Libro Recortado
Libro Recortado
Libro Recortado
Gopêtue`
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
6
@flktcv`s dk oprkadczolk
?8 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
Yoro katkadkr pekaojkatk guïeks s`a e`s ospkgt`s quk oforgo eo peoakogc÷a, dkfk jkagc`aorsk ka
prcjkr eumor quk poro `ftkakr rksuetod`s ks akgksorc` ogtuor. Ka mkakroe, hoy d`s n`rjos dk hogkr
quk ke trofol` sk gujpeo<
?. Cjpr`vcsor,
Cjpr`vcsor, ks dkgcr,
dkgcr, rkoeczor eos torkos quk porkzgoa akgksorcos, rks`evkr e`s pr`fekjos o jkdcdo
quk surloa, y opr`vkghor eos `p`rtuacdodks quk sk prkskatka. Kstk kan`quk pukdk dor rksuetod`s,
pkr` ka mkakroe kxcmk eo prkskagco dk ua mkac` quk pukdo d`jcaor t`d` ke trofol`.
6. Ykasor p`r oatcgcpod` e` quk sk dksko oegoazor y eo n`rjo dk g`askmucre`. Eo n`rjueogc÷a dk
peoaks g`astctuyk uao rkprkskatogc÷a jkatoe dk ãxct`s nutur`s. Eo peoakogc÷a scjpecgo ka mroa
jkdcdo eo torko dk ua odjcacstrod`r ` mkrkatk y nogcecto ke ksnukrz` g``rdcaod` y eo g``rdcaogc÷a
dk e`s ksnukrz`s. Wc sofkj`s hogco d÷adk voj`s, sca dudo a`s skrï jïs nïgce eekmor ohê.
Eo peoakogc÷a cjpecgo uao vcsc÷a dke nutur`, yo quk dk uao sctuogc÷a ogtuoe
ogt uoe (WO) sk kspkro eekmor
o ua rksuetod` aoe (V N), poro e` guoe sk rkquckrk dke troasgurs` dke tckjp`.
WO VN
Tckjp`
Yoro eekmor oe rksuetod` aoe kxcstka vorc`s gojca`s y, p`r e` toat`, hoy quk kekmcr eos `pgc`aks
jïs odkguodos g`a fosk ka eos gopogcdodks dk eo kjprkso y utceczor e`s jkdc`s cd÷ak`s quk a`s
pkrjctoa e`mror ke `flktcv` kspkrod`.
?
WO VN
6 9
Eo n`rjo ka quk eo peoakogc÷a sk vcagueo g`a eo `pkrogc÷a hogk quk WO ovoagk y oegoagk
kstod`s dcnkrkatks ka ke tckjp`, ka ua g`atcau` tkjp`roe dk g`adcgc`aks tojfcãa dcnkrkatks. Ksto
vorcofcecdod cjpecgo, p`r uao portk, quk eo peoakogc÷a ks uao nuagc÷a quk dkfk gufrcrsk ka n`rjo
g`atcauo dkatr` dke pr`gks` odjcacstrotcv`. Y`r `tro portk, eo dcvkrscdod dk nogt`rks y sctuogc`aks
cjp`scfcectoa eo keof`rogc÷a dk ua joauoe g`a eos ogtcvcdodks y dkgcsc`aks quk dkfka opecgorsk poro
eo peoakogc÷a odjcacstrotcvo ka e`s `rmoacsj`s s`gcoeks, yo quk ksto ogtcvcdod tckak quk odoptorsk o
dcgho dcvkrscdod (vko eo muro 6.?).
K? K6 K7 K4
WO VN
Kstod`s dcnkrkatks
Tckjp`
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a ?3
G`agkpt` dk peoakogc÷a
Oatks dk kjprkadkr guoequckr oggc÷a odjcacstrotcvo, ks prkgcs` dktkrjcaor e`s rksuetod`s quk prk-
tkadk e`mror ua `rmoacsj` s`gcoe, osê g`j` eos g`adcgc`aks nuturos y e`s kekjkat`s akgksorc`s poro
quk nuagc`ak kgozjkatk. Kstk pr`a÷stcg` s÷e` sk pukdk e`mror p`r jkdc` dk eo peoakogc÷a. Ogtuor
sca peoakogc÷a sup`ak jugh`s rcksm`s, g`j` ke dkspkrdcgc` dk ksnukrz`s y rkgurs`s, ` uao odjc-
acstrogc÷a cjpr`vcsodo y kjpêrcgo. Ks p`r kee` quk eo peoakogc÷a prkgkdk o eos dkjïs nuagc`aks dke
pr`gks` odjcacstrotcv`, yo quk cjpecgo t`jor eos dkgcsc`aks jïs odkguodos ogkrgo dk e` quk hofrï
dk rkoeczorsk.
Juagh y Morgêo dkaka eo peoakogc÷a g`j` ―Eo dktkrjcaogc÷a dk e`s `flktcv`s y eo kekggc÷a dk
e`s gurs`s dk oggc÷a poro e`mrore`s, g`a fosk ka eo cavkstcmogc÷a y keof`rogc÷a dk ua ksqukjo dk-
toeeod` quk dkfk rkoeczorsk ka ke nutur`‚.
Y`r su portk, Horry L`aks skÿoeo quk eo peoakogc÷a ks ‚Ke dksorr`ee` scstkjïtcg` dk pr`mrojos dk
oggc÷a kagojcaod`s o oegoazor e`s `flktcv`s `rmoaczogc`aoeks g`avkacd`s jkdcoatk ke pr`gks`
dk oaoeczor, kvoeuor y skekggc`aor katrk eos `p`rtuacdodks quk hoyoa scd` prkvcstos‚.
Dk ogukrd` g`a M÷jkz Gklo, eo peoakogc÷a ks ‚Ke ‚ Ke pr`gks` quk a`s pkrjctk cdkatcgor eos `p`r-
tuacdodks dk jkl`ro dk eo `pkrogc÷a dk eo katcdod g`a fosk ka eo tãgacgo, osê g`j` ka ke kstofekgc-
jckat` n`rjoe dk peoaks ` pr`ykgt`s poro opr`vkghor dk joakro catkmroe dcghos `p`rtuacdodks‚.
