratified microfacies : dark brown Abundant angular calcium sulphate
Bottom not reached carbonaceous with charcoal laminae, crystals, reed charcoal; polymerised reed
dull orange clay, yellowish brown silty fragments; charred, calcined and
sand polymerised phytoliths; polymer
filaments and films; metal splashed
angular quartz and baked clay-aggregates.
controlled by performing surface excavation on following the principles and terminology adapted
restricted surfaces from the exposed section. In from sedimentary petrography (Humbert 1972) and
addition to this benchmark sequence, comple- soil micromorphology (Bullock et al. 1985, Courty et
mentary bulk samples were collected at locations al. 1989).
showing microfacies variability of colour, texture, The bulk samples were wet sieved to produce
abundance of vesicular glassy coarse components residues of above 2 mm, 2–1 mm, 1 mm–500 μm,
and of pyrolytic residues. 500–250 μm, 250–100 μm. Soaking in warm water
In the layer 21 package D occupation sequence and intense washing was performed to obtain com-
of the Moche site, three small-sized undisturbed plete disaggregation. The morphology, structure,
blocks were collected in the microstratified, ashy degree of cementation and compositional range of
sandy silt in addition to bulk samples by individual mineral, organo-mineral and organic components
microstrata, whereas only bulk samples were col- were meticulously examined by reflected light
lected within individual microstratified ash lenses under a digital stereoscopic microscope (DSM) as
due to the overall lack of cohesion and the high water-suspensions and as dry residues. Successive
density of artefacts. observations were performed at different stages of
Thin sections were prepared from the blocks disaggregation in order to keep the filiation between
and studied under the petrographic microscope the coarse components of the aggregates and of
RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

MATERIALS AND METHODS /

the fine matrix which is irreversibly lost during observation under the DSM, their well-preserved
the water-sieve. This was devoted to control the plant structures, the lack of vitrification, in situ
link between the diverse pyroresidues (charcoal, breaking from coarse fragments and the lack of
char fragments, phytoliths, ash components), contamination by fine root deep-penetration.
the unburnt plant remains, the minerals and the
polymerized components (films, filaments and
composite aggregates). For the later, a particular 3. Results and interpretation
attention was devoted to identify the distinctive
characteristics of plasma-discharge products, i.e. 3.1. THE MOCHE LOWER FLOODPLAIN SEQUENCE
nanostructuration and metal inclusions as previ-
ously defined (Courty, 2017; Courty et al. 2020). 3.1.1. MICROFACIES
The identification of the polymer nanostructur- The deeply incised section exposed by the 1999
ation and of the type of nanostructured metal El Niño flood along the present bed of the Moche
pattern was studied using a Hitachi 4500 scanning river has allowed to observe a 4 to 6 m sequence
electron microscope under low vacuum and in showing two distinctive depositional periods (Table
backscattered electron mode from a selection of 1). At the bottom, the regularly stratified fine tex-
grains. tured deposits with weak signs of pedogenesis,
14C AMS dating was performed on a selection only marked by iron staining along desiccation
of charcoal-rich lenses after confirming from fissures and incipient bioturbation, are typical of
Figure 2 Field view of the studied sections in the Moche valley and scan view of the microfacies. 2a. View of the Moche river when
springing out from the Andes hills in the coastal plain showing incision of the present braided bed with accumulations of boulders
and cobbles. 2b. Stratigraphic sequence of the late Holocene floodplain deposits at the Pampa del Cacique (Conache), upstream of the
Huacas de Moche site showing alternation of carbonaceous brownish-black silty-clay microstratified facies and water-reworked aeolian
sand deposits. 2c. Scan view of the contact between the microstratified brownish-black silty-clay Ia deposits and the Ib water-laid
aeolian sands. 2d. Close view of the contact between the IIIa massive silty clay and the IIIb carbonaceous microstratified facies showing
interstratified lenses of reddish brown silty clay, silty sands and dark grey carbonaceous laminae.

