Tesis Rebeca Díez Antolínez
Tesis Rebeca Díez Antolínez
Tesis Rebeca Díez Antolínez
PRODUCCIÓN ECO-SOSTENIBLE DE
BIOCARBURANTES A PARTIR DE SUERO
LÁCTEO
En especial a mis directoras de tesis, sin ellas no hubiese sido posible. A María darle las gracias
por su orientación y supervisión continua, por enseñarme a dar carácter científico a mis ideas y
por el apoyo que siempre he recibido por su parte. A Xiomar agradecerle enormemente que
aceptase ser tutora y directora de este trabajo, por su ayuda constante, su aliento y supervisión.
Asimismo, quisiera agradecer a Antonio Morán las facilidades que siempre me ha puesto como
director del programa de doctorado, y lo fácil que es colaborar con él.
Quiero agradecer de un modo muy especial toda la ayuda que he recibido siempre de mis
compañeros del Centro de Biocombustibles y Bioproductos del Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de
Castilla y León, Ana, Raquel, Nuria, Gerardo y Jerson. Sin ellos tampoco hubiese sido posible.
Deseo dar las gracias al Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León por permitirme realizar
mi tesis doctoral.
También quiero dar las gracias a Óscar Esteban de Queserías Entrepinares SAU y a Noelia Puebla
de Quesería Artesanal del Río Carrión S.L., por su amabilidad y disposición a ayudarme, siempre
que ha sido necesario.
Índice General
Índice General ................................................................................................................................ I
Índice de Figuras........................................................................................................................... XI
1.6.2. Microorganismos......................................................................................................... 21
1.6.3. Sustratos...................................................................................................................... 21
I
1.7.2. Fermentación semi-continua o “fed-batch” ............................................................... 26
1.8.6. Adsorción..................................................................................................................... 43
Referencias .................................................................................................................................. 45
3.4.1.1. Etanol....................................................................................................................... 78
II
3.4.1.2. Butanol .................................................................................................................... 80
Referencias .................................................................................................................................. 94
4.1. Introduction..................................................................................................................... 98
III
4.2.2. Cell immobilization .................................................................................................... 100
4.3.3. Response surface (RSM) analysis for the optimization of immobilization parameters ..
................................................................................................................................... 104
References................................................................................................................................. 108
5. Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from
cheese whey permeate with high lactose loads ....................................................................... 111
5.2.4. Saccharomyces strains and lactose whey permeate hydrolysis optimization .......... 119
IV
5.2.5. Optimization of fermentation conditions ................................................................. 120
5.3.1. Kluyveromyces marxianus strains and fermentation media comparison ................. 123
5.3.2. Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains and fermentation media comparison ................. 125
V
6.2.3. Analytical methods .................................................................................................... 155
6.3.2. Effect of initial lactose concentration on YB/L yield and lactose consumption .......... 159
References................................................................................................................................. 161
7. In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of Butanol from Acetone-Butanol-Ethanol
(ABE) fermentation broths ........................................................................................................ 165
VI
Acknowledgments ..................................................................................................................... 178
References................................................................................................................................. 178
VII
Índice de Tablas
Tabla 1.1. Comparación de propiedades de distintos carburantes líquidos. ................................ 5
Tabla 3.1. Características químicas de los sueros utilizados como sustrato ............................... 74
Tabla 4.1. Fermentation results for T and pH0 evaluation (L0 = 120 g/L, time = 44 h). ............ 102
Tabla 4.2. Experimental central composite design (CCD) runs and responses. ........................ 104
Tabla 4.3. Analysis of variance- ANOVA- of the predicted models for Ef and (ΔL) responses .. 105
Tabla 5.1. Fermentation performance of S. cerevisiae CECT 1383, Ethanol Red ®, CECT 13152 and
Hércules in hydrolyzed CWP (Li = 140 g/L). Parameters: final ethanol concentration (Ef), sugar
consumption (ΔL), ethanol yield factor (YE/S), ethanol profit factor (πE), productivity (WE) and
ethanol yield conversion efficiency (ηE). ................................................................................... 126
Tabla 5.2. Experimental results of ethanol concentration (Ef), ethanol yield factor (YE/L), ethanol
profit factor (πE) and ethanol volumetric productivity (WE) according to a central composite
design employing K. marxianus DSM 5422 for the fermentation of CWP (Li = 132.5 g/L). ...... 127
Tabla 5.3.Experimental results of ethanol concentration (Ef), ethanol yield factor (YE/L), ethanol
profit factor (πE) and ethanol volumetric productivity (WE) according to a central composite
design employing S. cerevisiae Ethanol Red® for the fermentation of hydrolyzed CWP (Li = 132.5
g/L). ........................................................................................................................................... 129
Tabla 5.4. Comparison of mean fermentation parameters: Ethanol final concentration (Ef),
ethanol yield factor (YE/L), ethanol yield conversion efficiency (ηE), lactose consumption (ΔL),
ethanol profit factor (πE) and ethanol volumetric productivity (WE) for K. marxianus DSM 5422
during the 14 cycles employing CWP with lactose loads of 130 g/L and 170 g/L for glass Raschig
rings (GRR) and alumina beads (AB) supports. ......................................................................... 134
Tabla 6.1. Composition of the nanofiltered sheep cheese whey employed in the experiments.
................................................................................................................................................... 154
IX
Tabla 6.2. Independent variables included in the Plackett-Burman experimental design with their
respective minimum and maximum values, and effects of each independent variable on the
three response variables.. ......................................................................................................... 157
Tabla 6.3. Conditions of the RSM experiment. In the case of the RSM variables, axial values are
indicated. ................................................................................................................................... 158
Tabla 6.4. Fermentation results for different initial lactose concentrations. ........................... 160
Tabla 7.1. Gas stripping performance indicators for a synthetic aqueous medium (5 g/L A; 10 g/L
B; 1.67 g/L E) under optimal RSM conditions. Operation conditions: T feed = 60 °C, Gas flow =
1.34 L/min, T refrigeration = 5 °C. A: Acetone, B: Butanol, E: Ethanol. .................................... 174
Tabla 7.2. Gas stripping performance indicators for the fermentation broth (cheese whey with
C. beijerinckii CECT 508). Stripping conditions T feed = 60 °C, Gas flow = 1.34 L/min, T
refrigeration = 5 °C, t = 4 h. Initial concentrations (1st stripping): 3,02 g/L A; 12,04 g/L B; 0,23 g/L
E. Initial concentrations (2nd stripping): 4,71 g/L A; 9,63 g/L B; 0,29 g/L E. A: Acetone, B: Butanol;
E:Ethanol. .................................................................................................................................. 176
X
Índice de Figuras
Figura 1.1. Esquema de valorización fraccionada e integral de suero lácteo ............................... 7
Figura 1.4. Rutas metabólicas de la lactosa en Clostridium spp. (en el interior de las cajas se
muestran los compuestos extracelulares) .................................................................................. 20
Figura 1.10. Esquema de la recuperación de solventes por adsorción, incluyendo tanto el ciclo
de carga como el de regeneración. ............................................................................................. 44
Figura 3.1. Muestras de suero lácteo utilizados durante el proceso experimental: a) Suero 1
(suero ultrafiltrado) y b) Suero 2 (suero nanofiltrado). .............................................................. 73
Figura 3.2.Unidad experimental de filtración.de placas LabStak® M20 (Alfa Laval, Suiza) ........ 74
Figura 3.5.Proceso de producción de butanol a partir de suero lácteo por fermentación ABE con
C. beijerinckii CECT 508. a) Carrusel de fermentación con control de pH automático; b) Cabina de
XI
anaerobiosis; c) Reactor de fermentación pre (1) y post (2) fermentación y d) Cabina de
incubación con agitación controlada. ......................................................................................... 81
Figura 3.7. Imágenes de la inmovilización de células de K. marxianus DSM 5422 por atrapamiento
en geles de alginato: a) Instalación utilizada para la fabricación de los geles de alginato; b) Detalle
de las esferas de alginato. ........................................................................................................... 83
Figura 3.9. Configuración del sistema de extracción de gas utilizado en los experimentos: a)
Diagrama del sistema; b) fotografía del montaje de gas stripping. ............................................ 86
Figura 4.1. Effect of CWP lactose content on Ef, ΔL, η and WE variables. ................................. 103
Figura 4.2.Kinetic fermentation parmeters (Ef, ∆L, η and WE) at the end of each cycle. .......... 106
Figura 5.1. Fermentation performance of K. marxianus DSM 7239, DSM 5418, DSM 5422 and
DSM 70799 in concentrated synthetic medium (Li = 130 g/L). Parameters: final ethanol
concentration, ethanol yield conversion efficiency (ηE), lactose consumption (ΔL) and
productivity (WE). ...................................................................................................................... 123
Figura 5.3. Evolution of ethanol concentration during ethanol fermentation for inorganic
supports [glass Raschig rings (GRR), plastic Raschig rings (PRR), tygon Raschig rings (TRR) and
alumina beads (AB)] during 7 fermentation cycles (Li = 130 g/L) employing K. marxianus DSM
5422........................................................................................................................................... 131
Figura 5.4. Evolution of ethanol concentration employing K. marxianus DSM 5422 on inorganic
supports [glass Raschig rings (GRR) and alumina beads (AB)] during 14 fermentation cycles (Li=
130 g/L). .................................................................................................................................... 132
XII
Figura 5.5. Evolution of ethanol concentration employing K. marxianus DSM 5422 on inorganic
supports [glass Raschig rings (GRR) and alumina beads (AB)] during 14 fermentation cycles (Li=
170 g/L). .................................................................................................................................... 132
Figura 6.1. Contour plots for butanol production in the RSM experimental design................. 158
Figura 7.1. Setup diagram of the gas stripping system used in the experiments ..................... 171
Figura 7.2. a) Dynamic evolution of ABE solvent concentration in the condensate during second-
stage gas stripping; b) Dynamic evolution of ABE solvents recovery during second-stage gas
stripping. ................................................................................................................................... 175
Figura 7.3. Evolution of ABE fermentation by C. beijerinckii in a fed-batch system with cheese
whey during two gas stripping/resting cycles. Stripping conditions T feed = 60 °C, Gas flow = 1.34
L/min, T refr = 5 °C, t = 4 h. ....................................................................................................... 177
XIII
Resumen
El suero lácteo, principal subproducto del procesado de leche y queso, supone un gran
desafío para el sector lácteo, tanto por los elevados volúmenes generados, como por su
elevada carga orgánica. A este desafío en su gestión debe sumarse una legislación
medioambiental cada vez más restrictiva para su disposición final.
XIV
la productividad del proceso. Para ello, se emplearon tecnologías eficientes de
fermentación como son las fermentaciones a alta densidad (conocidas por sus siglas en
inglés, VHG, Very High Gravity) combinadas con inmovilización celular mediante
atrapamiento en esferas de alginato y adsorción sobre soportes inertes. Además, se han
planteado estrategias de recuperación in situ de solventes como el arrastre de vapor o
gas stripping, en una o dos etapas, para mejorar el consumo energético del proceso de
recuperación y purificación, incidiendo positivamente en la viabilidad global.
XV
comportamiento más estable a lo largo del tiempo, con rendimientos medios de etanol
del 6% (v/v) en un régimen continuo durante más de 40 días (1.000 horas).