Y`r üetcj`, Furt B. Wgoeoa eo dkak g`j` ‚Ke scstkjo quk g`jckazo g`a e`s `flktcv`s, dksorr`eeo
p`eêtcgos, peoaks, pr`gkdcjckat`s y gukato g`a ua jãt`d` dk rktr`oecjkatogc÷a poro odoptorsk o
guoequckr gojfc` ka eos gcrguastoagcos‚.
Eo kskagco dk eo odjcacstrogc÷a ks e`mror ua `flktcv` dktkrjcaod`. Wc eo kjprkso a` tckak ka
jkatk ua `flktcv` ` rksuetod` aoe, eo peoakogc÷a odjcacstrotcvo a` sk lustcgo. Wãakgo e` kxprks÷
dk n`rjo ogkrtodo< ‚Wc ua h`jfrk a` sofk o quã pukrt` sk dcrcmk, acamüa vckat` ek ks nov`rofek‚.
Eo peoakogc÷a kstï g`an`rjodo p`r aujkr`sos dkgcsc`aks `rckatodos hogco ke nutur`. O keeo sk
dkstcaoa pkasojckat` y tckjp` ka ke prkskatk g`j` uao cavkrsc÷a poro ke nutur`. Oemua`s kstudc`-
s`s dk eo peoakogc÷a hoa skÿoeod` eos jkl`rks n`rjos y vêos poro dksgufrcr h`y g`sos quk a`s
pukdoa skrvcr poro p`dkr tkakr joÿoao ua nutur`. Ks vkrdod quk gckrt`s `flktcv`s sk e`mroa rkeotc-
vojkatk g`a p`go peoakogc÷a, pkr` ka eo ãp`go ogtuoe, ka eo quk oemuaos torkos hoa cagrkjkatod`
dk joakro kxp`akagcoe su acvke dk g`jpeklcdod (p`r klkjpe`, eo tkga`e`mêo ks jïs s`stcgodo k
cagursc`ao godo vkz ka jïs gojp`s, eos pkrs`aos dkskoa kstor can`rjodos y portcgcpor ka e` quk sk
dkfk hogkr, g`a eo sckjprk grkgckatk dcvkrscdod dk fckaks y skrvcgc`s), eo peoakogc÷a sk ho g`avkr-
tcd` ka uao akgkscdod.
Cjp`rtoagco dk eo peoakogc÷a
Eo cjp`rtoagco dk eo peoakogc÷a sk oprkgco jkl`r guoad` g`ascdkroj`s ke eumor quk `gupo ka ju-
ghos `rmoaczogc`aks odjcacstrodos dk n`rjo odkguodo, g`avkagcdos dk quk su nutur` dkpkadk dk
keeo y dk eo
e o tkga`e`mêo. Kstos `rmoaczogc`aks kspkroa quk t`d`s sus odjcacstrod`rks ` mkrkatks, dks-
dk ke supkrvcs`r dk prcjkro eêako hosto eo dcrkggc÷a supkrc`r,
supkrc`r, dkdcquka uao mroa portk dk su tckjp`
o n`rjueor peoaks, oatks dk kjprkadkr guoequckr cacgcotcvo.
Eo peoakogc÷a ks cjp`rtoatk p`r d`s roz`aks< su prcjogêo (ks dkgcr, eo p`scgc÷a quk `gupo ka
eo skgukagco dk eos nuagc`aks odjcacstrotcvos) y su troasctcvcdod (g`j` uao ogtcvcdod quk pkaktro y
onkgto t`dos eos nuagc`aks y eoe o `rmoaczogc÷a t`toe). [rwcgb, e` kxprkso osê<
o) Yrcjogêo. Eo peoakogc÷a tckak uao p`scgc÷a dk prcjogêo katrk eos dkjïs nuagc`aks odjcacstrotc-
vos, y eo roz÷a dk kee` ks quk ka oemuaos castoagcos pukdk skr eo üacgo nuagc÷a odjcacstrotcvo quk
69 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
sk klkgutk. Eo peoakogc÷a pukdk rksuetor ka uao dkgcsc÷a quk s`stckak quk a` sk rkquckrk oggc÷a
` quk ãsto ks cjp`scfek rkoeczoreo.
rkoec zoreo. Guoad` kst` sugkdk, a` s`a akgksorc`s e`s scmuckatks pr`gks`s
dk `rmoaczogc÷a, dcrkggc÷a, g``rdcaogc÷a y g`atr`e.
f) Troasctcvcdod . Guoad` surmk eo akgkscdod dk uao oggc÷a sufskgukatk, sk kvcdkagco eo troasctc-
vcdod dk eo nuagc÷a dk peoakogc÷a. Eo cjpekjkatogc÷a dk e`s rksuetod`s dk peoakogc÷a tckak
knkgt`s ka eos nuagc`aks dk `rmoaczogc÷a, dcrkggc÷a, g`atr`e, ktg. Y`r `tro portk, eo peoakogc÷a ks
oatk t`d` uao ogtcvcdod quk tckak g`j` `flktcv` klkgutor nuagc`aks dk `rmoaczogc÷a, dcrkggc÷a,
ktgãtkro. Y`r e` toat`, eo peoakogc÷a ks kskagcoe poro ke nuagc`aojckat` odkguod` dk guoequckr
`rmoacsj` s`gcoe, yo quk p`r jkdc` dk keeoke eo sk prkvãa e`s gojfc`s quk dkporo ke nutur` y sk ksto-
fekgka eos jkdcdos akgksorcos poro onr`atore`s. Y`r `tro portk, rkg`a`gkr hogco d÷adk sk dcrcmk eo
oggc÷a pkrjctk kagojcaor y opr`vkghor jkl`r e`s ksnukrz`s. E`s ospkgt`s fïscg`s quk jukstroa
eo cjp`rtoagco dk eo peoakogc÷a sk cadcgoa ka ke guodr` 6.?.