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a low energy alluvial environment. In contrast, at strata interfaces of the colluvial unit IV as scat-
the upper part displays a coarse texture, a poorly tered rounded sherds with paste characteristics
expressed stratification and a weak horizonation similar to Chimu and Moche ceramic assemblages
with fine textured slaking crusts at strata interface. (Lockard, 2009). The depositional regularity of
This succession of pedo-sedimentary facies indi- the firing microfacies and their wide spatial extent
cates a deposition from repeated destabilisation across the valley also refute the possibility of
episodes of the surrounding foothills and aeolian pyroresidues accumulations produced by repeated
input from the coastal sand dunes, interrupted by slash-and burnt activities in the floodplain.
episodes of incipient soil development. The rare The restricted excavation that was performed
transverse section to the valley axis has shown that for controlling the integrity of microstrata while
the upper colluvial deposits lies in sharp discon- collecting bulk samples has shown the common
formity on massive, clay-rich colluvium that are occurrence of infra-millimetre-thick surface hard-
intensely bioturbated with well-expressed iron ening. This type of distinctive interface appeared
segregation along root channels. We previously to contrast from the one only encountered in the
reported that the massive clayey colluvium depos- upper part of unit III formed of microstratified
ited during the mid-Holocene and suffered severe crusts with lenses of centimetre-sized vesicular
erosion at ca. 4 kyr BP in response to an abrupt granules looking similar in the field to the ones
environmental change (Courty et al., 2008). The of the Middle Holocene sequence (Courty et al.,
lower Ia finely stratified alluvial deposits can thus 2008).
be understood to express the restoration of a sta- Based on the radiocarbon datings, the deposi-
ble floodplain following the drastic mid-Holocene tional history of the lower floodplain sequence rep-
landscape disruption. In spite of in-depth refresh- resents an approximately 1000 years long period
ment of the existing section, the bottom of the Ia during an early phase of the upper Holocene.
deposits could not be reached. It is highly plausible (Table 2). The clearly different 14C ages allow to
that it does not represent the very initial phase tentatively propose that unit I experienced a series
of the late Holocene floodplain restoration. The of wildfires for ca. 300 years, whereas similar con-
possibility of an incomplete depositional record ditions were recorded for ca. 1000 years during
has however no major implication for debating the deposition of unit III. The four radiocarbon
the environmental relevance of the exposed flood- ages are obviously not sufficient to exactly estimate
plain microfacies. the duration of the different firing episodes. How-
The systematic field survey along the exposed ever, the dating coherence provides solid support
section of the lower floodplain sequence has to further scrutinize the relevance of the related
allowed to observe the remarkable homogeneity microfacies in terms of firing events and deposi-
of the regularly stratified lower deposits, without tional conditions of the associated pyroresidues.
evidence of lateral channel incision from the adja- In the continuity of the field observations, the
cent foothills. The common association of char- micromorphological study of the thin sections that
coal lenses to the finely laminated carbonaceous was performed under the petrographic microscope
microfacies in the I and II microstratified units has allowed to identify the repeated occurrence in
incites to consider this sequence as the record of units I and III of diverse firing microfacies with
cyclical firing events. In the absence of hearths, singular characteristics (Figure 3). The composite
of combustion facies that are typical of local in microfacies with their repeated alternation of
situ firing or of human artefacts throughout the three distinctive types of lamina (Figure 3a) corre-
lower sequence (units I to III), the carbonaceous sponds to the ones that were showing in the field a
microfacies are hypothetically attributed to natu- hardened surface at the top of the dull orange clay
ral wildfires. This is also with the lack of human laminae. The sharp interfaces and the integrity
artefacts that were only coherent in the sequence of each lamina with their distinctive composition

Table 2. C radiocarbon datings of the Mochey valey alluvial layers and of the Uhle platform occupation contexts.
14
Moche Valley sequence

Reference sample Measured 13
C/12C ratio Conventional 2
 calibrated 2
 calibrated
radiocarbon radiocarbon results results
age age (95% prob. BC) (95% prob.) BP
PE01-CA14B AMS 2060+40 BP -17. 6‰ 2180+40 BP 370-110 BC 2320-2060
Unit IIIa2 Beta-146588
PE01-CA14 Standard 2240+70 BP -23.8‰ 2260+70 BP 410-165 BC 2360-2115
Unit IIIa1 Beta144303
PE01-CA19 Beta-155391 2750+40 BP -26.1‰ 2730+40 BP 940-810 BC 2890-2760
Unit Ib
PE01-CA26 Beta 155392 3080+70 BP -27‰ 3050+70 BP 1440-1100 BC 3390-3050
Unit Ia
Uhle platform, Moche site
Reference sample Measured 13
C/12C ratio Conventional 2
 calibrated 2
 calibrated
radiocarbon radiocarbon results results
age age (95% prob. BC) (95% prob.) BP
63EL7N4 Gif 11825 1526+35 BP -25.86‰ 1520+35 BP 430-635AD 1520-1315
Huaca de la
Luna, lower
level. Phase I

Moche N°1: Gif-11964 1960±50 BP -17,54‰ 1980±50 BP 33 BC:31 BC 2120-1800
75.70 m 20 BC:12 BC
Ash layer 1 BC:237 AD
PE2001-2 Gif-11965 1585± 30 -20,34‰ 1590± 30 432 1518-1349