XVI
Abstract
Whey, the main by-product of milk and cheese processing, is a great challenge for the
dairy sector, due to the huge volumes generated and its high organic load, along with an
increasingly restrictive environmental legislation for its management and disposal.
Whey is an important source of nutrients, mainly lactose and proteins. A part of these
nutrients, particularly milk proteins, are recovered and newly reintroduced into the food
chain. However, about half of the generated whey is not valorized and it is managed by
the dairy industries as a residual stream, wasting its valuable nutrients. Likewise, during
the recovery process of milk proteins, high volumes of whey permeate are generated as
by-product stream. Whey permeate is an effluent enriched in most of the solid nutrients
present in whey, mainly lactose, whose uncontrolled disposal generates a problem similar
to that of whey, regarding the volume generated and the pollutant load. The inefficient
reuse of these resources has serious environmental, economic and sustainability
implications.
The production of advanced oxygenated biofuels, such as ethanol and butanol, through
fermentation processes for the conversion of lactose present in whey and whey
permeate, is an interesting valorization alternative of the main by-product of dairy
industry. However, to guarantee the commercial viability of these bioprocesses, it is
crucial to improve the yield and the productivity of fermentations. Final solvent titers
must be increased in fermentation broths to reduce the high costs of recovery. Therefore,
microbial osmotolerance, to both substrates and products, must be increased, while, less
energy intensive online solvent recovery and purification technologies have to be
proposed. Moreover, it is necessary to work on reducing fermentation time to improve
the productivity and therefore, the overall economic process viability.
XVII
purpose is to obtain a higher concentration of alcohol (ethanol/butanol) in the
fermentation broth and to maximize lactose consumption to improve the process from
an environmental and economic point of view. In addition, research was done on the
setting of in-line recovery strategies for solvents, such as gas-stripping in one or two
stages aiming at reducing the energy demand of the recovery and purification step,
thereby improving the viability of the global process.
After that, the ability of producing ethanol using four yeast strains of the species K.
marxianus and four strains of the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae was evaluated. A
strain of each yeast species was selected and the operating conditions (temperature, pH
and time) were optimized through experimental design by RSM in discontinuous
conditions. The strain K. marxianus DSM 5422 showed the best fermentative behavior,
obtaining 6% (v/v) of ethanol in just 44 hours of fermentation using whey with a lactose
load of 130 g/L as substrate. In the next step, this strain was immobilized by adsorption
on four low-cost inert supports (glass, plastic and Tygon® Raschig rings and alumina
spheres) and performance over time was assessed. The best result was obtained by
immobilizing the yeast on glass Raschig rings and alumina pearls, with average ethanol
titers of 6.% (v/v) in a continuous configuration for more than 40 days (1.000 hours).
Similarly, the previous work regarding alcoholic fermentation, the use of Plackett-Burman
and RSM experimental design for evaluating the effect of essential nutrients for the
XVIII
production of butanol with the strain Clostridium beijerinckii CECT 508 was tested. In this
work, fermentation yields close to the theoretical threshold were obtained, working with
whey having an initial lactose concentration of 40 g/L, reaching butanol concentrations in
the broth of 8.9 g/L.
Finally, a continuous ABE fermentation combined with an in-line butanol recovery gas-
stripping system, in one and two consecutive stages, was proposed. Operating conditions
were optimized using RSM. By employing a two-stage gas-stripping configuration, a highly
enriched-in-butanol condensate was obtained (30 – 36% v/v), reducing the energy
demand of the dehydration stage during purification. Under the optimal recovery
conditions (T feeding of 60 °C), bacteria were able to recover from temperature stress and
produce butanol again, although the process affected the fermentation performance of
the subsequent cycles.
Future research activities would focus on analyzing the ability of producing butanol from
other commercial strains of Clostridium, as well as optimizing the immobilization of
bacteria on inert supports in discontinuous processes in a first stage and in continuous
processes integrating biofilm reactors with solvent recovery in situ by gas-stripping using
a two-phase configuration in a second stage. Moreover, it is necessary to evaluate the
efficiency and cost of the overall ABE fermentation process on a demonstrative scale to
determine its commercial viability.
XIX
Abreviaturas / Abbreviations
AB Alumina bead (Esferas de alúmina)
AK Acetoquinasa
BK Butiratoquinasa
CE Comisión Europea
CoA Coenzima A
XXI
DFA Dairy Farmers of America (Ganaderos Lácteos de América)
DO Densidad Óptica
EMP Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas
ENO Enolasa
FGM Fosfoglucomutasa
HK Hexoquinasa
XXII
L-L Líquido-Líquido
NF Nanofiltrado
OE Objetivos Específicos
PDMS Polidimetilsiloxano
PHA Polihidroxialcanoato
PFK Fosfofructoquinasa
PTA Fosfotransacetilasa
PTB Fosfotransbutirilasa
XXIII
SGBA Subgrupo de Trabajo de Biocarburantes Avanzados
UF Ultrafiltrado
XXIV
1. Introducción y Antecedentes
Introducción y Antecedentes
1.1. Biocarburantes
Existe una creciente concienciación sobre el cambio climático y sus graves impactos. Por
este motivo, en 2015, a través del Acuerdo de París dentro de la Convención Marco de las
Naciones Unidas sobre el Cambio Climático (CMNUCC), se acordó limitar el aumento de
la temperatura media mundial con respecto a la época preindustrial en menos de 2 °C
(ONU, 2015a). Ante este nuevo escenario, la UE se ha comprometido a reducir sus
emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero (GEIs), principalmente CO2, entre un 80% y un
95% con respecto a los niveles de 1990, antes de 2050, como parte del esfuerzo colectivo
de los países desarrollados (CE, 2018a). A través del acuerdo "Chile-Madrid Tiempo de
Actuar" dentro de la 25ª Conferencia de las Partes (COP25) del Clima de Naciones Unidas,
se concluye que es necesrio aumentar la ambición por parte de los países para responder
a la emergencia climática actual. Se reconoce la trasversalidad de la lucha por el cambio
climático en todos los sectores de la sociedad y la dimensión social del problema,
centrando la respuesta a la crisis climática en las personas (ONU, 2019).
El sector del transporte consume un tercio del total de la energía utilizada en la UE-28 y
genera el 25% de los GEIs (Bertoldi et al., 2018). Por lo tanto, para alcanzar los objetivos
acordados es imprescindible reducir al menos dos tercios las actuales emisiones de CO2
en el sector de transporte (EEA, 2018). Por subsectores, el transporte por carretera genera
el 73% del total, representando los vehículos ligeros el 44,5% frente al 18,8% de los
vehículos pesados (EEA, 2018). En la actual economía globalizada, el transporte de bienes
y personas es imprescindible. Por ello, la búsqueda de soluciones sostenibles y menos
contaminantes que contribuyan a la descarbonización del sector es esencial.
El uso de la electricidad es una alternativa prometedora para reducir las emisiones de CO2
(Yabe et al., 2012). Sin embargo, los biocarburantes siguen siendo la alternativa
energética más viable para reducir dichas emisiones (Ahlgren et al., 2017). De acuerdo al
modelo de movilidad desarrollado por la Agencia Internacional de la Energía (AIE) para
cumplir con el acuerdo de París, el 30,7% de la energía en el transporte provendrá de los
biocarburantes, seguido de la electricidad, con una contribución del 27%. Para cubrir esta
futura demanda, la producción de biocarburantes debería multiplicarse por diez (Oh et
al., 2018).
3
Capítulo 1.
La nueva Directiva Europea Renovable “REDII” (CE, 2018b) fija un porcentaje de energía
de fuentes renovables en el mix energético europeo del 32% para el año 2030,
especificando la necesidad de incrementar la cuota de renovables en sectores difusos
como el transporte, la calefacción y la refrigeración. En materia de biocombustibles, se
establece la eliminación gradual del uso de biocombustibles que provoquen un cambio
indirecto en el uso del suelo y el impulso de biocombustibles, denominados “avanzados”.
4
Introducción y Antecedentes
5
Capítulo 1.
lípidos (0,4 – 0,5% p/v) y sales minerales (8 – 10% de extracto seco) (De Jesus et al., 2015).
La composición y el tipo de suero dependerán del origen de la leche (cabra, oveja, vaca,
búfala, etc.), el tipo de queso elaborado y la tecnología de producción empleada (De Wit,
2001; Pescuma et al., 2015).
6
Introducción y Antecedentes
7
Capítulo 1.
Cuando se plantea una valorización fraccionada de nutrientes, una de las primeras etapas
es la recuperación de la fracción proteica. El suero contiene alrededor del 20% de las
proteínas de la leche, con un elevado valor nutricional y un importante potencial
terapéutico. La tecnología de membrana (ultrafiltración y diafiltración) es el método de
separación más utilizado, recuperando concentrados de proteína de suero con múltiples
aplicaciones en la industria alimentaria (Cheryan y Alvarez, 1995; Gonzalez-Siso, 1996) y
no alimentaria, incluyendo productos cosméticos y farmacéuticos. Del proceso de
separación de las proteínas, se generan como subproducto grandes cantidades de
permeado de suero, una corriente rica en lactosa, que contiene más del 70% del total de
sólidos presentes en el suero. Esta corriente es la principal responsable de los problemas
de vertido, tanto por los volúmenes generados como por su elevada carga contaminante,
generando un problema ambiental similar al del lactosuero (Prazeres et al., 2012;
Pescuma et al., 2015; Parashar et al., 2016; Ahmad et al., 2019).
La lactosa es el azúcar presente en la leche. Este disacárido está formado por una
molécula de glucosa y una molécula de galactosa, y se define químicamente como O-β-D-
galactopiranosil-(1→4)- β-D-glucopiranosa, C6H22O11 (Adam et al., 2005; Gänzle et al.,
2008). Casi la totalidad de la lactosa se recupera por cristalización. Sin embargo, la
demanda de lactosa purificada representa sólo el 5% del total de suero disponible (Adam
et al., 2005). La lactosa purificada se utiliza fundamentalmente como ingrediente
alimentario, para la formulación de alimentos infantiles, agente de relleno o
recubrimiento en la industria farmacéutica. También puede emplearse como sustrato
para la producción de derivados de la lactosa como lactulosa, lactitol o ácido lactobiónico
(Nooshkam et al., 2018) o el desarrollo de hidrolizados de lactosa (Gänzle et al., 2008).
Otra importante aplicación de la lactosa presente en el lactosuero o en el permeado de
suero es su uso como sustrato de procesos fermentativos para la obtención de
bioproductos de alto valor añadido (Yadav et al., 2015; Ahmad et al., 2019).
8
Introducción y Antecedentes
9
Capítulo 1.
bioetanol se produce por vía fermentativa a partir de materias primas agrícolas tanto de
origen amiláceo (60%), maíz y trigo, fundamentalmente, como de azúcares simples
procedentes de la caña de azúcar o la remolacha (40%) (Vohra et al., 2014). Entre las
principales aplicaciones del etanol están su uso como carburante (> 80%), la industria
química (10%) y la industria alimentaria (9%). El principal productor mundial de etanol es
EE.UU. (58% de la producción total), obtenido en un 98% a partir de grano de maíz,
seguido de Brasil (28% del total de la producción) a partir de caña de azúcar (OCDE, 2018)
y la UE-28, con una producción del 5,4% del total, obtenido fundamentalmente a partir
de maíz (43%), trigo (26%) y jugos azucarados (21%) (ePure, 2019).