• Yr`jukvk ke dksorr`ee` dke `rmoacsj`, puks kstofekgk jãt`d`s poro utceczor rogc`aoejkatk e`s rkgurs`s.
• Vkdugk e`s acvkeks dk cagkrtcdujfrk quk sk pukdka prkskator ka ke nutur`, ouaquk a` e`s kecjcao.
• Yr`pcgco uao jkatoecdod nuturcsto, puks prkskato uao vcsc÷a dke p`rvkacr y uao v`euatod poro e`mror e`s `flktcv`s
`rmoaczogc`aoeks y osê jkl`ror ke kstod` ogtuoe dk eo kjprkso.
• G`adcgc`ao eo kxcstkagco y ogtuogc÷a dk eo katcdod s`gcoe oe ojfckatk ` kat`ra` kxtkra`.
• Kstofekgk ua scstkjo rogc`aoe poro eo t`jo dk dkgcsc`aks quk kvcto ke kjpcrcsj` (catucgc÷a, cjpr`vcsogc÷a).
cjpr`vcsogc÷a ).
• Vkdugk oe jêacj` e`s rcksm`s y opr`vkgho oe jïxcj`
jïxcj` eos `p`rtuacdodks.
• Oe kstofekgkr peoaks dk trofol`, sckato eos fosks g`a eos quk `pkrorï ke `rmoacsj`.
• Jcacjczo e`s pr`fekjos p`tkagcoeks y pr`p`rgc`ao oe odjcacstrod`r ` mkrkatk rkadcjckat`s odkguod`s dk su
tckjp` y ksnukrz`.
• Joxcjczo ke opr`vkghojckat` dke tckjp` y e`s rkgurs`s ka t`d`s e`s acvkeks dk eo `rmoaczogc÷a.
`rmoaczogc÷a.
• Ykrjctk quk e`s kjpekod`s g`a`zgoa pkrnkgtojkatk quã sk kspkro dk kee`s y eks frcado eo `p`rtuacdod dk t`jor
portk ka eos dkgcsc`aks o quk sk eekmuka.
• Yr`p`rgc`ao e`s kekjkat`s akgksorc`s poro eekvor o gof` ke g`atr`e.
Yr`p÷sct`s dk eo peoakogc÷a
Eos `rmoaczogc`aks a` `pkroa ka g`adcgc`aks dk g`jpekto gkrtkzo ac tojp`g` ka uao sctuogc÷a
dk ofs`euto cagkrtcdujfrk. Eos g`adcgc`aks dk g`jpekto gkrtkzo kxcstka guoad` sk g`a`gk jïs dk
33% dk e`s nogt`rks rkekvoatks, jckatros quk eos g`adcgc`aks dk ofs`euto cagkrtcdujfrk sk prkskatoa
s÷e` guoad` sk g`a`gk ?% dk kee`s. Eos `pkrogc`aks `rmoaczogc`aoeks `gurrka ka g`adcgc`aks quk
`sgceoa katrk e`s kxtrkj`s dk gkrtkzo k cagkrtcdujfrk (dk 33 o ?%), sctuogc÷a quk sk g`a`gk g`j`
rcksm`.
CAGKVTCD[JFVK GKVTK\O
?% Vcksm` 33 %
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 6?
Eo peoakogc÷a a` kecjcao ke rcksm`, pkr` `nrkgk eos fosks poro dktkrjcaor g`a prkgcsc÷a ke mrod`
` acvke dk rcksm`. Guoat` joy`r ks ke g`a`gcjckat` dk e`s hkgh`s quk cauyka ka ke ãxct` ` ke nro-
gos` dk ua peoa, jka`r ks ke acvke dk rcksm`.
Ncmuro 6.6 Dcrkggc÷a p`tkagcoe k catkascdod dk scktk dkportojkat`s quk ogtüoa dk n`rjo cadkpkadckatk
?
4
6
7
=
V : J`vcjckat`
> akt` p`tkagcoe
; dk t`do eo
`rmoaczogc÷a
J`jkat` ogtuoe
66 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
Ncmuro 6.7 Dcrkggc`aks p`tkagcoeks dk scktk dkportojkat`s quk `fkdkgka o ua peoa g``rdcaod`
? 6
7
V : J`vcjckat`
4 p`tkagcoe
; akt` dk eo
> `rmoaczogc÷a
g`j` ua t`d`
=
J`jkat` ogtuoe
AC^KE< DCVKGTC^@
• Yeoaks o eorm` peoz` 7, ; ` jïs oÿ`s<
G`askl` dk odjcacstrogc÷a °_uã toso dk grkgcjckat`0
Dcrkgt`r mkakroe °_uã kstrotkmcos g`jpktctcvos0
Mkrkatks nuagc`aoeks °_uã aukv`s pr`dugt`s0
• Yeoaks o jkdcoa`
jkdcoa` peoz`, 6, 7 oÿ`s<
AC^KE< ODJCACWTVOTC^@
°G÷j` jkl`ror eo pr`mrojogc÷a0
Wufmkrkatks dk ïrko
°G÷j` jkl`ror eo g``rdcaogc÷a0
Lknks dk dkportojkat`
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 67
64 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
Yoro kxpecgor ke ãxct` ` ke nrogos` dk eos `rmoaczogc`aks, p`dkj`s rkgurrcr oe g`agkpt` dk su-
pkrvcvkagco dk e`s jïs opt`s, quk skÿoeo quk, o eo eormo, s÷e` s`frkvcvka oqukeeos `rmoaczogc`aks
quk sotcsnogka eos akgkscdodks dk eo s`gckdod ka n`rjo kgoz y kgckatk, kst` ks, quk sujcacstroa
e`s fkakgc`s quk kxcmk eo g`juacdod o prkgc`s sugckatks poro gufrcr e`s g`st`s dk pr`duggc÷a.