N°1: 75.56 m AD:601AD
PE2001-3 Gif-11966 2005±70 -23,44‰ 2050±70 153:139 BC 2103-1715
N°1: 75.60 m 113 BC:235AD
and texture are typical of low-energy water-depo- 2/ type 1 interface suggests that the former resisted
sition (Courty, 1995). Each individual composite to the running water due to its hydrophobicity and
microfacies represents a three-fold depositional hard-setting. The thin sections confirm the lack of
cycle that comprises from the bottom to the top (1) a cyclical depositional pattern for the firing facies
the yellowish brown silty sand, (2) the dark brown showing in the field a weakly expressed microstrat-
carbonaceous silt with charcoal fragments and (3) ification, lack of distinctive interface and scattered
the dull orange clay. Based on its texture and com- coarse charcoal (Figure 3b, 3c). Their irregular
position, the lamina type 2 would correspond to a microstratification was formed by the fine interlay-
water-deposition of fresh pyroresidues soon after ering of clay, sandy silt and silty sand carbonaceous
the firing-event. The close association of lamina laminae with similar characteristics to the previously
type 3 to the type 2 indicates that the firing event described ones. This fine imbrication associated to
was rapidly followed by an episode of fine aerosol the fresh aspect of the pyroresidues shows that the
input under calm depositional conditions. In con- distinctive laminae were partly homogenized due to
trast, the coarser texture of lamina type 1 would water stagnation and low-energy runoff reworking.
express subsequent reworking by gentle runoff of Although it is impossible to stratigraphically iden-
the dual firing-aerosol microfacies, thus diluting in tify each firing event and the subsequent aerosol
the fine-mass part of the singular aeolian compo- input, this range of cyclical deposition appears to
nent. However, the sharp undulating lamina type have most likely occurred.

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The only occurrence of in situ heating was iden- clays form the bulk of the local floodplain sedi-
tified in thin sections near the top of the IIIb mentation. The absence of pyroresidues indicates
microstratified deposits with the finely cracked that their deposition took place without interfer-
charred clay domains embedded in the massive ence with wildfires in the flood plain.
carbonaceous fine mass with randomly scattered Similarly, no evidence of pyroresidues was
abundant angular charcoal (Figure 3d). The detected in the fluvial unit II that is formed of hor-
microlayered slaking crusts with coarse sandy izontal to subhorizontally bedded sand-dominated
vesicular granules encountered at the interface strata with sandy silt laminae.
between IIIb and IV deposits (Figure 3e) helped
to identify the fall of exotic materials on the fired 3.1.2. PYRORESIDUES AND ASSOCIATED
surface and local reworking of the pyroresidues by COMPONENTS
high-energy flooding. The DSM observations of the water-sieve
All the diverse firing microfacies identified sized-residues in the firing microfacies of I and
throughout the sequence thus share in common III units has revealed the occurrence of similar
the close association of pyroresidues to domains pyroresidues and associated components showing
or lamina of pure dull orange clays that are ten- the diagnostic features of lightning-related firing
tatively interpreted to be of aeolian origin based as previously defined (Courty, 2017; Courty et al.,
on their depositional context. This hypothesis 2020). They are considered by each contextual
is supported by their marked textural and depo- unit because the two sets of firing records differ
sitional contrast with the massive silty clay facies by the type of burnt vegetation and surface firing
encountered in units II, IIIa and IIIb (Figure 3f). processes, the depositional settings and the preser-
The extensive occurrence of the later with their vation conditions.
typical characteristics of low energy accumulation During the water sieving, the unit I fired
and water stagnation shows that the massive silty deposits have shown an easy sorting and washing
Figure 3 Thin section illustrations of a few representative microfacies. 3a. Regularly microstratified composite microfacies showing
alternation of 3 units: dark brown carbonaceous, dull orange clay, yellowish brown silty sand. 3b. Irregularly microstratified dull orange
carbonaceous silty clay microfacies. 3c. Irregularly microstratified dark brown carbonaceous microfacies. 3d. Massive yellowish brown
carbonaceous silty clay microfacies with cracked charred clay domains. 3e. Coarse sand vesicular granules embedded in yellowish
brown carbonaceous silty clay slaking crust. 3f. Massive, homogeneous dull orange silty clay.

of the sand-sized components consisting of quartz composite grains formed of densely compacted
grains, calcium sulphate crystals and charcoal, all reed fragments, coated by polymer films with
with dust-free and bright surfaces (Figure 4a). In splashed metal-droplets and carbonaceous inclu-
contrast, a marked hydrophobicity and resisting sions showed marked resistance to water sieving
cementation to gentle hand-mechanical pressures (Figure 4d). Blue polymerized phytoliths, vitrified
were noticed for the clay-rich and carbonaceous reed charcoal and twisted polymer filaments were
aggregates that were thus abundant in the fine-sand extracted from the fine mass after performing ulti-
fraction (Figure 4b). Their controlled disaggrega- mate disaggregation by mechanical pressure and
tion has allowed to extract from the fine mass a hot water sieving (Figure 4e). The SEM analysis
profusion of reed fragments showing well-preserved has allowed to more clearly identify the micron-
distinctive anatomical structure. A great part of thick polymer films with metal and salt inclusions
them was lost during the final disaggregation due to linking the silicified and carbonaceous reed com-
their enhanced fragility by the intense warm water ponents (Figures 5a-5f) and the incrustations of
washing. metal and salt particles within the polymerized
Only the white calcined reed fragments and the blue silicified fragments with degassing vesicles
ones showing a blue colour, and a bright surface (Figure 5f).
with coating of splashed metal-droplets appeared to In comparison to the unit I fired deposits, the
be more resistant (Figure 4f). Similar metal coatings clay-rich organic and carbonaceous components
were identified on angular quartz grains with sharp of the unit III microstrata were more easily dis-
edges and on quarzitic breccia with carbonaceous aggregated into elementary particles without