10
Introducción y Antecedentes
Los procesos continuos ofrecen importantes ventajas frente a los procesos discontinuos,
como la mejora de los rendimientos de fermentación, la reducción de los tiempos de
procesamiento y las pérdidas de producto (Gabardo et al., 2014; Li et al., 2014). La
inmovilización celular es una estrategia muy interesante para mejorar la productividad,
ya que aumenta la estabilidad microbiana, al proteger a los microorganismos de
inhibiciones y variaciones ambientales, a la vez que permite trabajar con reactores de
menor tamaño y disminuir los tiempos de reacción y de latencia durante el crecimiento
microbiano, lo cual contribuye a reducir los costes de operación (Mussatto et al., 2010; Es
et al., 2015). No obstante, para el diseño de procesos de fermentación empleando
permeado lácteo concentrado es imprescindible establecer un compromiso entre
maximizar la producción y la productividad del proceso con el consumo de lactosa;
11
Capítulo 1.
12
Introducción y Antecedentes
Figura 1.2. Ruta metabólica de fermentación de lactosa a etanol (Adaptado de: Frey,
1996; Rubio-Teixeira, 2006; Bai et al., 2008).
Las enzimas: HK: hexoquinasa, UDP-galactosa: uridina difosfato lactosa, PGI: fosfoglicosa
isómerasa, PFK: fosfofrutoquinasa, FBPA: fructosa-bifosfato aldolasa, TPI: triosa-fosfato
isomerasa, GAPDH: gliceraldeído-3-fosfato deshidrogenasa, PGK: fosfoglicerato quinasa,
PGM: fosfoglicerato mutasa, ENO: enolasa, PYK: piruvato quinasa, PDC: piruvato
descarboxilasa, ADH: alcohol deshidrogenasa.
13
Capítulo 1.
Múltiples estrategias han sido evaluadas para obtener etanol a partir de lactosa
empleando tanto K. marxianus como S. cerevisiae. Como sustratos de fermentación se
han empleado, tanto lactosuero crudo (Zafar y Owais, 2006; Sansonetti et al., 2009;
Gabardo et al., 2014) como diversos subproductos, incluyendo el suero en polvo
reconstituido (Kargi y Ozmihci, 2006; Ozmihci y Kargi, 2007; Dragone et al., 2011) y el
permeado de suero (Silveira et al., 2005; Diniz et al., 2013). La suplementación con
nutrientes esenciales del suero o el permeado de suero no es necesaria cuando se trabaja
con K. marxianus al tratarse de un sustrato rico en macro y micro-nutrientes (Gabardo et
al., 2014). Sin embargo, algunos autores consideran esencial la adición de nutrientes
esenciales como nitrógeno y fósforo, así como algunas vitaminas, que favorecen el
crecimiento celular, el consumo de lactosa y aumentan la producción de etanol (Parrondo
et al., 2009). Con el objeto de mejorar el rendimiento del proceso fermentativo, distintas
configuraciones de reacción han sido evaluadas, en procesos discontinuos (Ghaly y El-
Taweel, 1995; Zafar y Owais, 2006; Sansonetti et al., 2009) y en biorreactores continuos
con inmovilización celular bajo diversos soportes (Ozmihci y Kargi, 2008, 2009; Sansonetti
et al., 2013; Gabardo et al., 2014, 2015).
A pesar de los trabajos científicos publicados, hay pocas instalaciones que produzcan
etanol a partir de suero lácteo o sus subproductos. La primera planta industrial de
producción de etanol a partir de suero de leche fue construida en 1978 por el grupo
Carbery Milk Products Ltd. en Irlanda para producir etanol tanto para uso alimentario
14
Introducción y Antecedentes
como para uso biocarburante, con una producción anual en torno a los 11 millones de
litros (www.carbery.com). El proceso Carbery, consistente en la fermentación de
permeado de suero desproteinizado utilizando K. marxianus para la fermentación de
lactosa, fue trasladado a Nueva Zelanda y Estados Unidos. En Estados Unidos hay dos
plantas de etanol a partir de suero de escala industrial construidas en la década de 1980
y operadas por la cooperativa láctea Dairy Farmers of America (DFA), con una producción
de aproximadamente 30 millones de litros anuales (http://www.dfamilk.com). En 2007,
el grupo cooperativo Fonterra a través de su división Anchor Ethanol Ltd., comenzó a
comercializar 17 millones de litros de etanol anuales para su uso en la industria cosmética,
farmacéutica y química (https://www.fonterra.com/nz/en.html). Asimismo, el grupo
Theo Müller, comenzó a operar en 2007 una planta de producción de bioetanol a partir
de sus residuos lácteos, con una producción de 10 millones de litros anuales en Alemania
(https://www.muellergroup.com/).
Una alternativa efectiva para aliviar los efectos de una elevada presión osmótica sobre las
levaduras es la de suplementar el medio de cultivo con diversos nutrientes, tales como
amonio, urea, extracto de levadura o harina de soja, los cuales mejoran la viabilidad y la
15
Capítulo 1.
tasa de crecimiento celular, así como la tasa de producción de etanol (Deesuth et al.,
2015; Phukoetphim et al., 2017), aunque se encarezca el proceso.
Para reducir los costes de producción es imprescindible trabajar con sustratos de bajo
coste y utilizar suplementos nutricionales de nitrógeno baratos. Además, la selección de
cepas osmotolerantes altamente productoras de etanol y el establecimiento de
estrategias de control también resultan recomendables (Puligundla et al., 2019). El uso de
técnicas de inmovilización celular está ampliamente documentado como un método
efectivo para evitar inhibiciones, tanto por sustrato como por producto. Por lo tanto, la
combinación de ambas técnicas permitirá mejorar el rendimiento de la fermentación
consiguiendo un proceso más eficiente y sostenible.
En los años 1950, la fermentación ABE fue drásticamente desplazada por la industria
petroquímica, la cual producía grandes cantidades de acetona y butanol a precios muy
bajos. Esto unido a la escalada de precios de los sustratos de fermentación de origen
alimentario (Green, 2011) ocasionó que dicha fermentación a nivel industrial fuese
16
Introducción y Antecedentes
Para tratar de reducir estas limitaciones, la investigación actual se dirige hacia la mejora
global del proceso mediante el empleo de sustratos más baratos, el uso de las cepas
microbianas más adecuadas para cada sustrato, el empleo de técnicas de mejora genética
microbiana y la utilización de estrategias de recuperación de productos más eficientes
(Ranjan y Moholkar, 2012; Kujawska et al., 2015; Becerra et al., 2015).
Ni y Sun (2009) listaron once empresas dedicadas a la producción de butanol por vía
fermentativa en la República Popular China, además de dos proyectos en ejecución y dos
proyectos en planificación. Otro proyecto comercial destacado es el de Saudi Butanol
Company (SABUCO) que produce en Arabia Saudí, desde 2016, anualmente 330.000
toneladas de butanol y 11.000 toneladas de iso-butanol
(https://www.saharapcc.com/en/pages.aspx?pageid=52). En fase de diseño o
construcción hay proyectos como el de SGBio Renewable [Joint Venture entre GranBio
(Brasil) y Rhodia (Bélgica], que ha adquirido la empresa de base tecnológica americana
Cobalt para el desarrollo de instalaciones en Brasil y Estados Unidos o el de Green
Biologist (Reino Unido) que ha adquirido la cooperativa Central MN Ethanol en Minnesota
(Estados Unidos) para transformar la instalación y producir 65.000 toneladas/año de
butanol.
17
Capítulo 1.
18
Introducción y Antecedentes
19
Capítulo 1.
Figura 1.4. Rutas metabólicas de la lactosa en Clostridium spp. (en el interior de las cajas se muestran los compuestos extracelulares)
(Adaptado de: Napoli, 2009; Corrales et al., 2015 y Zhang et al., 2018).
Las enzimas: HK: hexoquinasa, UDP-galactosa: uridina difosfato galactosa, FGM: Fosfoglucomutasa, PGI: fosfoglicosa isómerasa, PFK:
fosfofrutoquinasa, GAPDH: gliceraldeído-3-fosfato deshidrogenasa, PGK: fosfoglicerato quinasa, PGM: fosfoglicerato mutasa, ENO: enolasa, LDH:
Lactato deshidrogenasa, ALDH: aldehído deshidrogenasa, ADH: alcohol deshidrogenasa, PTA: fosfotransacetilasa, AK: Acetatoquinasa, CoAT: CoA
transferasa, HBD: hidroxibutiril-CoA deshidrogenasa, BCD: Butiril-CoA deshidrogenasa, ETF: Flavoproteína de transferencia de electrones, PTB:
Fosfotransbutirilasa; BK: Butiratoquinasa, BADH: Butiraldehido deshidrogenasa y BDH: Butanol deshidrogenasa.
20
Introducción y Antecedentes
1.6.2. Microorganismos
Varias especies del género Clostridium tienen la capacidad de metabolizar compuestos
orgánicos, incluyendo azúcares, aminoácidos, ácidos orgánicos o polialcoholes, en
determinadas condiciones de operación para producir acetona, butanol, isopropanol y
etanol durante la última fase de la fermentación. Sin embargo, relativamente pocas
especies (incluyendo los mutantes de las especies más conocidas) se usan a nivel
industrial (Dürre, 1998). Tras exhaustivos estudios taxonómicos, las cepas de interés
industrial se clasificaron en cuatro especies: C. acetobutylicum, C. beijerinckii, C.
saccharoperbutylacetonicum y C. saccharobutylicum (Mitchell et al., 1997; Karakashev
et al., 2007). La especie C. acetobutylicum es la más adecuada para sustratos a base de
almidón, mientras que las especies C. saccharobutylicum y C. beijerinckii presentan un
mejor comportamiento con otros sustratos, como la biomasa lignocelulósica (Shaheen
et al., 2000).
1.6.3. Sustratos
El precio de las materias primas tiene una gran influencia en la competitividad global de
la fermentación ABE frente a los procesos petroquímicos. Se estima que el coste de los
sustratos representa más del 70% del total de los costes de producción (Gu et al., 2011).
21
Capítulo 1.
Inicialmente, los sustratos empleados eran jugos azucarados y almidones, pero su alto
precio hace que el proceso sea inviable económicamente (Visioli et al., 2014).
Una de las estrategias para reducir los costes de producción es utilizar sustratos más
económicos y sostenibles ambientalmente, tales como los residuos agrarios (Qureshi et
al., 2010 a, b; Paniagua-Garcia et al., 2018; Hijosa-Valsero et al., 2020) y
agroalimentarios (Hijosa-Valsero et al., 2017, 2018, 2019; Wechgama et al., 2017) o
suero lácteo (Becerra et al., 2015). Las cepas de Clostridium no pueden usar
directamente el material lignocelulósico como fuente de carbono. Por este motivo, esta
biomasa debe ser hidrolizada para obtener azúcares de cinco y seis átomos de carbono
que pueden ser metabolizados por este grupo bacteriano; este paso de hidrólisis
dificulta la viabilidad económica de los procesos fermentativos (Sarangi et al., 2018).