Eo kncgogco
Guoad` e`s odjcacstrod`rks ` mkrkatks kjpekoa rkgurs`s, dkfka ksn`rzorsk p`r hogkre` g`a kgogco
y kgckagco. Eo kgogco odjcacstrotcvo sk dkak ka tãrjca`s dke e`mr` dk e`s `flktcv`s `rmoaczogc`-
aoeks. Y`r su portk, ka kstk ïjfct` eo kgckagco sk g`agkptuoeczo ka tãrjca`s dk eo pr`duggc÷a dk
rkgurs`s t`toeks quk sk utceczoa duroatk ke pr`gks` pr`dugtcv`. Ka eo muro 6.; sk jukstro eo rkeogc÷a
katrk e`s g`agkpt`s dk kgogco y kgckagco.
Ncmuro 6.; Vkeogc÷a katrk kgogco y kgckagco
Cakgoz K g o z
E`mr` dk `flktcv`s
Ke gojfc` kstrotãmcg`
Eo peoakogc÷a kstrotãmcgo ks cjp`rtoatk poro e`s odjcacstrod`rks ` mkrkatks, puks eks pkrjctk prkpo-
rorsk poro hogkr nrkatk o e`s rïpcd`s gojfc`s dke kat`ra` ka ke quk `pkro uao `rmoaczogc÷a. Guoad`
ke rctj` dk vcdo kro jïs ekat`, e`s odjcacstrod`rks ` mkrkatks ogtuofoa fol` ke supukst` dk quk ke
nutur` cfo o skr rkeotcvojkatk cmuoe oe posod`2 p`dêoa kstofekgkrsk peoaks y `flktcv`s scjpekjkatk
rkgurrckad` o eo kxpkrckagco (prkvcsc÷a O/Y dot`s kstodêstcg`s. Ykr` h`y e`s hkgh`s sugkdka g`a
dkjoscodo ropcdkz poro quk eo kxpkrckagco sko sckjprk uao muêo t`toejkatk g`aofek, p`r e` quk
e`s mkrkatks kstïa `fecmod`s o dcskÿor aukvos kstrotkmcos, odkguodos o e`s pr`fekjos üacg`s y o eos
`p`rtuacdodks dke nutur`.
• °_uã `gurrk ka eos `rmoaczogc`aks yo kstofekgcdos quk
quk goka ka eo cakncgogco0 °_uã ek sugkdc÷,
p`r klkjpe`, o Gr`ees0
Ka eo dãgodo dk ?3=9, Gr`ees kro uao dk eos trks kjprksos jïs kgogks poro nofrcgor eovod`ros,
pkr` sus dcrkgtcv`s a` prkvckr`a e`s gojfc`s quk kstofoa tkackad` eumor ka ke jkrgod` ac, p`r su-
pukst`, e` quk vkadrêo g`j` g`askgukagco dk kee`s. Y`r su portk, ]hcrep``e y Kosy prkdclkr`a eos
nuturos j`dcgogc`aks dke kat`ra` y ogtuor`a ka g`askgukagco. O pksor dk quk ka kso ãp`go Gr`ees
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 6;
`stkatofo uao kgogco casupkrofek ka ke skgt`r, pkrdc÷ eo fotoeeo p`r eo suprkjogêo ka eo cadustrco
dk eos eovod`ros, jckatros quk eo g`jpktkagco hcz` e` quk dkfêo, quk kro `nrkgkr gojfc`s dk j`dk-
e`s y uao eêako jïs g`jpekto dk eovod`ros poro sotcsnogkr e`s must`s y p`scfcecdodks kg`a÷jcgos
cjpkroatks ka kso ãp`go. Kstk klkjpe` cadcgo quk odjcacstror g`a kgogco y kgckagco ks ua nog-
t`r cjprksgcadcfek poro ke nuagc`aojckat` odkguod` dk uao kjprkso. Y`r `tro portk, o eos j`dcgo-
gc`aks quk oetkror`a eos g`adcgc`aks dke jkrgod` sk eks
e ks g`a`gk g`j` gojfc`s kstrotãmcg`s, dkfcd` o
quk trost`gor`a eos g`adcgc`aks dk kgogco dk eo kjprkso.
Ka eo muro 6.> sk jukstro ke pr`gks` quk sk utceczo poro dcskÿor uao kstrotkmco `rmoaczogc`aoe.
Eo aoturoekzo dke pr`gks` dk n`rjueogc÷a dk kstrotkmcos ks dcaïjcg` k catkrogtcv`. Y`r klkjpe`, e`s
rksuetod`s dk uao kstrotkmco mkakroe p`drêoa j`dcgor ke kat`ra`, o toe mrod` quk e`s voe`rks dk eo
odjcacstrogc÷a gojfcorêoa y eo kjprkso tkadrêo quk dcskÿor uao aukvo kstrotkmco.
Eo dcguetod dk dkgcdcr quã pr`p`rgc÷a dk e`s rkgurs`s dk uao `rmoaczogc÷a sk dkfk dkstcaor o
jkl`ror su kgogco y guïe o jkl`ror su kgckagco sk g`jpecgo, p`rquk e`s gojfc`s cjp`rtoatks ka ke
kat`ra` quk dktkrjcaoa eo kgogco g`jckazoa p`r e` mkakroe sckad` juy pkqukÿ`s y sk dksorr`eeoa
p`g` o p`g`.