inclusions (Figure 4c). Unburnt organic sand-sized evidence of fired or cemented composite grains
Figure 4 Distinctive features and components of the Ia microstratified carbonaceous facies. 4a. DSM view of the fine sand fraction
formed of angular quartz, calcium sulfate crystals, reed charcoal and dark-orange baked clay-aggregates. 4b. DSM view of the most
resistant reed fragments consisting of abundant calcined, metal-pulverized and polymerized components with angular quartz and
baked clay aggregates. 4c. Detailed DSM view of a quartzitic breccia metal-splashed surface. 4d. Detailed DSM view of a polymerised reed
fragment with metal inclusions. 4e. DSM view showing the close association of the blue polymerized phytoliths, vitrified reed charcoal
and twisted polymer filaments. 4f. Detailed DSM view of (4b) showing the distinctive plant structure within the blue polymerized.

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in the residues. The DSM control during the showed a dense stacking of glassy domains and
disaggregation procedure showed the occurrence metal coatings sticking to sharp edges of the glassy
of polymer films and filaments at the interface phases (Figure 6d) with their foliated nanostructure
between reed fragments and mineral particles of indicating deposition from plasma-jetting of electri-
the aggregates (Figure 6a). The filaments resisted cally charged droplets (Figure 6f). An origin from
well to the mechanical hand pressure and to the partial melting by flash-heating followed by rapid
water sieving, whereas the films got brittle and quenching of plant materials mixed with mineral
disaggregated into acicular flakes, thus losing their components is deduced from the elongated mor-
distinctive morphology of stacked coloured films. phology of the glassy domains, their variable ele-
Polymerized carbonaceous elongated aggregates mentary composition at microscale given by EDS
retrieved at carbonaceous microfacies interface analyses, the diversity of mineral grains with sharp
showed on one side a dense stacking of partly edges in the fissures, the occurrence of carbona-
melted vesicular beads (Figure 6b) with a met- ceous inclusions (Figure 6e). Although these com-
al-splashed surface (Figure 6c) whereas the reverse ponents were not observed in situ when sampling
polymerized side was smooth and bright without the strata interface, the contrast between the two
metal coatings. Under SEM, the vesicular bead sides of the polymerized carbonaceous aggregates
Figure 5 SEM characteristics of the blue polymerized phytoliths (cf. fig. 4). 5a. Resistant aggregate to intense water-sieving, made of
silicified and carbonaceous reed fragments with well-preserved anatomical cells, bound by a polymer film. 5b. Well preserved reed
fragment showing at high magnification (5c) partial melting and degassing cavities due to flash heating. 5d. Well preserved reed
fragment with silica skeleton and stomatal cells showing at high magnification (5e) high concentration of BaSO4 microparticles tracing
refractory residues from flash-vaporisation. 5f. Finely-cracked vitrified reed char produced by flash-heating with encrustation of BaSO4
microparticles.

suggests the vesicular beads to trace plasma-jetting tracing the fall at the fired-soil surface of aerosols
projection of glassy droplets on the flash-heated soil that were transformed during their aerial transport
surface. Similar FeCrNi nanostructured coatings by electrification processes. The polymer filaments
were observed on the sharp edges of coarse angular could share the same aerial provenance although
quartz that contrasted from the dominant subangu- their close association to the locally fired vegetation
lar to subrounded alluvial sands not showing metal indicates that they also formed from the flash-va-
particles at their surfaces (Figures 7a and 7b). The porized surface by the lightning discharge.
sand-sized water-sieve residues has also showed
abundant polymer components formed of twisted 3.2. MICROFACIES, PYRORESIDUES AND RELATED
filaments (Figure 7c), and stacked films (Figure 7e), COMPONENTS OF THE UHLE PLATFORM
with metal inclusions (Figures 7d and 7f) which are OCCUPATION DEPOSITS
both indicating plasma-discharge synthesis (Ham-

dan et al., 2017). The green coloured microstratified ash deposits
The association of the singular quartz popula- of the basal layer 21 package D occupation layers
tion to the polymerized aggregates with their glassy shows a sequence of dark brown organo-mineral
droplets suggests that the flash heating caused by beds rich in carbonized residues, thin brown silty-
the electrically charged plasma-jet locally induced clay lenses with plant imprints, and silty-sandy beds
quartz breaking due to surface propagation of the rich in siliceous phytolith-like residues and thin ash
lightning shock-wave. In contrast, the dominant lenses (Figure 8).
population of TiO2 microspherules and nanopar- The excellent preservation of the micro-stratifi-

ticles in the carbonaceous matrix incites to rather cation despite the weak cohesion of the constituent
consider the foliated films as exotic components compounds, especially the ashy strata, the absence
Figure 6 Distinctive features and components of the IIIb microstratified facies. 6a. Residue of a bicolor polymer film sticking to a
polymerized reed fragment. 6b. Partly melted vesicular beads sticking to a polymerized carbonaceous aggregate. 6c. Detailed surface
view of a vesicular bead with a metal-splashed surface. 6d. SEM view of 6c showing the finely cracked glass matrix with metal inclusions.
6e. Detailed view of 6f showing densely packed FeCrNi nanosheets sticking to the glassy matrix.