Múltiples derivados y subproductos del suero lácteo han sido investigados, desde polvo
de suero ácido (Schoutens et al., 1985; Qureshi y Maddox, 1995, 2005; Maddox et al.,
1995); permeado de suero ácido (Ennis y Maddox, 1985; Qureshi y Maddox, 1987) y
medios sintéticos con diversas concentraciones de lactosa (Napoli et al., 2010, 2011).
Sin embargo, apenas hay publicaciones que utilicen suero crudo, con rendimientos de
fermentación muy bajos (Foda et al., 2010).
22
Introducción y Antecedentes
23
Capítulo 1.
24
Introducción y Antecedentes
Los tres procesos básicos de fermentación son la fermentación discontinua por lotes o
en “batch”, la fermentación semi-continua o “fed-batch” y la fermentación continua
(Figura 1.5)
25
Capítulo 1.
26
Introducción y Antecedentes
27
Capítulo 1.
28
Introducción y Antecedentes
Los procesos de inmovilización celular consisten en confinar las células en una estructura
física que las obligue a permanecer en una determinada región espacial, preservando su
actividad catalítica (Karel et al., 1985). Las tecnologías de inmovilización más comunes
son la adsorción, el atrapamiento y la formación de enlaces covalentes (Nuñez y Lema,
1987). Las técnicas de atrapamiento y formación de enlaces covalentes requieren el
empleo de sustancias químicas que en muchas ocasiones interfieren en la propagación
o crecimiento celular en el reactor y aumentan los costes de operación.
29
Capítulo 1.
2004; Eş et al., 2015). Sin embargo, las técnicas de inmovilización celular también
presentan desventajas, como una disminución de la accesibilidad del sustrato,
alteraciones en la conformación y la actividad del biocatalizador y problemas de estrés
en el biocatalizador, además de costosos sistemas de reacción (Eş et al., 2015).
Los soportes inorgánicos presentan ciertas ventajas sobre los soportes orgánicos, al ser
fáciles de manejar, estables, reutilizables, esterilizables con vapor y baratos. Además, no
requieren pretratamientos previos como la deslignificación o la derivatización, lo que
simplifica los procesos de inmovilización (Gonçalves et al., 1992; Genisheva et al., 2011).
Sobre los soportes pueden adherirse células microbianas para producir compuestos
químicos, tal y como ocurre con la fermentación ABE o la fermentación alcohólica, en
estructuras de biopelícula o biofilm. Las biopelículas se desarrollan en cinco etapas tal y
como se muestra en la Figura 1.6. Hay una etapa inicial de fijación, seguida de una etapa
de unión irreversible, al generarse sustancias poliméricas extracelulares (SPE), una etapa
de desarrollo, seguida de una etapa de maduración de la arquitectura de las biopelículas
y una etapa final de liberación de células del biofilm (Stoodley et al., 2002). La capa SPE
ejerce como nexo de unión del microorganismo con la superficie, protegiendo a las
células de tensiones mecánicas o toxicidades por compuestos químicos o
microorganismos. Sin embargo, la capa SPE es una barrera a los nutrientes necesarios
para el crecimiento de las células, generando un microambiente en la biopelícula muy
diferente del microambiente del medio de fermentación (Karaguler et al., 2017).
30
Introducción y Antecedentes
31
Capítulo 1.
Tabla 1.2. Recopilación bibliográfica de obtención de etanol en procesos con inmovilización celular
Sustrato Levadura Soporte/Tipo bioreactor YE/S (g/g) QE (g/L·h) η (%) Referencia
Suero hidrolizado/ K.marxianus CCT4086 Alginato/ RLFl 0,49/0,47 1,68/1,39 96,0/90,2 Gabardo et al., 2015
Permeado suero S. cerevisiae
hidrolizado CAT-1 0,44/0,35 0,78/0,32 86,0/68,4
(L=56 g/L) PE-2 0,43/0,36 0,78/0,31 83,6/70,4
CAT-1/CCT48086 0,44/0,40 1,32/1,30 86,0/79,2
Permeado de suero K. marxianus Alginato/ RLFl Gabardo et al., 2014
(L=90 g/L) CBS 6556 0,45 1,96 83,6
CCT4086 0,47 2,53 89,2
CCT2653 0,33 0,75 61,8
Suero K. marxianus TY-3 Alginato/ RLFl 0,34 0,68 63,1 Guo et al., 2010
(L=100 g/L) S. cerevisiae
TY-3/ AY-5 (mezcla) 0,43 0,88 79,9
TY-3/AY-5 (co-inmovilizado) 0,42 0,85 77,0
Suero K. marxianus Alginato/ RLFl
(L=60 g/L) CCT 6556 0,45 0,96 83,3 Gabardo et al., 2012
CCT 4086 0,43 0,81 79,1
CCT 2653 0,45 0,84 73,3
Suero en polvo K. marxianus DSMZ-7239 Pepita aceituna/ RLF 0,52 -- Ozmihci y Kargi, 2008
(L=100 g/L)
Medio sintético K. fragilis NRRL 665 Alginato 0,36 0,74 51,7 Gunasekaran et al., 1991
(L=150 g/L) Zymomonas mobilis
NRRL B4286 0,44 0,88 61,9
665/B4286 (mezcla) 0,47 0,89 62,9
665/B4286 (co-inmovilización) 0,47 1,0 70,0
Permeado de suero K. marxianus NCYC 179 Alginato/ carragenina 0,43 - 82,2 Marwaha y Kennedy, 1984
(L=100 g/L)
RLFl = Reactor de lecho fluidizado; RLF = Reactor de lecho fijo; YE/S = rendimiento etanol-sustrato; QE = Productividad; ɳ = Rendimiento porcentual de
fermentación; L = concentración de lactosa.
32
Introducción y Antecedentes
Tabla 1.3. Recopilación bibliográfica de obtención de butanol en procesos con inmovilización celular
Sustrato Bacteria Soporte/Tipo biorreactor YB/S (g/g) QB (g/L·h] CABE (g/L) Referencia
Medio sintético C. acetobutylicum DSM 792 Anillos de Tygon ®/ RLF (4 0,18 9,2 15,0 Raganati et al., 2016
(L= 100 g/L) en serie)
Medio sintético C. acetobutylicum DSM 792 Bioreactor de membrana 0,15 0,5 5,62 Procentese et al., 2015
(L= 50 g/L) de microfiltracion
Suero lácteo C. acetobutylicum DSM 792 Anillos de Tygon®/ RLF 0,26 2,7 6,01 Raganati et al., 2013
(L= 28 g/L)
Medio sintético C. acetobutylicum DSM 792 Silicagel, arena, bolas de 0,88 4,4 5,19 Napoli et al., 2010
(L=30 g/L) cristal, Anillos de teflón,
anillos de PVC, anillos de
Tygon ®/ RLF
Permeado de suero C. acetobutylicum P262 Hueso/ RLF + 0,22 2,0 3,59 Friedl et al., 1991
(L=60-160 g/L) pervaporacion
Permeado de suero C. acetobutylicum P262A Bioreactor de membrana -- -- 7,13 Ennis y Maddox, 1989
(L=50 g/L) de microfiltración
Permeado de suero C. acetobutylicum P262 Carbón vegetal/ RLF 0,23 4,1 4,1 Qureshi y Maddox, 1987
(L=45-50 g/L)
Permeado de suero C. beyerinckii LMD 27.6 Alginato/RLFl -- 0,5-1,0 2,1 (B) Schoutens et al., 1985
(L= 37 g/L)
RLFl=Reactores de lecho fluidizado; RLF=Reactor de lecho fijo; YB/S = rendimiento butanol-sustrato; QB = Productividad butanol; CABE = concentración de
solventes ABE (Acetona-Etanol-Butanol); L = concentración de lactosa.
33
Capítulo 1.
Por otro lado, tanto en la fermentación alcohólica como en la fermentación ABE, a partir
de ciertas concentraciones de solventes se observan importantes inhibiciones
microbianas. Así, en el caso de la fermentación alcohólica, las levaduras comienzan a
sufrir inhibiciones a partir del 5% (p/p) de etanol que se intensifican a partir del 10%
(p/p) de etanol (Vane, 2008). Con concentraciones de butanol entre 1 – 2% (p/p), se
observan importantes inhibiciones en el crecimiento bacteriano debido a las
interacciones con la membrana plasmática (Kumar y Gayen, 2011), lo cual supone una
limitación importante para la generación de butanol por vía fermentativa. Para solventar
este problema, se trabaja tanto en la obtención de cepas bacterias más tolerantes al
butanol mediante ingeniería genética como en el empleo de tecnologías de
recuperación in situ de los solventes generados en el reactor a medida que se produce.
34
Introducción y Antecedentes
1.8.1. Destilación
Tanto el etanol como el butanol presentan un Equilibrio Líquido-Vapor (ELV) favorable
en soluciones acuosas para la concentración de los alcoholes en la fase vapor. A presión
atmosférica, el etanol forma un azeótropo con agua al 95,6% de etanol a 78,2 °C (Weast,
1988). Por encima del azeótropo, la volatilidad relativa del etanol es muy baja. Como el
etanol para uso carburante requiere una pureza del 99,7% (p/p) (EN 15489 y EN 15692),
está aceptado industrialmente el empleo de técnicas de adsorción por tamiz molecular
para la deshidratación del alcohol.
35
Capítulo 1.
36
Introducción y Antecedentes
El arrastre de vapor permite obtener alcoholes de gran pureza, a pesar de ser una
técnica poco selectiva, ya que la separación está regida por el equilibrio líquido-vapor.
No obstante, el contacto contracorriente entre el caldo de fermentado y el gas de
arrastre incrementa el área de contacto y, por tanto, la velocidad de recuperación.
Además, el uso del propio gas generado de la fermentación como gas de arrastre
permite mejorar la economía del proceso.
37
Capítulo 1.
38
Introducción y Antecedentes
permite reducir hasta un 66% el consumo energético (Xue et al., 2014). Asimismo, Xue
et al. (2014) han documentado que el uso de un proceso in situ de recuperación
mediante gas-stripping en dos fases, permite obtener un condensado con una
concentración de butanol 26 veces superior a la del caldo de fermentación. En este
proceso, se obtiene un condensado con una elevada concentración de butanol [51,5%
(p/v) y 67,1% (p/v) de solventes ABE], a partir de un caldo de fermentación con una
concentración de butanol del 1% (p/v). Por lo tanto, el proceso de gas-stripping en dos
fases permite reducir al menos en un 50% el consumo energético (7 – 15 MJ/kg butanol)
del producto recuperado (Xue et al., 2014). Por lo tanto, los procesos de fermentación
integrados con recuperación in situ de butanol son una alternativa viable desde un
punto de vista energético y económico para la producción de butanol (Xue et al., 2013).
39
Capítulo 1.
intermedios de fermentación. Por otra parte, el extractante debe presentar una elevada
tensión interfacial con el agua para facilitar la separación, una baja viscosidad, una
mínima solubilidad en agua, una alta estabilidad térmica, ser fácilmente regenerado,
biodegradable y presentar una diferencia de densidad elevada, para facilitar la
operación en contracorriente (Huang et al., 2014). Entre los potenciales extractantes
para la recuperación de etanol y butanol destacan el alcohol oleico, los ácidos grasos,
los aceites vegetales, el biodiésel, los surfactantes o los líquidos iónicos (Vane, 2008).