Ncmuro 6.> Yr`gks` poro dcskÿor uao kstrotkmco `rmoaczogc`aoe
VKG[VW@W
(N`rtoekzos y dkfcecdodks dk eo `rmoaczogc÷a)
@FLKTC^@W KWTVOTKMCO
VKW[ETOD@W
^OE@VKW @VMOAC\OGC@AOE
KAT@VA@
(@p`rtuacdodks y ojkaozos)
Toeks gcrguastoagcos dcguetoa dk joakro a`tofek dcstcamucr e`s nogt`rks grêtcg`s dk eo juetcpec-
gcdod dk vorcofeks dke kat`ra` quk gojfcoa oe jcsj` tckjp`, prkgcsojkatk p`rquk eos kxcmkagcos
dk kgckagco ecjctoa dk joakro skrco e`s rkgurs`s quk pukdka dkstcaorsk o cavkstcmor ke kat`ra` poro
cdkatcgor gojfc`s kstrotãmcg`s ` n`rjos dk kv`eugc÷a. Y`r klkjpe`, oua guoad` e`s j`t`rks keãgtrc-
g`s y dckske kroa pr`jcs`rc`s poro eo cadustrco dk eos e`g`j`t`ros
e `g`j`t`ros ka eo dãgodo dk ?379, eos nïfrcgos
dk out`j÷vceks quk od`ptor`a ksos j`doecdodks dk nukrzo j`trcz ka oqukeeo ãp`go nrogosor`a `
s÷e` tuvckr`a ua ãxct` juy ecjctod`.
Y`dkj`s dkacr eo kstrotkmco g`j` ke potr÷a dk rkspuksto dk eo `rmoaczogc÷a o su kat`ra`2
eo kstrotkmco p`ak ka lukm` e`s rkgurs`s hujoa`s, aoagckr`s, jotkrcoeks y tãgacg`s nrkatk o e`s
pr`fekjos y rcksm`s quk peoatko ke kat`ra` ` ojfckatk kxtkra`. G`a fosk ka ksto dkacgc÷a, t`do
`rmoaczogc÷a tckak uao kstrotkmco, a` akgksorcojkatk knkgtcvo, ouaquk auago eo hoyo n`rjueod`
dk joakro kxpeêgcto2 odkjïs, t`dos keeos kstïa rkeogc`aodos
rkeogc `aodos g`a su kat`ra`, vcagueogc÷a quk pukdk
kxojcaorsk y dksgrcfcrsk poro ogtuor ka g`askgukagco. Kstk g`agkpt` dk kstrotkmco cageuyk o eos
`rmoaczogc`aks guy`s odjcacstrod`rks ` mkrkatks tckaka uao g`adugto rkogtcvo, ks dkgcr, quk rksp`a-
dka y sk odoptoa oe ojfckatk ` kat`ra` ka eo jkdcdo ka quk ks akgksorc` hogkre`.
Ka aukstr` gos`, dkstogorkj`s ke r`e ogtcv` dk e`s odjcacstrod`rks. Eo n`rjueogc÷a pr`ogtcvo dk
uao kstrotkmco sk g`a`gk g`j` peoakogc÷a kstrotãmcgo, eo guoe p`r e` mkakroe
mkakroe ks o eorm` peoz`. E`s
6> Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
Cjp`rtoagco dk eo kstrotkmco
E`s scmuckatks puat`s kxprksoa gorogtkrêstcgos nuadojkatoeks dk eo kstrotkmco<
• Eo noeto dk uao kstrotkmco knkgtcvo pukdk
pukdk `rcmcaor quk a` sk e`mrka e`s `flktcv`s
`flktcv`s kstofekgcd`s p`r
eo odjcacstrogc÷a ` mkrkagco.
• W`a ecakojckat`s mkakroeks quk pkrjctka mucor eos oggc`aks dk eo kjprkso quk ho kstofekgcd`
vorc`s gojca`s poro eekmor o ua `flktcv` dktkrjcaod`.
• Wcrvka g`j` fosk poro
poro e`mror e`s `flktcv`s
`flktcv`s k cjpekjkator eo dkgcsc÷a.
• Nogcectoa eo t`jo dk
dk dkgcsc`aks, puks pkrjctka kvoeuor
kvoeuor oetkraotcvos y kekmcr eos jkl`rks.
• Eo grkgckatk g`jpktkagco hogk akgksorc` kstofekgkreos.
• Dksorr`eeoa eo grkotcvcdod poro
poro s`eugc`aor pr`fekjos.
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 6=
DKWKJYKß@
DKWKJYKß@
TCKJY@
pkqukÿo y ks p`scfek quk eo nuagc÷a dk jorbktcam sko dkjoscod` can`rjoe. Oscjcsj`, ke mkrkatk `
ke pr`pcktorc` sk vk `fecmod` o rkoeczor dk n`rjo scjuetïako ogtcvcdodks `pkrotcvos y odjcacstrotcvos,
odjcacstrotcvos,
y gosc sckjprk gorkgk dke tckjp` y eo gopogctogc÷a akgksorcos poro rkoeczoreos dk joakro odkguodo.
Duroatk ksto ktopo, ke dksorr`ee`, ouaquk ekat`, dkfk skr rjk. Eo durogc÷a dk eo peoakogc÷a toj-
fcãa dkfkrêo rkeogc`aorsk g`a ksto ktopo, ks dkgcr, g`a e`s peoaks dcrkggc`aoeks quk ek pkrjctoa oe
mkrkatk ` pr`pcktorc` rkoeczor e`s gojfc`s akgksorc`s poro quk eo kjprkso gojcak g`a pos` rjk
hogco ua nutur` jïs kstofek.
Grkgcjckat`. Ka ksto ktopo eo kjprkso dkfk oegoazor ua joy`r mrod` dk kstofcecdod, cjpeoator
e`s scstkjos nuadojkatoeks, cagrkjkator toat` eo fosk dk geckatks g`j` ke aüjkr` dk kjpekod`s,
y g`jkazor o cjpekjkator eos tãgacgos dk jorbktcam. Eo dkjoado dk tckjp` odjcacstrotcv` ou-
jkato, pkr` pukdk skr quk oüa a` gukatk g`a pkrs`aoe odjcacstrotcv` sugckatk ac gopogctod` poro
sotcsnogkr eos akgkscdodks dk ksto ktopo, duroatk eo guoe e`s peoaks o g`rt` peoz` odquckrka joy`r
kspkgcgcdod, yo quk sk dkaka g`a joy`r georcdod e`s `flktcv`s, sk g`anêo jïs ka e`s rkgurs`s y sk
dksorr`eeo jïs eo ekoetod dk e`s geckatks.