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of combustion front associated with the charcoal or tre-sized fragments of fine carbonate clays with
ash lenses, the scarcity of artefacts, clearly showed plant imprints and calcined domains rich in siliceous
that these deposit are not in situ firing deposits, nei- debris. In contrast to the microstratified ash facies,
ther dumped ashes from hearths and did not suffer the loosely packed lenses of diverse anthropic mate-
trampling. The coupling of siliceous debris beds rials indicate joint deposition of ashes and organic
and silty-clay lenses is typical of occupation surface residues from activity areas, of reed-mats and pre-
facies covered with vegetation mats (Figure 9a), very pared clay materials and their gentle reworking due
well maintained and allowing only fine dusts to pass to partial decomposition and reorganization under
through the interstices (Courty and Coqueugniot, compression. The spatial correlations observed in
2012). The excellent cohesion of the ash lenses the field between the two types of facies suggests
and of the siliceous debris beds demonstrates in synchronous slow accumulation of organo-mineral
situ mineralisation by partial decomposition of the residues in a well maintained area and repeated
biodegradable constituents, either defined as slow deposition of activity residues in vessels on well-pre-
self-combustion. pared surfaces in the joint area with the high-density
The layered composite ash microfacies (Figure of bone and ceramic fragments.
9b) shows loosely packed lenses of dissociated sili- The abundant green aggregates that were
ceous residues, pure ashy domains, orange-brown retrieved by water sieve from the green coloured
beds consisting of compact silty clay-lime-sandy microstratified ash deposits showed dense packing
micro-aggregate domains and fine, rounded, of polymerized plant fragments with well-preserved
cracked aggregates. Under higher magnification, anatomical structure (Figure 9c) embedded in a
the fine mass shows an abundance of millime- dense carbonaceous fine mass with pure copper
Figure 7 SEM characteristics of distinctive features and components of the IIIb microstratified facies. 7a. Coarse angular quartz with
sharp edges. 7b. FeCrNi nanostructured films sticking to the edges of the quartz viewed in Fig. 6a, typical of high energy electric
discharge. 7c. Plasma polymer filament formed by electric discharge with its typical twisted morphology. 7d. Detailed view of 7c
showing metal incrustations (FeCrNi) within the nanostructured twisted and coiled filaments. 7e. Dense white plasma polymer film
formed by electric discharge showing at high magnification (7f) a titanium-rich carbonaceous matrix with TiO2 microspherules and
nanoparticles.

thin film (Figure 9d). Diverse microresidues heterogeneous texture characterised by the dense
/ DISCUSSION
were extracted from the layered composite ash assemblage of micrometric domains of varied
microfacies, dominantly bone fragments showing composition, particularly carbon-rich coloured
metal-rich polymerised coatings, polymer films domains looking alike the polymer films of the
with metal incrustations, black vesicular volcanic extracted residues from the host matrix (Figure 9i)
glass and angular quartz with metal coatings and and abundant nanostructured polymer filaments
polymerised reed fragments, also with metal inclu- of diverse colours with metal inclusions. Most of
sions (Figures 9e, 9f and 9g). the degassing vesicles were showing under SEM
The vesicular slag retrieved from the layered FeCrNi nanostructured films sticking to their
composite ash microfacies showed a similar mor- sharp edges, a typical deposition of electrically
phology to the vesicular scoriaceous debris of the charged metal droplets as previously stated (Figure
lower Moche valley unit IIIb deposits. The exter- 9j).
nal surface was smooth, shining, with green metal
incrustations looking similar to the polymerised
coper metallic domains of the layered composite 4. Discussion
ash microfacies metallic-looking surface, dotted
with granular greenish inclusions (Figure 9h). The The wide spatial extent of the different firing
fresh break showed a vesicular structure and a deposits across the Moche lower floodplain, their
Figure 8 Uhle platform at the foot of the Huaca de la Luna, Moche site. 8a. General view of the excavation of the Uhle platform.
8b. Excavated surface of the layer 21 D occupation complex showing the juxtaposition of stratified ashes and sandy occupation deposits
with abundant bone and ceramic fragments. 8c. Densely compacted, greenish, microstratified ashes at the base of the occupation
sequence. 8d. Field view of the occupation ritual deposit with in situ fragmented ceramics lying on carbonaceous surfaces, abundant
artefacts and a vesicular slag. 8e. Closed view of the slag in its original depositional context.