1.8.4. Pervaporación
La pervaporación es un proceso de separación basado en interacciones moleculares
entre los componentes de la alimentación y una membrana, porosa de tipo orgánico o
inorgánico por un lado y no porosa por el otro lado. Como se muestra en la Figura 1.9,
40
Introducción y Antecedentes
41
Capítulo 1.
Se han realizado una gran cantidad de trabajos para recuperar tanto etanol como
butanol de caldos de fermentación utilizando membranas permeables (Vane, 2008;
Garcia et al., 2011; Castro-Muñoz et al., 2018). La mayoría de los estudios publicados
utilizan membranas de polidimetilsiloxano (PDMS). Se selecciona este polímero debido
a su alta permeabilidad, su elevada selectividad y su buena adaptabilidad a diversas
formas de membrana, tanto con formatos planos como tubulares (Thongsukmak y
Sirkar, 2007). El rendimiento de la membrana de PDMS ha mejorado mucho
incorporando silicalita en caucho de silicona (Huang y Meagher, 2001; Fouad y Feng,
2008). Otros materiales utilizados son bloques de amida de poliéter (PEBA) (Fouad y
Feng, 2008) y poli-1-trimetilsilil-1-propino (PTMSP) (Thongsukmak y Sirkar, 2007). La
principal desventaja que presenta este material es que componentes impermeables
presentes en el caldo, tales como ácidos, bases, sales y azúcares, puedan influir en el
rendimiento de la pervaporación, al penetrar la membrana y causar su ensuciamiento y
deterioro (Garcia et al., 2009).
1.8.5. Perstracción
Una variante de la pervaporación es la perstracción, que en esencia combina los
principios de la pervaporación y la extracción L-L (Ranjan y Koholmar, 2012). Este
proceso supera ciertas deficiencias del proceso de extracción L-L, como son la toxicidad
del disolvente, la agregación de microorganismos en la interfase L-L, la formación de
emulsiones y los problemas de separación entre las fases acuosa-orgánica (Qureshi y
42
Introducción y Antecedentes
1.8.6. Adsorción
La adsorción, fundamentalmente los tamices moleculares, han sido ampliamente
utilizados para deshidratar el bioetanol para la obtención de etanol anhidro para uso
carburante. La adsorción también tiene un gran potencial para la separación de butanol
de caldos de fermentación ABE (Stagg y Nielsen, 2015).
En los procesos de adsorción, las moléculas, tanto de líquidos como gaseosas, se unen
preferentemente a una superficie sólida. La fase sólida se llama “adsorbente”, el
componente adsorbido se denomina “adsorbato”. La adsorción se debe a las fuerzas de
atracción existentes entre la superficie del adsorbente y las moléculas de adsorbato. Las
fuerzas atractivas son de tipo van der Waals (dispersión y repulsión), fuerzas
electrostáticas y enlaces químicos (Venkatesen, 2013). La relación de equilibrio entre la
cantidad de material adsorbido por un sólido y la presión del gas, a temperatura
constante, se denomina isoterma de adsorción y se obtienen experimentalmente. En la
Figura 1.10, se esquematiza del proceso de adsorción cíclica. Los adsorbentes son
generalmente más biocompatibles que los solventes, totalmente inmiscibles y no
emulsionan, lo que facilita su separación de los microrganismos y favorece su
regeneración y reutilización repetitiva (Huang et al., 2014). El proceso de adsorción se
desarrolla en dos etapas: una primera etapa de adsorción seguida de una etapa de
desorción para obtener una solución concentrada del solvente a recuperar con
regeneración de los adsorbentes.
43
Capítulo 1.
44
Introducción y Antecedentes
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63
2. Objetivos y Estructura
Objetivos y Estructura
2.1. Objetivos
Esta tesis doctoral tiene como objetivo global la evaluación de tecnologías de
fermentación eficientes que faciliten la valorización del lactosuero y el permeado de
suero para la producción de alcoholes (etanol y butanol) para uso biocarburante. Para
ello, se evaluará la influencia de los principales parámetros operacionales sobre la
eficiencia de la fermentación en condiciones discontinuas. Además, se evaluarán otras
tecnologías como son las fermentaciones a alta densidad, conocida por sus siglas en
inglés VHG (Very High Gravity), combinadas con procesos continuos basados en
inmovilización celular tanto por atrapamiento en esferas de alginato como por
adsorción sobre soportes inertes, así como la integración de la recuperación in situ de
solventes, para aumentar el rendimiento y la productividad de la fermentación ABE.
67
Capítulo 2.
68
Objetivos y Estructura
69
Capítulo 2.
70
3. Materiales y Métodos
Materiales y Métodos
a) Suero 1 b) Suero 2
Figura 3.1. Muestras de suero lácteo utilizados durante el proceso experimental: a)
Suero 1 (suero ultrafiltrado) y b) Suero 2 (suero nanofiltrado).
una unidad de filtración de placas LabStak® M20 (Alfa Laval, Lund, Suiza) para
concentrar el producto (Figura 3.2.) y realizar las diferentes diluciones requeridas para
obtener las distintas concentraciones de lactosa utilizadas durante la fase experimental.
73
Capítulo 3.
Figura 3.2.Unidad experimental de filtración.de placas LabStak® M20 (Alfa Laval, Suiza)
74
Materiales y Métodos
– 60 g/L. Por este motivo, el Suero 2 nanofiltrado se diluyó en agua destilada hasta
obtener sustratos con la concentración inicial de lactosa deseada.
75
Capítulo 3.
Las cepas Ethanol Red®, CECT 13152 y “Hércules” fueron directamente añadidas
en forma sólida (0,1%, p/v) al fermentador sin realizar una propagación
preliminar. En el caso de la cepa CECT 1383, una vez reactivada la cepa, fue
cultivada en agar nutritivo (5 g/L de peptona, 3 g/L de extracto de carne, 20 g/L
de agar, pH 6,8) y almacenada a 4 °C. Las cepas fueron inoculadas en placas de
medio YPG estéril hasta el crecimiento de colonias y se conservaron a 4°C.
76
Materiales y Métodos
77
Capítulo 3.
78
Materiales y Métodos
ajustó diluyendo con agua destilada. En todos los casos se añadió un 2,5% (v/v) de
inóculo en el medio de fermentación (pH 6). Posteriormente, se incubó a 35 °C y una
agitación constante a 150 rpm en un incubador orbital termocontrolado (Infors HT
Minitron; Infors AG, Suiza) a diferentes tiempos, dependiendo de los experimentos
realizados (Figura 3.4). Los experimentos fueron realizados por duplicado durante los
ensayos preliminares y por triplicado durante la optimización de las condiciones de
operación. En el caso de diseños experimentales mediante MSR, el punto central se
repitió por quintuplicado, tal y como se detalla en el Anexo II.
79
Capítulo 3.
masa celular (Dombek and Ingram, 1986) o tioglicolato de sodio, agente reductor que
neutraliza los efectos tóxicos (MacFaddin, 1985). El objeto de esta experiencia fue
minimizar o eliminar el uso de nutrientes, dado su elevado coste, y así, mejorar la
viabilidad económica del proceso (Capítulo 5).
3.4.1.2. Butanol
Para la fermentación ABE, los experimentos preliminares se realizaron con control del
pH automático, dosificando una solución de NaOH (1 M) empleando buretas
automáticas (Crison, España) con el fin de mantener el pH del medio por encima de 5, y
así evitar un posible “crash-ácido”. El control de temperatura y agitación se realizó sobre
una placa calefactora con agitación integrada en el carrusel de reacciones de 6 x 250 mL
(Radleys, Reino Unido). Las condiciones de anaerobiosis se garantizaron inyectando N2
industrial (99,9% de pureza). Se inocularon 200 mL del medio de fermentación con 3 mL
de inóculo (Figura 3.5). Sin embargo, a lo largo de la investigación se observó que era
posible evitar un posible “crash ácido” adicionando CaCO3 como medio tamponador.
80
Materiales y Métodos
81
Capítulo 3.
82
Materiales y Métodos
Los cuatro soportes inorgánicos seleccionados fueron lavados con agua desionizada y
esterilizados en autoclave a 121°C durante 15 minutos. Se pesaron en torno a 10 g de
cada uno de los materiales de soporte y se introdujeron en matraces Erlenmeyer de 250
83
Capítulo 3.
84
Materiales y Métodos
diluciones de lactosa (130 g/L y 170 g/L). Toda la experimentación fue realizada por
triplicado.
a) Una solución acuosa sintética con 5 g/L de acetona, 10 g/L de butanol y 1,67 g/L
de etanol con una relación A:B:E (3:6:1), de acuerdo a modelos ideales de
producción de solventes en la fermentación ABE.
b) Caldos de fermentación que contenían bacterias agotadas. Estos caldos se
obtuvieron fermentando el suero de queso de oveja (Suero 2), con una
concentración inicial de 40 g/L de lactosa suplementado con nutrientes, e
inoculado con C. beijerinckii CECT 508, de acuerdo a la optimización de la
suplementación de nutrientes obtenida en el Capítulo 6.
85
Capítulo 3.
los vapores de condensación con o sin gases de arrastre; y dos entradas para la adición
de nutrientes y/o antiespumantes durante la fermentación.
Figura 3.9. Configuración del sistema de extracción de gas utilizado en los experimentos:
a) Diagrama del sistema; b) Fotografía del montaje de gas stripping.
86
Materiales y Métodos
Asimismo, se evaluó el efecto del gas-stripping sobre las células de C. beijerinckii. Para
ello, después de un primer ciclo de gas-stripping en las condiciones optimizadas según
el modelo MSR, se añadió agua destilada y lactosa al caldo de fermentación para
conseguir un volumen final de 500 mL con una concentración final de lactosa de ~ 40 g/L.
87
Capítulo 3.
88
Materiales y Métodos
89
Capítulo 3.
90
Materiales y Métodos
91
Capítulo 3.
∆𝐿 = (ec. 3.1)
𝑌 = (ec. 3.2)
𝑊 = (ec. 3.4)
92
Materiales y Métodos
𝜂 = ,
× 100 (ec. 3.5)
𝜂 = ,
× 100 (ec. 3.6),
𝛼⁄ = (ec. 3.8)
93
Capítulo 3.
Referencias
Genisheva, Z., Mussatto, S. I., Oliveira, J. M., & Teixeira, J. A. (2011). Evaluating the potential of
wine-making residues and corn cobs as support materials for cell immobilization for
ethanol production. Industrial Crops and Products, 34(1), 979-985.
Parrondo, J., García, L. A., & Díaz, M. (2009). Nutrient balance and metabolic analysis in a
Kluyveromyces marxianus fermentation with lactose-added whey. Brazilian Journal of
Chemical Engineering, 26(3), 445-456.
Qureshi, N., & Blaschek, H. P. (1999). Production of acetone butanol ethanol (ABE) by a hyper-
producing mutant strain of Clostridium beijerinckii BA101 and recovery by
pervaporation. Biotechnology Progress, 15(4), 594-602.
de Vrije, T., Budde, M., van der Wal, H., Claassen, P. A., & López-Contreras, A. M. (2013). “In situ”
removal of isopropanol, butanol and ethanol from fermentation broth by gas
stripping. Bioresource Technology, 137, 153-159.