Jodurkz. Ka kstk troj` eo kjprkso pukdk hofkr oegoazod` ke ãxct` y ks p`scfek quk su dcrkgt`r
` pr`pcktorc` kstã oe nrkatk dk uao `rmoaczogc÷a g`a grkdcfcecdod y gopogcdod tãgacgo g`jpr`fodos.
Tojfcãa oujkato eo akgkscdod dk dkekmor y ks p`scfek quk eo `rmoaczogc÷a hoyo p`dcd` g`an`rjor
ua pkqukÿ` kqucp` odjcacstrotcv` `, oe jka`s, hoyo g`jkazod` o hogkre`.
Eo ktopo dk grkgcjckat` dk eo kjprkso cjpecgo ke dksorr`ee` pr`mrkscv` dksdk uao kjprkso
pkqukÿo hosto uao jkdcoao quk dkfk hogkr nrkatk o jugh`s pr`fekjos aukv`s. Dk pr`at`, e`s scs-
tkjos dk g`atr`e k can`rjogc÷a rksuetoa casugckatks poro joaklor eos grkgckatks akgkscdodks quk
surmka dk joakro g`tcdcoao, o eo vkz quk pukdka prkskatorsk pr`fekjos dk ecqucdkz rkeogc`aod`s
g`a e`s rkqukrcjckat`s dk gopctoe y aoagcojckat`. [ao joy`r cavkrsc÷a scmacgo joy`r rcksm`2 ka
vcrtud dk kee`, ks akgksorc` kvoeuor dcgh`s rcksm`s g`jporïad`e`s g`a eos `p`rtuacdodks quk `nrkgk
ke jkrgod`.
Dk t`d` e` oatkrc`r sk dkdugk quk ks urmkatk eekvor o gof` eo oggc÷a dk peoakor ka t`dos eos
ïrkos nuagc`aoeks dk eo kjprkso. Eo ktopo dk jodurkz ks eo ãp`go ka quk eo kstofcecdod ks joy`r y
e`s peoaks kspkgêg`s o eorm` peoz` pukdka pr`dugcr mroadks dcvcdkad`s.
68 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
Dkgecaogc÷a. G`a ke tckjp`, eos akgkscdodks dk e`s geckatks gojfcoa y eos vkatos dke fcka `
skrvcgc` g`jckazoa o dkgecaor. Ke p`tkagcoe dk grkgcjckat` ks ecjctod` y sk tckaka quk dkskghor eos
eêakos dk pr`dugt`s jka`s rkatofeks. Oatk ksto sctuogc÷a,
sct uogc÷a, ke `flktcv` prcagcpoe g`ascstk ka kqucecfror
eos vkatos, ke ul` dk knkgtcv` y ke rcksm`, t`d` kee` g`a ke pr`p÷sct` dk grkgkr dk joakro rkatofek
duroatk gckrt` tckjp`. Tojfcãa ks akgksorc` `fskrvor p`r skporod` godo pr`dugt` poro ufcgore`
g`rrkgtojkatk ka su gcge` dk vcdo.
Guoad` sk eekmo oe kstodc` aoe dk grkgcjckat`, rksuetorï grugcoe uao s÷ecdo odjcacstrogc÷a dke
knkgtcv`, ks dkgcr, gkatror eo otkagc÷a ka rkdugcr e`s g`st`s, kjpekor dk joakro kgoz eo nukrzo dk
trofol`, ecjctor e`s most`s, g`atr`eor ke grãdct` y eo
e o g`froazo, k cagrkjkator eo r`togc÷a dk cavkatorc`s.
T`dos kstos jkdcdos tckaka p`r pr`p÷sct` joatkakr eo p`scgc÷a ka ke jkrgod` jkrgod` y mkakror knkgtcv`
y gopogcdod poro cavkrtcr ka eo pr`duggc÷a dk aukv`s fckaks ` skrvcgc`s. Ka eo troascgc÷a dk eo jo-
durkz o eo dkgecaogc÷a sk dkfk gojfcor, dk joakro poueotcao, dk peoaks kspkgêg`s o eorm` peoz`
o peoaks dcrkggc`aoeks o g`rt` peoz`, puks ks akgksorc` rkg`ascdkror e`s `flktcv`s, rkoscmaor e`s
rkgurs`s y rkoeczor `tr`s olustks.
@tr` `flktcv` cjp`rtoatk dk eo peoakogc÷a kstrotãmcgo ks joatkakrsk dkatr` dk eo sctuogc÷a dk
grkgcjckat`, kxpoasc÷a y dkgecaogc÷a, osê g`j` kvctor eos sctuogc`aks dk kxpoasc÷a kxgkscvo. Eo
peoakogc÷a `nrkgk aukvos oetkraotcvos o eo kjprkso, puks oe dcrkgt`r ` pr`pcktorc` ek pkrjctk oatcgc-
por `p`rtuacdodks, dksorr`eeor e`s rkgurs`s y kstofekgkr e`s g`atogt`s pkrtcakatks. Odkjïs, mkakro
can`rjogc÷a
ke pr`gks` dkaukvo k cjp`rtoatk
peoakogc÷a akgksorco
ks p`scfek poro eosporo
grkor kspogc`s nuturos ogtcvcdodks
pkasor dk kgoz
dk joakro eo kjprkso. Jkdcoatk
ka jkdc` dk eos
prksc`aks g`tcdcoaos dk eo ogtcvcdod kjprksorcoe. O trovãs dk ksto peoakogc÷a, quk ka `gosc`aks sk
dka`jcao pkasojckat` kstrotãmcg`, e`s rksp`asofeks dk eo jorgho dk eo `rmoaczogc÷a pukdka jkdc-
tor ogkrgo dk tkjos jïs ofstrogt`s.