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remarkable preservation and their easy accessi- microstrata in order to exactly match the microse-
DISCUSSION
bility have offered unique conditions to perform quence of depositional events viewed from the
a high-resolution microfacies contextual analysis. thin sections. In agreement to our previous expe-
Compared to the wide exposure of occupation riences on archaeological firing deposits (Courty et
surfaces in archaeological contexts, the restricted al., 2012, Courty and Coqueugniot, 2013; Courty,
control of the interface integrity could not provide 2017; Courty et al., 2020), the micromorphological
an extensive perception of the different fired sur- study of thin sections made from the undisturbed
faces. This was however of major importance to samples was considerably reinforced by the analy-
precisely collect the bulk samples from individual sis of the residues retrieved from the bulk samples.
Figure 9 Microfacies and microresidues of the element 21 D layer ritual complex. 9a. Thin-section view of the microstratified ashes
formed by the imbrication of siliceous residues rich in phytoliths, thin silty-clay and carbonaceous lenses, typical of prepared surfaces
covered by reed-mats. 9b. Thin-section view of the layered composite ash microfacies formed of loosely packed lenses of dissociated
siliceous residues, pure ashy domains, orange-brown clayey beds. 9c. Polymerized green aggregates showing superimposition of
well-preserved plant fragments in the greenish, microstratified ashes. 9d. SEM view of (8b) showing pure copper thin film within the
polymerized matrix. 9e. DSM view of residues from the layered composite ash microfacies: angular quartz, black vesicular volcanic
glass, polymer films, polymerised bone fragments, polymerised ashy flakes, polymerised reed fragments. Dull orange, cemented,
silty clay formed of iron-oxide rich baked aerosols. 9f. Detailed DSM view of a polymer film. 9g. SEM view of FeCrNi coating on the
sharp edges of an alumino-silicate black volcanic glass. 9h. DSM view of the vesicular slag with green incrustations. 9i. Multi-coloured
vesicular glass extracted by gentle crushing of the vesicular slag viewed in 9i: the translucent part is formed of silica glass, the red one
corresponds to a polymer-rich glass with abundant metal micro and nanoparticles giving the red colour. 9j. SEM view of the vesicular
glass showing FeCrNi nanostructured films sticking to the edges of glass vesicles, produced by plasma jet from flash degassing.
The later were particularly crucial to identify the tion from the host matrix and their sharp contact
DISCUSSION
diverse types of polymerised components and shows that these glassy materials would be more
their fine integration to the host clay matrix and likely aerofulgurites formed in air by agglomera-
to the pyroresidues. The use of synthetic resins tion of electrically charged aerosols and fallen at
to impregnate unconsolidated soil-sedimentary the ground by gravity fall at the time of intense
materials and as glue films for the thin section lightning as observed in recent thunderstorms
preparation introduces polymer filaments of pet- (Courty and Martínez, 2015).
rochemical origin which are confusing because The similar spatio-temporal pattern of the
they morphologically resemble the ones of the plasma-formed polymer products showed by
firing products. In addition, due to their func- the DSM residue analysis for the different firing
tionalized surfaces, the polymer filaments interact microfacies thus suggests a common origin from
with the synthetic resins and accumulate in large surface propagation of lightning discharges due to
voids, thus losing in thin section their contextual the enhanced ground conductivity from the pul-
relevance. This explains why up so far the polymer verization of electrically charged aerosols.
filaments were considered in micromorphological Although such an aerosol-triggered formation
study as contaminants and were simply ignored of conductive ground has never been described
(Bullock et al., 1995; Courty et al., 1989). in present-day lightning situations, this hypothesis
The DSM analysis of the pyroresidues and matches with the recently proposed scenario of
of the associated components was also of major multi-step lightning initiation (Kostinskiy et al.,
help to identify in individual microstrata the joint 2020). The wide spatial extent of this ultimate

occurrence of un-charred, charred, calcined and stratified firing deposits across the valley, particu-
polymerized reed fragments. As previously estab- larly its regularity and the absence of human arte-
lished (Scott et al., 2017), the mixing of un-charred facts clearly shows a cyclical accumulation by low
and charred plants indicates burning of different energy alluvial siltation. These depositional con-
plant organs and at different temperatures. In ditions are consistent with a period of prolonged
addition, the abundance of polymerized flaky reed humidity in the upper Andes catchment basin,
fragments shows that the sharp silica-rich stems suggesting high altitude regular precipitation with
acted as conducting pointy objects at the ground, longlasting recharge of the groundwater aquifers
thus enhancing local charge accumulation and (Gagnon, 2015). These conditions were sufficient
flash-melting by electric arcing (Stolzenburg and to maintain a high moisture content across the
Marshall 2021). The occurrence of metal droplets flood plain without requiring a seasonal com-
within the polymerized reed surface was crucial plementary water supply by irrigation canals as
to identify the conductive components that were previously suspected (Goodbred et al., 2020). The
transported from the thundercloud by the hot evidence for torrential discharge and interruption
plasma channel down to the ground, thus con- of the cyclical regular siltation encountered at the
tributing to enhance the air conductivity, as well very end of the Moche period clearly express a
described by Kostinskiy et al. (2020). major environmental change in the Moche flood
The DSM residue analysis was even more criti- plain. The Mochica farmers were thus constrained
cally important to identify the systematic presence to construct an extensive irrigation network chan-
of these metal droplets on the partly charred and neling the upland waterflow down to the arable
polymerized plant fragments and on the edges lands of the lower plain in order to maintain their
of shock-fractured quartz sands in every firing agricultural production.
microfacies, without evidence of local melting of The complex petrographic composition of
the fired surfaces. The rare occurrence in unit IIIb the local host soil-sediments in the Moche lower
of the vesicular slags with their different composi- floodplain sequence did not allow to undoubtedly