Xue, C., Du, G. Q., Sun, J. X., Chen, L. J., Gao, S. S., Yu, M. L., ... & Bai, F. W. (2014). Characterization
of gas stripping and its integration with acetone–butanol–ethanol fermentation for high-
efficient butanol production and recovery. Biochemical engineering Journal, 83, 55-61.
94
4. Very high gravity fermentation of non-
supplemented cheese whey permeate (CWP)
by immobilized Kluyveromyces marxianus
Very high gravity fermentation of non-supplemented CWP by immobilized K. marxianus
Abstract
The aim of this research was to improve the ethanol production process with very high
gravity fermentation combined with entrapment cell immobilization employing non-
supplemented high lactose-load cheese whey permeate (CWP) as substrate. The effect
of temperature and initial pH was tested on free and immobilized cells and the maximal
allowable doses of substrate without inhibition effects were assessed. An experimental
design by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) was applied to figure out the influence
of gel formation parameters (alginate concentration, cell loading and bead size) on the
entrapment immobilization process. Bead stability and continuous yield production was
evaluated by repeated-batch recycling. The experimental data have demonstrated that
non-supplemented high lactose-load CWP is an excellent low cost substrate. Lactose
dosages between 170-190 g/L provided free-cell yield efficiencies reaching 95.5% with
productivities higher than 1.80 g/L·h at 30 °C. The optimal immobilized model was
validated recycling the gel beads for 288 h, with a mean ethanol production of 83.2 g/L,
a productivity of 1.6 g/L·h and a yield efficiency of 83.2%. Therefore, results demonstrate
the feasibility of combining very high fermentation processes with Kluyveromyces
marxianus immobilization at lab scale, which encourages its validation in continuous
pilot plant configurations.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Díez-Antolínez R, Hijosa-Valsero M, Paniagua-García AI, Gómez X (2016) Effect of nutrient
supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE (acetone–butanol–
ethanol) fermentation. Chemical Engineering Transactions 49, 217–222, DOI:
10.3303/CET1649037.
The edition of the manuscript was in accordance with the scientific journal requirements.
97
Capítulo 4.
4.1. Introduction
Bioethanol is a renewable and environmentally friendly alternative to petrol. High
ethanol productivity from low cost feedstock, in addition to lower investment and
operation costs and reduced energy demand, are important aspects in these
bioprocesses (Gabardo et al., 2014). To reduce costs and improve the economics of
ethanol production, several techniques have been developed including very high gravity
(VHG) fermentation or continuous fermentation configurations (Zhang et al., 2015;
Gabardo et al., 2014; Puligundla et al., 2011).
VHG fermentation is associated with important water and energy savings, although the
high concentrations of substrates and end products severely inhibit the performance of
yeasts, limiting the production of ethanol. Therefore, the maximum allowable dose of
substrate is a relevant parameter to avoid inhibitions (Zhang et al., 2015). On the other
hand, cell immobilization techniques overcome most of the bioprocess restrictions, offer
long-term stability of cells, increased molecular selectivity, higher resistance against
inhibition, better cell protection against environmental factors, more active biocatalyst
per unit of reactor volume, low loss of activity, reduced lag phase and reaction time (Eş
et al., 2015). However, cell immobilization techniques also present disadvantages, such
as the decrease of substrate accessibility, alterations in biocatalyst conformation and
activity, biocatalyst stress problems and costly specific reactor systems (Eş et al., 2015).
Cell entrapment is a usual and effective immobilization technique and alginate hydrogel
beads are commonly used due to their biocompatibility, low cost, high porosity and
simplicity of preparation. However, there are challenges to overcome, such as
uncontrollable gel degradation by the loss of covalent ions, mass transfer limitations,
low mechanical strength or large pore size (Duarte et al., 2013). Determinant factors
are: alginate concentration, cell loading and bead diameter (Duarte et al., 2013; Idris
and Suzana, 2006).
98
Very high gravity fermentation of non-supplemented CWP by immobilized K. marxianus
common due to inhibitory problems, long fermentation times and low substrate
consumption. Lactose contents about 100 g/L were reported as optimal to reduce
substrate imbalance or inhibitions (Gabardo et al., 2014; Dragone et al., 2011; Ozmichci
and Kargi, 2007, 2009). However, dairy industry concentrates whey up to values of 170
- 180 g/L to reduce transport costs. Therefore, developing VHG fermentations employing
high load CWPs would be an important improvement. To achieve this, it is necessary to
optimize non-inhibitory dosages and operating conditions.
Few microorganisms ferment lactose directly to ethanol with the exception of the genus
Kluyveromyces. The species K. marxianus presents interesting attributes for industrial
uses, such as thermotolerance, high growth rate, capacity to metabolize different
substrates and its GRAS status. However, not many researches evaluating ethanol
production using Kluyveroymes sp. from substrates rich in lactose in immobilized
systems have been reported (Gabardo et al., 2014, 2012; Ozmihci and Kargi, 2009; Brady
et al., 1997).
The aim of this work was to improve the ethanol production process employing VHG
fermentation of non-supplemented high loaded CWPs combined with cell
immobilization by entrapment in alginate. In the first stage, the effect of the
fermentation factors temperature (T) and initial pH (pH0) was tested. Secondly, the
maximal allowable doses of substrate without inhibition effects were assessed. Thirdly,
the entrapment immobilization process was improved by optimizing three gel formation
parameters [alginate concentration (Alg, % w/v), cell loading (Cell, % v/v) and bead size
(Dp, mm)] by response surface methodology (RSM). Finally, bead stability and
continuous yield production was evaluated by repeated-batch recycling.
99
Capítulo 4.
At the end of each run, fermentation kinetic parameters were determined: lactose
consumption rate (ΔL, %) (defined as the percentage of lactose consumed), ethanol
conversion yield (YE/L, g/g) (defined as the ratio between ethanol produced and lactose
consumed), ethanol production efficiency (η, %) (defined as the ratio between the actual
yield and the theoretical yield expressed as a percentage (considering a theoretical value
100
Very high gravity fermentation of non-supplemented CWP by immobilized K. marxianus
of 0.538 g/g)) and ethanol production rate (WE, g/(L·h)) (defined as the ratio between
ethanol concentration (g/L) and fermentation time (h)).
101
Capítulo 4.
Tabla 4.1. Fermentation results for T and pH0 evaluation (L0 = 120 g/L, time = 44 h).
Ef ΔL YE/L Η WE
T (°C) pH Type
(g/L) (%) (g/g) (%) (g/L·h)
102
Very high gravity fermentation of non-supplemented CWP by immobilized K. marxianus
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that K. marxianus is described to work
with such a high lactose concentration. Many authors have reported inhibitory problems
working with substrate concentrations higher than 100 g/L (Gabardo et al., 2014;
Dragone et al., 2011; Ozmichci and Kargi, 2009, 2007). This study concludes that K.
marxianus DSM 5422 did not suffer important substrate inhibition below 230 g/L
lactose. However, at lactose concentrations higher than 190 g/L, worse sugar
exploitation was obtained with a drastic reduction of ethanol productivity, so its use
would not be feasible.
100 2,0
1,8
80
Ef (g/L); L (%); (%)
1,6
1,4
WE (g/Lh)
60
1,2
40
1,0
0,8 Ef
20
L
0,6
WE
0 0,4
125 150 170 190 210 230 250 310
L0 (g/L)
Figura 4.1. Effect of CWP lactose content on Ef, ΔL, η and WE variables.
103
Capítulo 4.
Tabla 4.2. Experimental central composite design (CCD) runs and responses.
Independent factors Responses Independent factors Responses
1 3.50 2.00 3.75 68.10 97.11 11 3.50 2.00 4.84 66.43 95.25
2 5.00 1.00 3.10 68.16 96.48 12 5.00 1.00 4.40 67.28 95.00
3 3.50 2.00 3.75 68.01 96.60 13 5.00 3.00 3.10 70.16 98.82
4 5.00 3.00 4.40 67.18 95.46 14 2.00 3.00 4.40 68.22 97.09
5 3.50 3.68 3.75 68.97 97.93 15 3.50 2.00 3.75 68.32 97.04
6 2.00 3.00 3.10 69.71 99.41 16 6.02 2.00 3.75 67.46 96.25
7 3.50 0.32 3.75 67.16 95.45 17 2.00 1.00 4.40 67.29 96.14
8 0.98 2.00 3.75 70.66 99.40 18 3.50 2.00 3.75 67.93 95.55
9 3.50 2.00 3.75 67.5 96.69 19 2.00 1.00 3.10 69.23 97.37
10 3.50 2.00 2.66 70.73 99.31 20 3.50 2.00 3.75 66.70 95.23
104
Very high gravity fermentation of non-supplemented CWP by immobilized K. marxianus
From an ANOVA analysis (Table 4.3), it was inferred that predicted models were
adequate for both responses. However, the Ef model predictability could be questioned
(pred-R2= 5.99 %). Therefore, reduced models were proposed to try to improve model
predictability and obtain quadratic model significance. The reduced quadratic models
for Ef and ΔL responses are shown in equations (4.3) and (4.4), respectively.
In the reduced models, regression, linear and quadratic significance were obtained
(Table 4.3). For both responses, the F-value increased after eliminating not significant
terms, p-value for lack of fit was also greater, improving accuracy. R2 and R2adj were
slightly affected; however, model predictability was heavily improved.
Tabla 4.3. Analysis of variance- ANOVA- of the predicted models for Ef and (ΔL)
responses
Ef Model ΔL Model Ef reduced Model ΔL reduced Model
Source F p-value F p-value F p-value F p-value
Regression 5.67 0.006 9.41 0.001 12.89 0.000 17.28 0.000
Linear 14.71 0.001 24.48 0.000 18.89 0.000 25.94 0.000
Square 2.06 0.170 2.71 0.101 3.89 0.045 4.28 0.035
Interaction 0.26 0.851 1.05 0.412
Lack of fit 1.92 0.426 0.35 0.864 1.21 0.438 0.43 0.869
R2 (%) 83.6 89.4 82.1 86.0
R2adj (%) 68.9 79.9 75.8 81.1
pred- R2 6.0 67.9 51.3 73.1
105
Capítulo 4.
immobilizing S. cerevisiae (Idris and Suzana, 2006). However, these authors pointed out
that bead alginate concentrations lower than 2% are highly susceptible to compaction
and disintegration during the process in bioreactor systems due to the internal
mechanical loading on the beads. As it was confirmed experimentally, the use of alginate
concentration above 2% generates an ethanol decrease probably due to the lower
diffusion efficiency of the beads. Therefore, a concentration of 2% of sodium alginate
will be considered as optimal. An improvement of 5% in efficiency was obtained with
the optimization versus the results obtained in Section 4.3.1 (Table 4.2. Run 5).
100 1.8
80
1.6
Ef (g/L); L (%); (%)
WE (g/Lh)
60
1.4
40
1.2 Ef
20 L
WE
0 1.0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Cycle Number
Figura 4.2.Kinetic fermentation parmeters (Ef, ∆L, η and WE) at the end of each cycle.