G`askgukagcos kstrotãmcgos
kstrotãmcgos dke gcge` dk vcdo dk eo kjprkso
Ka eo ogtuoecdod, g`askrvor ogtcvo eo kjprkso ks quczï eo torko jïs g`jpeklo quk dkfka eekvor o gof`
sus mkrkatks ` dcrkgtcv`s. Ka mkakroe, e`s gcge`s dk vcdo dk eos kjprksos pkqukÿos (g`jkrgc` oe jk-
audk`, dcstrcfugc÷a joy`rcsto, nofrcgogc÷a dk g`jp`akatks y skrvcgc`s) duroa oerkdkd`r dk vkcatk
oÿ`s. Wca kjform`, ks pr`fofek quk ke gcge` dk vkcatk oÿ`s sk rkduzgo dkfcd` o e`s gojfc`s tkga`-
e÷mcg`s, o eo joy`re`sgoatcdod
Y`r g`ascmuckatk, dk g`jpktcd`rks
nuadod`rks dk pkqukÿos ykjprksos
o eo me`foeczogc÷a
dk rkgckatkdkgrkogc÷a
eos a`rjos dk g`jpktctcvcdod.
quczï pukdoa prkska-
gcor d`s ` jïs gcge`s duroatk eo vcdo dk sus kjprksos. Ka eo jkdcdo quk sk prkskatoa gojfc`s ka
jkrgod`s, g`jpktcd`rks, geckatks, tojfcãa vorêoa eos gorogtkrêstcgos
gorogtkrêstcgos dk eo kjprkso. E`s pr`pcktorc`s
dkfka rkg`ascdkror,
rkg`ascdkror, o trovãs dk t`dos eos ktopos p`r eos quk poso eo `rmoaczogc÷a, sus puat`s dk vcsto
ogkrgo dk e`s pr`dugt`s, prkgc`s, dcstrcfugc÷a, g`jkrgcoeczogc÷a, vkatos, pr`j`gc÷a, pr`duggc÷a y
`pkrotcvcdod.
Ka ke guodr` 6.6 sk jukstroa dk joakro frkvk eos g`askgukagcos kstrotãmcgos dk e`s gcge`s dk
vcdo dk eos kjprksos. Oscjcsj`, sk kxp`aka kstrotkmcos odoptofeks o eos ktopos cacgcoe, catkrjkdco
y ovoazodo dk kee`s, y sk pr`p`rgc`aoa klkjpe`s dk eo geosk dk gojfc`s quk e`s dcrkgtcv`s dkfkrïa
rkoeczor o e` eorm` dke pr`gks` kv`eutcv` dk eos kjprksos.
Dke guodr` dk g`askgukagcos kstrotãmcgos dke gcge` dk vcdo dk eo kjprkso, sk `ftckaka eos sc-
muckatks g`ageusc`aks<
?. Ks akgksorc` knkgtuor olustks duroatk godo gcge` dk vcdo dk eo kjprkso. O jkdcdo quk ua fcka
` skrvcgc` joduro, ks prkgcs` cag`rp`ror gojfc`s quk sotcsnomoa eos akgkscdodks gojfcoatks
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 63
Grkor uao nukrtk cjomka dk Ãanoscs ka jkl`ros, aukv`s Dkstogor eos vkatolos
jorgo. pr`dugt`s,, skrvcgc`s y kstce`.
pr`dugt`s g`jpktctcvos, quczïs hogkr
pufecgcdod g`jporotcvo.
Opuator hogco geckatks mroadks
k cjp`rtoatks2 jorgos prcvodos.
Cavkstcmogc÷a dk jkrgod`s
ovkrcmuor dkfcecdodks poro Cavkstcmogc÷a dk jkrgod`s
dke pr`dugt` Joatkakr `gupodo eo
poro g`a`gkr g÷j` pr`a`stcgor gopogcdod pr`dugtcvo jêacjo.
y su mrod` dk ogkptogc÷a. vkatos y skmjkator ke jkrgod`
jkrgod`..
79 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
dk e`s geckatks. Yukdk skr akgksorc` j`dcgor ua pr`dugt`, ` quczï e`s prkgc`s, ` e`s scstkjos dk
dcstrcfugc÷a, g`jkrgcoeczogc÷a u `pkrogc÷a.
6. Katrk ua gcge` y `tr` ks akgksorc`
akgksorc` rka`vor o eo kjprkso. Dkfcd` o eo g`jpktkagco, prïgtcgojkatk
prïgtcgojkatk
t`d` fcka ` skrvcgc` eekmorï o ua puat` dk dkgodkagco, j`jkat` ka ke guoe, sc ke `flktcv` dk eo
kjprkso ks g`atcauor su grkgcjckat`,
grkgc jckat`, dkfk rka`vorsk. Toe rka`vogc÷a pukdk rkqukrcr uao rkcavkr
rkcavkr--
sc÷a scmacgotcvo ka eo kjprkso, e` quk o su vkz kxcmk uao peoakogc÷a kgoz poro oskmuror quk eo
rkcavkrsc÷a sk rkoecgk ka eos ïrkos odkguodos.
7. Ks cjpkrc`s` dksorr`eeor e`s g`a`gcjckat`s odjcacstrotcv`s akgksorc`s poro knkgtuor t`dos kstos
torkos. Jckatros ke pr`dugt` kavklkgk y eo cadustrco kv`eugc`ao, e`s pr`pcktorc`s dkfka onr`ator
uao g`jpktkagco jïs kagoraczodo y ua geckatk jïs kxcmkatk. _uczï sk dkfkrïa rkakm`gcor e`s
tãrjca`s y g`adcgc`aks g`a e`s pr`vkkd`rks, geckatks, dcstrcfucd`rks y kjpekod`s, ka kspkgcoe
g`a eo nukrzo dk vkatos. Ksto rkakm`gcogc÷a cageuyk ke rkg`a`gcjckat` dk quk eo g`jkrgcoeczo-
gc÷a oforgo oem` jïs quk eos vkatos< sup`ak g`a`gkr e`s gojfcoatks dksk`s dk e`s g`asujcd`-
rks, kan`gorsk ka kee`s p`r jkdc` dk eo pufecgcdod y eo pr`j`gc÷a, y prkvkr e`s j`vcjckat`s dk
eo g`jpktkagco.