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identify the sources of the exotic components ritual human activities, the particular ashy depos-
DISCUSSION
encountered during the episodes of regular alluvial its with the vesicular slag would trace an ultimate
siltation. However, the dominant quartz composi- episode of enhanced atmospheric electrification
tion of the local sediments in the layer 21 D occu- just synchronous to an early occupational stage,
pation complex offers an easier context to identify before the construction of the Uhle platform. The
the exotic components formed of the vesicular fact that these early deposits remained carefully
volcanic glass with their distinctive metal splashed isolated, then protected from architectural remod-
coatings. The plasma-formed components formed elling during the successive Moche architectural
by lightning phenomena are obviously here not phases suggests that an ancestral memory of their
in their primary depositional context as they are symbolic relevance was preserved for a few hun-
part of well-prepared occupation floors that were dred years.
made from the locally available materials. How- Given the ritual character of this occupation
ever, this striking abundance of sand-sized vesic- context, the hypothesis of a cultural choice moti-
ular volcanic glass that was only observed in the vated by the desire to leave long-lived food offer-
early occupation deposits incites to suspect that ings is proposed. The plasma-processes involved in
they trace a depositional episode throughout the the synthesis of the polymer products give them,
region of electrically-charged aerosols at this exact in effect, longlasting properties by ionizing-radi-
time period. The later could potentially originate ation induced crossliking (Ashfaq et al., 2020). If
from volcanic explosive eruptions as suggested this hypothesis is correct, it would imply that the
by the peak production of electrically-charged Mochicas knew this property of lightning-related
aeorosols from triboplasma processes in volcanic durable materials and how to procure the high
dust plume (Gaudin and Cimarelli, 2019). This quality products. There is at present no equivalent
has been recently well illustrated by the excep- in terms of depositional events for a similar type of
tionally intense volcanic lightning with lightning lightning-related microstratified firing records, nei-
flashes in 6 hours with the submarine eruption ther throughout the successive Moche occupation
of Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano on phases (I to IV), nor in the sand deposits formed
2022, January 15th (Yuen et al., 2022). The delayed during the two recent El Niño events. They all
impact on enhanced atmospheric electrification share in common a dominant loose sand texture
of the unsteady volcanic plume that transiently that is coherent with repeated destabilisation of
reached—at 58 km—the Earth’s mesosphere is the coastal sand dunes during this extreme climate
currently observed across the Earth and should be conditions which invaded the lower floodplain and
soon reported. the surrounding foothills. The lack of distinctive
The record provided both by the Moche lower aeolian sandy deposits at the time of the enhanced
floodplain deposits and the layer 21 D occupa- electrification events raises critical questions on
tion complex of the lower Moche archaeolog- their environmental and climate relevance. The
ical sequence would match such a long-distance regular microstratified records for I and III units
impact of electrically charged volcanic plume on indicates an overall stability of the floodplain
enhancement of the conductivity at the ground. landscapes in spite of the recurrent firing epi-
The abundance of volcanic glass fragments and sodes. This could possibly suggest the long-term
the high amount of polymerized plant fragments colonisation of the floodplain by a dense grassland
with their vaporized metal coatings in the later vegetation with would occasionally suffer from
occupation deposits show that the source mate- severe drying, possibly in response to massive dust
rials were collected by the Moche people from a storms triggered by long distance volcanic explo-
soil surface exposed to intense lightning and fall sions. The exact timing between the final episode
of electrically-charged aerosols. Simply assuming of enhanced air conductivity and establishment
from their depositional context a close link with of the Mochica culture could possibly reveal that
DISCUSSION / CONCLUSIONS
AND FURTHER WORK
the pyramid builders knew the high quality of the The second major point concerns the identifica-
locally available soil resources for raising a durable tion of different episodes marked by the repeated
monumental architecture. Documenting the pro- occurrence of lightning-triggered megafires in an
fusion of polymer components in the clay bricks, arid region in which this range of extreme events
the plaster materials and the different pigments is presently unknown and has never been sus-
used for the wall paintings is beyond the scope of pected for past periods. Their similarity in terms
the present-study. However, the marked contrast of products and effects at the ground suggests
between the lightning-linked clay-rich materials that particular atmospheric conditions would be
deposited just before the pyramid construction involved in their initiation. The manifestations
and the successive sand dune invasion of the mon- clearly contrast from the ones of El Niño events
umental architecture shows that the Mochicas had that are so far considered as the most threatening
to fight severe drought hazards for maintaining climate hazards. In the continuity of the ongoing
their prosperity. research on triboelectricity in volcanic plumes
(Cimarelli and Genareau, 2021), the Moche
valley and site records suggest that electrostatic
5. Conclusions and further work phenomena in dust clouds could enhance atmo-
spheric electrification and initiate flash-firing
The firing records of the Moche late Holocene events. Obviously, more study is needed to further
floodplain and the close-by early occupation floors understand the origin of the precursor particles
and the production processes of electrically