106
Very high gravity fermentation of non-supplemented CWP by immobilized K. marxianus
In the first cycle, final ethanol concentration, efficiency and productivity were lower
than in the next cycles. This could be due to the need of cells to adapt to the
immobilization stress (Duarte et al., 2013). During the 288 h of experimentation, there
was a mean ethanol production of 83.2 g/L, with a productivity of 1.6 g/L·h and a yield
efficiency of 83.2%. A stable ethanol production can be observed throughout the cycles
with a very good performance without contamination; therefore, this immobilization
technique could be employed in continuous fermentation configurations with tubular
bioreactors. A minimum degree of compaction was observed, but beads did not
experience disaggregation during operation. When the beads were created (t=0) they
had a spherical shape (r=1.30 mm, V= 9.20 mm3) and contained 1.99·103 cell/mm3. After
six batch cycles the amount of yeast cells inside the beads was only slightly lower
(1.16·103 cell/mm3). In addition, at the end of every cycle cells were also detected in the
CWP outside the bead. For instance, after the sixth cycle, the yeast concentration in CWP
was 9.48·104 cell/mm3. The average final volume of each bead was 6.39 mm3 and they
had an ellipsoidal shape (a=b=1.25 mm, c=0.98 mm).
4.3.5. Conclusions
High lactose-loaded cheese whey permeate is an excellent low-cost medium for
alcoholic fermentation employing Kluyveromyces marxianus. The CWP did not need
nutrient supplementation to maximize ethanol production, which improves significantly
the economic feasibility of the process. The combination of VHG fermentation with cell
entrapment immobilization turned out to be a very promising approach to ethanol
production: very low substrate cost, high ethanol efficiency, high productivity, total
substrate consumption, and great stability throughout time without contamination.
Experiments were performed under a fed-batch configuration at lab scale, which should
be scaled up in continuous bioreactors in pilot plants.
Acknowledgments
Authors thank ITACyL for financial support. M.H-V is supported by a postdoctoral
contract (DOC-INIA, grant Nº DOC 2013-010) funded by the Spanish Agricultural and
Agrifood Research Institute (INIA) and the European Social Fund. Authors thank R. Antón
and N. del Castillo for their technical help during experimentation.
107
Capítulo 4.
References
Brady D., Nigam P., Marchant R., McHale A.P., 1997, Ethanol production at 45 °C by alginate-
immobilized Kluyveromyces marxianus IMB3 during growth on lactose-containing media,
Bioprocess Engineering, 16, 101–104.
Dragone G., Mussatto S.I., Almeida e Silva J.B., Teixeira J.A., 2011, Optimal fermentation
conditions for maximizing the ethanol production by Kluyveromyces fragilis from cheese
whey powder. Biomass and Bioenergy, 35, 1977-1982.
Duarte J.C., Rodrigues J.A.R., Moran P.J.S., Valença G.P., Nunhez J.R., 2013, Effect of immobilized
cells in calcium alginate beads in alcoholic fermentation. AMB Express, 3(1), 31.
Eş I., Vieira J. D. G., Amaral A. C., 2015, Principles, techniques, and applications of biocatalyst
immobilization for industrial application. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 99(5),
2065-2082.
Gabardo S., Rech R., Rosa C.A., Ayub M.A.Z., 2014, Dynamics of ethanol production from whey
and whey permeate by immobilized strains of Kluyveromyces marxianus in batch and
continuous bioreactors. Renawable Energy. 69, 89-96.
Gabardo S., Rech R., Ayub M.A.Z., 2012, Performance of different immobilized-cell systems to
efficiently produce ethanol from whey: fluidized batch, packed-bed and fluidized
continuous bioreactors. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 87(8), 1194-
1201.
Idris A., Suzana W., 2006, Effect of sodium alginate concentration, bead diameter, initial pH and
temperature on lactic acid production from pineapple waste using immobilized
Lactobacillus delbrueckii. Process Biochemistry, 41, 1117-1123.
Nikolić S., Mojović L., Pejin D., Rakin M., Vukašinović M., 2010, Production of bioethanol from
corn meal hydrolyzates by free and immobilized cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae var.
ellipsoideus. Biomass and Bioenergy, 34(10),1449-1456.
Ozmihci S., Kargi F., 2009, Fermentation of cheese whey powder solution to ethanol in packed-
column bioreactor: effects on feed sugar concentration, Journal of Chemical Technology
and Biotechnology, 84, 106-111.
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Ozmihci S., Kargi F., 2007, Effect of feed sugar concentration on continuous ethanol
fermentation of cheese whey powder solution (CWP). Enzyme and Microbial Technology,
41, 876-880.
Pisano I., Agrimi G., Grosso G., Mena M.C., Ricci M.A., Palmieri L., 2015, Improved
Saccharomyces cerevisiae growth on cheese whey by controlling enzymatic lactose
hydrolysis. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 43, 637-642
Puligundla P., Poludasu R.M., Rai J.K., Obulam V.S.R., 2011, Repeated batch ethanolic
fermentation of very high gravitiy medium by immobilized Saccharomyces cerevisae.
Annals of Microbiology; 61: 863-869.
Sansonetti S., Curcio S., Calabrò V., Iorio G., 2010a, Evaluation of the parameters effects on the
bioethanol production process from Ricotta cheese whey, Chemical Engineering
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Thomas, K.C., Ingledew, W. M., 1992, Production of 21% (v/v) ethanol by fermentation of very
high gravity (VHG) wheat mashes. Journal of Industrial Microbiology, 10(1), 61-68.
Zhang Q., Wu D., Lin Y., Wang X., Kong H., Tanaka S, 2015, Substrate and product inhibition on
yeast performance in ethanol fermentation. Energy Fuels, 29, 1019-1027.
109
Capítulo 4.
Anexo 4.1.
En la Figura A.4.1., se muestran las imágenes de la distribución y colonización de la cepa
K. marxianus DSM 5422 inmovilizada sobre esferas de alginato cálcico por atrapamiento.
110
5. Yeast screening and cell immobilization on
inert supports for ethanol production from
cheese whey permeate with high lactose
loads
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Díez-Antolínez R, Hijosa-Valsero M, Paniagua-García AI, Garita-Cambronero J, Gómez X (2018) Yeast
screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese whey permeate
with high lactose loads. PLoS ONE 13(12): e0210002 (18 páginas). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0210002
The edition of this manuscript was in accordance with the scientific journal requirements.
113
Capítulo 5.
5.1. Introduction
Cheese whey, the liquid by-product of milk coagulation during cheese production, is the
most important source of organic contamination in the dairy industry due to the large
volumes produced. About 10 L of cheese whey are generated for each kilogram of
cheese manufactured (Prazeres et al., 2012). It contains about 50% of the total solid
content of the original milk, with lactose (48 – 60 g/L), proteins (6 – 8 g/L) and mineral
salts (4 – 10 g/L) as major components (Gonzalez-Siso, 1996). The European Union (EU-
27) and USA are the largest producers of cheese, generating more than 150 Mton each
year (OECD-FAO, 2013). Cheese whey is characterized by a high organic pollutant load
with high biological and chemical oxygen demand values (BOD and COD) ranging
between 40 – 60 g/L and 50 – 80 g/L, respectively (Ergüder et al., 2001). Lactose is
responsible for 90% of the COD and BOD contents in whey (Gonzalez-Siso, 1996). About
50% of the cheese whey production is treated or valorized as source of proteins and
lactose into feed and food products (Baldasso et al., 2011). However, the surplus of
lactose is not further resourceful; consequently, whey disposal means a serious
environmental and economic problem (Mollea et al., 2013).
The improper disposal of whey may cause major environmental problems like
eutrophication or toxicity in the receiving environments (Prazeres et al., 2012).
Therefore, environmental restrictive rules have been established, forcing the dairy
industry to find solutions to the large whey volumes generated and to seek for
alternatives rather than the direct discharge. Nowadays, whey is evolving into a sought-
after product because of the nutrients it contains and the functional properties it
imparts to food (Koushki et al., 2012). Moreover, its use as substrate for the biological
production of several value-added products such as single cell protein, solvents (e.g.
ethanol, butanol or acetone), organic acids (e.g. acetic, butyric, lactic, malic, propionic,
malic or succinic), hydrogen, biopolymers and biodegradable plastics (Mollea et al.,
2013; Prazeres et al., 2012) has been proposed.
Cheese whey has been employed as low cost and abundant raw material substrate for
ethanol production. However, the alcoholic fermentation of whey is hardly economically
competitive in comparison to traditional feedstocks such as sugar cane or corn
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Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
(Guimarães et al., 2010). Despite this fact, the biotechnological reuse of this abundant
and widely spread waste as a source for fuel production offering no competition with
the food market and land uses is strongly desirable (Zoppellari and Bardi, 2013).
Not many yeast strains are capable of naturally fermenting lactose to ethanol.
Traditional yeasts used for industrial fermentation processes, such as Saccharomyces
cerevisiae, cannot metabolize lactose, due to the lack of both lactose permease and β-
galactosidase enzyme systems (Kargi and Ozmichi, 2006). Therefore, an enzymatic or
chemical hydrolysis of lactose is required to use whey for ethanol production using S.
cerevisiae. Typical ethanol yields from lactose are reported as 80 – 85 % of theoretical
(Mawson, 1994) when using cheese whey with lactose concentrations of 40 – 50 g/L.
Another alternative strategy is the engineering of S. cerevisiae, but most of the obtained
strains have shown undesirable characteristics such as low growth, genetic instability
and low ethanol production (Guimarães et al., 2008; Gabardo et al., 2015).
Nevertheless, most of the Kluyveromyces species are capable of metabolizing the lactose
to ethanol. In spite of the interesting attributes of Kluyveromyces species, such as
thermotolerance, high growth rate, capacity to metabolize a wide variety of
carbohydrates such as hexoses, pentoses and disaccharides (Lane and Morrissey, 2010
as well as its generally recognized as safe (GRAS) (Hensing et al., 1994, 1995), it is far
away to compete in industrial processes using Saccharomyces.
Different strategies have been tested for developing ethanol production processes using
these species. For K. marxianus, Gabardo et al. (2014) concluded that it is unnecessary
to supplement either whey or whey permeate because this organic stream is already
rich in nutrients and the addition of nitrogen could affect ethanol production by cell
metabolism impairment. Nevertheless, inhibitory problems or process imbalances have
been frequently reported when working with substrate concentrations higher than 100
g/L (Ozmihci and Kargi, 2007, 2009; Dragone et al., 2011; Gabardo et al., 2014).
Therefore, direct fermentation of whey is not economically feasible due to low ethanol
concentrations and high distillation costs (Ozmihci and Kargi, 2009; Dragone et al.,
2011). Nevertheless, Diez-Antolinez et al. (2016) reported the viability of directly
fermenting non-supplemented cheese whey permeate (CWP) with a lactose load of
115
Capítulo 5.
about 170 g/L without substrate inhibitions, reaching ethanol yield efficiencies of 95.5%
in 48 h with ethanol titers of 86.6 g/L.
Due to the low productivity of batch ethanol fermentation, continuous processes based
on the immobilization of S. cerevisiae and K. marxianus to increase cell concentration in
organic and inorganic supports by adsorption or entrapment (Diez-Antolinez et al., 2016;
Soupioni et al., 2013; Gabardo et al., 2012; Singh et al., 2009) have been studied. Gel
supports have great problems of stability over time (Gonçalves et al., 1992) and organic
supports require complex derivatization pretreatments (Lee et al., 2012). Thus, it is
interesting to explore the viability of inorganic supports in alcoholic fermentations
In the present study, the ability of eight yeast strains of the genera Saccharomyces and
Kluyveromyces to ferment high lactose-load cheese whey permeate (CWP) was
compared, and the most efficient strain for the production of ethanol was selected.