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 7?
76 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a
Ka e`s cacgc`s dk uao kjprkso, p`r klkjpe`, eo ropcdkz g`a quk gojfco y su pkqukÿkz a` s÷e`
pkrjctka sca` quk rkquckrka uao joy`r kxcfcecdod y ua g`atr`e pkrs`aoe y gkrgoa` dke pr`pcktorc`.
Wca kjform`, ke grkgcjckat` mroduoe dk eo kjprkso `fecmorï o sus dcrkgtcv`s o dkekmor out`rcdod. G`a
kstk gojfc` dk mkstc÷a, dk dcrkggc÷a dcrkgto o prksupukst`s, pr`mrojos, scstkjo dk can`rjogc÷a,
dk kvoeuogc÷a dke dkskjpkÿ`, ktgãtkro, sk hofrï oegoazod` eo n`rjoeczogc÷a dk eo `rmoaczogc÷a
odjcacstrotcvo.
Dcgho n`rjoeczogc÷a sk `fskrvo s`frk t`d` guoad` eos kjprksos supkroa e`s guorkato ` jïs
kjpekod`s (JgAkcee, ?3=8< ?66), ks dkgcr, guoad` eo g`juacgogc÷a can`rjoe g`jckazo o pkrdkr su
kgogco y eo `rmoaczogc÷a dkfk rkkjpeozor ke ecdkrozm` dk uao pkrs`aoecdod nukrtk p`r ke dk uao
ogtcvcdod mkrkagcoe nukrtk. Eo hofcecdod mkrkagcoe hogk p`scfek posor dk uao ktopo o `tro, pkr` kso
troascgc÷a a` ks nïgce, skmüa ua kstudc` dk ?384 rkoeczod` p`r eo Wjoee Fuscakss Odjcacstrotc`a (WFO)
dk Kstod`s [acd`s. Ke Oaïecscs dk eo WFO dkstogo uao frusgo goêdo ka ke aüjkr` dk kjprksos quk
kjpekoa o jïs dk vkcatk kjpekod`s, g`j` sk jukstro ka ke guodr` 6.4.
Kstrot`s ? 6 7 4 ; >
Kstrot`s ? 6 7 4 ; > =
[a vcstoz` o eos gcnros dke guodr` 6.; jukstro quk hoy uao rïpcdo dcsjcaugc÷a dke aüjkr` dk
kjprksos quk kjpekoa o jïs dk vkcatk pkrs`aos.
Mkakroecdodks s`frk peoakogc÷a 77
ka ke posod` g`a su joakro dk klkrgkr eo mkrkagco eks cjpcdk catr`dugcr e`s gojfc`s akgksorc`s quk
dkjoado ke grkgcjckat`. [a klkjpe` ks ke ksnukrz` dk e`s pr`pcktorc`s poro dkekmor out`rcdod. Oe
prcagcpc` t`joa t`dos eos dkgcsc`aks cjp`rtoatks. G`j` rksuetod`, e`s kjpekod`s
kjpekod`s a` odquckrka eo
kxpkrckagco akgksorco poro dkgcdcr ac sk sckatka rksp`asofeks dk kee`. Dk ohê quk guoad` e`s pr`-
pcktorc`s catkatoa dkekmor eo t`jo dk dkgcsc`aks, eo cacgcotcvo sk trodugcrï ka ua nrogos`. Ka jughos
jughos
`gosc`aks e`s pr`fekjos sk ogrkgckatoa p`rquk e`s pr`pcktorc`s kspkroa quk ke ãxct` dk sus suf`rdc-
aod`s sko cajkdcot` y kspkgtogueor, pkr` a` e`s gopogctoa ac oeckatoa poro quk e` homoa. Tojp`g`
Tojp`g`
s`a g`amrukatks ka su joakro dk dkekmor, p`r e` quk e`s g`eof`rod`rks kvodka osujcr rksp`asofcec-
dodks, tkjkr`s`s dk quk e`s pr`pcktorc`s pukdoa skatcrsk dknroudod`s p`r su dkskjpkÿ`.
Ke pr`gkdcjckat` dk g`atrotogc÷a dk pkrs`aoe ks `tr` fuka klkjpe` dke j`d` ka quk e`s ãxct`s
posod`s ka `gosc`aks mkakroa joeks nutur`s. Ka ke orroaquk dk eo kjprkso, ke pr`pcktorc` fusgo
g`atrotor o sus porks< pkrs`aos dk eo jcsjo kdod o eo quk g`ascdkro toekat`so. E`s ãxct`s cacgcoeks dk
eo kjprkso porkgka g`arjor ke fuka grctkrc` dke pr`pcktorc`. O jkdcdo quk osgckadka ka eo kstrug-
turo `rmoaczogc`aoe, jughos vkgks g`a fosk ka eo ekoetod, p`g` o p`g` e`s pr`j`vcd`s oegoazoa o
su acvke dk cag`jpktkagco. Kst`s kjpekod`s quk camrksor`a oe prcagcpc` gorkgka dk g`a`gcjckat`s
pr`nksc`aoeks y dk eo kxpkrckagco akgksorco poro dcrcmcr uao pkqukÿo ` jkdcoao kjprkso, y g`a
nrkgukagco s`a p`g` hïfceks poro cjpekjkator gojfc`s. Wus dkgcsc`aks p`drêoa rkklor su noeto dk
kxpkrckagco. Wca kjform`, eo joy`rêo dk e`s pr`pcktorc`s, ka rktrcfugc÷a dk eo ekoetod dk kst`s kj-
pekod`s, roro vkz e`s dkspcdka ` g`atrotoa pkrs`aoe aukv` y g`a toekat` poro pukst`s cjp`rtoatks.
74 Gopêtue` 6. Mkakroecdodks s`frk eo peoakogc÷a
Mkakroecdodks s`frk eo peoakogc÷a 7;
?9.. Jkagc`ak
?9 trks ospkgt`s quk joackstka
joackstka eo cjp`rtoagco dk eos kstrotkmcos.