formed at the eve of the Mochica colonization
raise three major points. charged nanoaerosols that are possibly involved
At first, as long established in archaeological in the ongoing marked increased frequency of
sites, the success of an event-based approach for megafires in North America and Australia.
past periods requires (1) well-preserved ancient The final major point relates to the links that
surfaces associated to microstratified deposits we established between ritual activities and the
providing an unbiased spatial-temporal records of scoria-like glassy slag with the related polymer
instantaneous phenomena; (2) a high-resolution and metal nanomaterials. In the continuity of
multi-analytical protocol aimed to decipher the the formerly discovered lightning-enhanced fuel
forming-processes of these pristine surfaces at the flammability (Courty et al., 2020), we hypothesize
finest temporal and spatial scale. here that atmospheric electrification phenomena
For the first time, the Moche microstratified have deeply imprinted the quality of biomass
records show the key role of lightning-triggered resources and the preservation conditions of
droplet pulverization on the instantaneous preser- organo-mineral residues associated to activity
vation of firing surfaces, independently of human surfaces. Thus, a robust microcontextual study
actions. These atmospheric plasma processes that offers the diagnostic key to decode in every living
are comparable to the thin-film plasma coating surface the ancestral memories of high-energy
for surface treatment yet remain to be thoroughly manifestations that currently occurred along
investigated in natural contexts. The instanta- human history, particularly lightning events. A
neous preservation of organic compounds from solid experimental and present-day database of
the flash-evaporation of volatile gas and the the effects left on the ground in living organisms
concurrent repolymerization of the most resistant by electrification phenomena is required to pre-
components with the synthesis of filaments and pare this innovative exploration. The achieve-
aggregates open new perspective on the key-role ments will also greatly help to better monitor the
of atmospheric electrification on long-term car- threatening enhancement of atmospheric electri-
bon sequestration. fication viewed at present as a direct consequence

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FINANCING / REFERENCES
of the ongoing global warming (Wang, 2018; and, to Jean-Michel Martinez (PROMES UPR
Yair, 2018; Williams et al., 2019; Pinto and Pinto, 8521-UPVD, France) and to Prof. Ahmad Ham-
2020). dam (département de physique, Université de
Montreal, Canada) for sharing their expertise in
plasma physics and their scientific support to per-
Contributions of authors form experimentations on effects of electric arcs
and plasma discharge.
The author of this article declares that he par-
ticipated in all its elaboration: conceptualization,
data analysis, methodological-technical devel- Conflicts of interest
opment, writing of the original manuscript,
drafting of the corrected and edited manuscript, The author has no conflicts of interest to declare.
graphic design, fieldwork, and interpretation.
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The author declare that she has no known com-
and the production of filamentary aggregates:
peting financial interests or personal relation-
Journal of electrostatics, 55(1), 43-63. https://
ships that could have appeared to influence the

doi/10.1016/s0304-3886(01)00183-8
work reported in this paper.
AghaKouchak, A., Huning, L. S., Chiang, F.,
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Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/ 2022 / 1

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts on

Microfacies de fuego y piroresiduos como traza de impactos por electrificación atmosférica en el

Marie-Agnès Courty 1,*

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

Keywords: microcontextual, aerosol, light- Palabras clave: microcontexto, aerosol,

2 / Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/

1. Introduction et al., 2020). In the absence of a robust present-day

ouchak et al., 2018; Tedim et al., 2018; Khaykin et

Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/ 2022 / 3

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/ 2022 / 5

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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Table 1. Moche valley stratigraphic sequence.

Stratigraphic units Microfacies Diagnostic features and components

Unit Ib 75-135 cm Interstratification of finely-layered grey Massive to fissural microstructure.

polymerised reed fragments; rare metal-

RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

MATERIALS AND METHODS /

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Moche Valley sequence

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

PE2001-2 Gif-11965 1585± 30 -20,34‰ 1590± 30 432 1518-1349

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RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

both indicating plasma-discharge synthesis (Ham-

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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ships that could have appeared to influence the

Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana / 74 (3) / A060622/ 2022 / 21

dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.firesaf.2017.02.006 en Moche Excavaciones 1999-2009: Perú,

Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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30, 102215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Essene, E.J, Fisher, D.C.,1986, Lightning strike

jasrep.2020.102215 fusion: extreme reduction and metal-

Neanderthal pyrotechnology at Abric Science Letters, 513, 69-80. https://doi.

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Fire microfacies and pyroresidues tracing atmospheric electrification impacts in Peru

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org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102679-3.00018-6 Dryas Impact Hypothesis: Journal of

of fulgurite formation: Mineralogy and difficulties, challenges, and impacts: Fire,