Optimization of the operating conditions of the alcoholic fermentation (temperature,
initial pH, time and cell immobilization) was optimized. As a whole, this permitted to
improve prior knowledge of this fermentative process by using a K. marxianus strain
immobilized on inert supports, which was able to ferment 90% of the lactose with yields
higher than 90% during more than 1.000 hours by a repeated-batch recycling process.
116
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
The four S. cerevisiae strains were chosen because of their good ethanol and sugar
tolerance or their worldwide commercial availability. The freeze-dried distillery yeast S.
cerevisiae Ethanol Red® (Lesaffre Company, Marcq-en-Baroeul, France), the
osmotolerant hybrid S. cerevisiae CECT 13152 (Tomsa Destil S.L., Madrid, Spain)
obtained from the protoplast fusion of S. cerevisiae NCYC73 and a non-identified strain
of S. cerevisiae, the compressed baker’s yeast branded S. cerevisiae Hércules (Lessafre
Iberica S.A., Valladolid, Spain) and the distillery yeast S. cerevisiae CECT 1383 provided
by Colección Española de Cultivos Tipo (Valencia, Spain) were used in this study. In the
case of strains Ethanol Red ®, CECT 13152 and Hércules, 0.1% (w/v) yeast was directly
added to the fermenter without a previous propagation step. Strain CECT 1383 was
reactivated, maintained on nutrient agar and stored at 4 °C. A loop-full of a slant culture
117
Capítulo 5.
was transferred to sterilized growth medium [20 g/L glucose (Sigma Aldrich, Steinheim,
Germany), 10 g/L of yeast extract (AES Laboratories, Bruz, France) and 10 g/L peptone
(Fluka, Buchs, Switzerland)]. The medium was incubated in an orbital shaker Infors HT
Minitron (Bottmingen, Switzerland) at 32 °C with a constant shaking at 120 rpm during
7 h in order to obtain exponential-phase cells. A viable cell concentration of about 108
cells/mL was obtained.
After selecting the most efficient strain, the effect of nutrient supplementation was
assessed on that single strain by testing the addition of three nutrient solutions to the
CWP. Nutrient solution “A” contained 3 g/L yeast extract, 2 g/L NH4Cl, 2 g/L KH2PO4 and
2 g/L K2HPO4, which is rich in nitrogen sources (ammonium chloride and yeast extract)
and phosphorous (phosphate salts) to promote cell growth and ethanol production
(Parrando et al., 2009). Nutrient solution “B” was composed of 1 g/L MgSO4·7H2O.
Magnesium has been identified as an active component, which prolongs exponential
growth, resulting in increased yeast cell mass (Dombek and Ingram, 1986). The addition
of magnesium also reduces the decline in fermentative activity. Nutrient solution “C”
contained 200 mg/L of sodium thioglycolate. Sodium thioglycolate acts as a reducing
agent and neutralizes possible toxic effects (MacFaddin, 1985). Nutrients were
autoclaved within the CWP medium, except magnesium and manganese salts, which
were added as a microfiltered concentrate after autoclaving. CWP samples
supplemented with eight different combinations of the three solutions (ABC, AB, AC, BC,
A, B, C or none) were fermented.
All fermentations were carried out in 100-mL Erlenmeyer flasks containing 1.25 mL of
inoculum and 48.75 mL of fermentation medium. Flasks plugged with foam stoppers
118
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
were incubated at 35 °C and 150 rpm in an Infors HT Minitron orbital shaker during 48
h after adjusting the pH to 6 units. Experiments were performed in duplicate.
In order to select the most efficient S. cerevisiae strain in the same conditions of K.
marxianus, the four strains were compared for the fermentation of a hydrolyzed CWP
without any nutrient supplementation. Fermentations were carried out in 100-mL
119
Capítulo 5.
Twenty experiments were performed and included 8 cube points, 6 central points and 6
axial points (α=1.68179). Fermentation conditions were simultaneously optimized for
maximizing the responses of ethanol final concentration (Ef), ethanol yield factor (YE/L),
ethanol profit factor (πE) and ethanol volumetric productivity (WE).
120
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
were selected. The inorganic porous supports were washed with deionized water and
sterilized by autoclaving at 121 °C for 15 minutes.
After 7 cycles, two supports were selected to test their stability for a prolonged period
of time. The experiments were extended refreshing CWP during 14 cycles. In order to
compare the effect of lactose load in immobilization performance, experiments were
carried out employing non-supplemented CWP at two initial lactose concentrations (130
g/L and 170 g/L). All experiments were performed in triplicate.
∆𝐿 = (Ec. 5.2)
𝑌 = (Ec. 5.3)
121
Capítulo 5.
𝜂 = .
× 100 (Ec. 5.4)
𝑊 = (Ec. 5.5)
𝜋 = 𝐸 × Δ𝐿 (Ec. 5.6)
The fermentation kinetic parameters were calculated at the end of the runs as follows.
Lactose consumption rate (ΔL, %) was defined as the rate of consumed lactose being Li
and Lf, the initial and final concentration of lactose (g/L), respectively (Equation 5.2). The
ethanol yield factor (YE/L, g/g) was defined as the ratio between ethanol final
concentration (Ef, g/L) and lactose consumed (g/L) (Equation 5.3). The yield conversion
efficiency (ηE, %) was defined as the ethanol yield versus the theoretical ethanol yield,
assuming a theoretical ethanol production, by means of alcoholic fermentation of 0.538
g of ethanol per g of lactose consumed by yeast (Mawson, 1994) (Equation 5.4). The
ethanol productivity (WE, g/L·h) was defined as the ratio between ethanol concentration
(g/L) and fermentation time (h) (Equation 5.5). In addition, we propose the use of a new
parameter called profit factor (πE), defined as the ethanol concentration Ef (g/L)
multiplied by the lactose consumption rate ΔL (Equation 5.6). The ethanol yield (YE/L)
and yield conversion efficiency (ηE) can be misleading when low ethanol concentration
(Ef) and low lactose consumption (ΔL) values are recorded. From the environmental
point of view, it is important to deplete as much lactose as possible during the
fermentation, in order to reduce the COD of the broth before treating it as a liquid
waste. Therefore, the parameter πE combines in a single figure ethanol production and
lactose consumption. In addition, high ΔL values imply a successful fermentation process
with an almost complete use of available sugars by yeasts.
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Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
100 1.4
80 1.2
Ef (g/L); (%); L (%)
60 1.0
W E (g/Lh)
40 0.8
Ef (g/L)
20 0.6
(%)
L (%)
W E (g/Lh)
0 0.4
DSM 7239 DSM 5418 DSM 5422 DSM 70799
Figura 5.1. Fermentation performance of K. marxianus DSM 7239, DSM 5418, DSM 5422
and DSM 70799 in concentrated synthetic medium (Li = 130 g/L). Parameters: final
ethanol concentration, ethanol yield conversion efficiency (ηE), lactose consumption
(ΔL) and productivity (WE).
123
Capítulo 5.
The effect of nutrient supplementation of CWP was tested with K. marxianus DSM 5422,
due to its better performance employing synthetic media under the same fermentation
conditions. Figure 5.2 shows the results of the fermentation of CWP without any
supplementation and the eight combinations of nutrients tested. As it can be observed,
the exclusive use of CWP without any supplementation provided a similar fermentation
performance to that of CWP supplemented with solutions A, B, A+B and A+B+C. Due to
the significant cost-saving, non-supplemented CWP was selected for the next
experimental steps. The fermentation performance was: an ethanol titer of 62.0 g/L, an
ethanol yield of 0.44 g/g (81.8% of the theoretical maximum yield) and a productivity of
1.3 g/L·h. These results compare well with other works in literature using supplemented
concentrated whey. Dragone et al. (2011) reported conversions of concentrated
deproteinized whey permeate (Li = 150 g/L) into 55.9 g/L of ethanol with yields of 0.37
g/g employing K. fragilis Kf1. Kargi and Ozmihci (2006) reported yields of 0.54 g/g with
final ethanol concentrations of 81 g/L using K. marxianus NRRL-1195 strain in batch
cultivations with a concentrated whey (150 g/L of lactose) and values of 3.7% (v/v) of
ethanol with CWP (100 g/L of lactose) supplemented with 200 mg Na-thioglycolate to
adjust the oxidation-reduction potential using K. marxianus DSM 7239 strains (Kargi and
Ozmihci, 2006).
124
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
100 1.32
1.30
80
1.28
Ef (g/L); (%); L (%)
1.26
60
W E (g/Lh)
1.24
1.22
40
1.20
1.18
20
Ef (g/L)
1.16 (%)
L (%)
0 1.14 W E (g/Lh)
No nutrients A B C A+C B+C A+B A+B+C
Nutrient Solutions
125
Capítulo 5.
Tabla 5.1. Fermentation performance of S. cerevisiae CECT 1383, Ethanol Red ®, CECT
13152 and Hércules in hydrolyzed CWP (Li = 140 g/L). Parameters: final ethanol
concentration (Ef), sugar consumption (ΔL), ethanol yield factor (YE/S), ethanol profit
factor (πE), productivity (WE) and ethanol yield conversion efficiency (ηE).
Ef ΔL Δ(G+Gal) YE/L YE/(G+Gal) πE WE ηE
Strain (g/L) (%) (%) (g/g) (g/g) (g/L) (g/L·h) (%)
CECT 1383 25.11 49.49 51.19 0.127 0.129 12.43 0.39 25.21
Ethanol Red ® 45.63 96.69 99.52 0.345 0.350 44.11 0.70 68.67
CECT 13152 35.94 54.30 56.21 0.192 0.193 19.53 0.55 37.91
Hércules 34.24 52.75 55.29 0.179 0.180 18.06 0.53 35.35
126
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
Tabla 5.2. Experimental results of ethanol concentration (Ef), ethanol yield factor (YE/L),
ethanol profit factor (πE) and ethanol volumetric productivity (WE) according to a central
composite design employing K. marxianus DSM 5422 for the fermentation of CWP (Li =
132.5 g/L).
Even though some authors have reported the effects of substrate and product inhibition
on fermentation performance using Kluyveromyves strains with substrates at
concentrations higher than 100 g/L lactose (Diniz et al., 2014; Sansonetti et al., 2010), in
this study K. marxianus DSM 5422 did not suffer substrate inhibition problems using
CWP with an initial load of 132.5 g/L. Similar ethanol concentrations were reported using
K. marxianus Kf1 at 30 °C from 150 g/L of lactose under 44 h of fermentation (Dragone
et al., 2011). However, ethanol concentration under optimal conditions is threefold
higher than those reported by Ozmihci and Kargi (2007) for K. marxianus DSM 7239,
employing a lactose concentration of 130 g/L for an operation time of 48 h, working at
28 °C and pH 5. This data agrees with reported values of ethanol yields of 0.53 g/g and
0.52 g/g, under hypoxic and anoxic conditions, respectively. However, under aerobic
127
Capítulo 5.
conditions as those in the present study, values fell to 0.39 g/g (Silveira et al., 2005),
which are similar to the values reported by Dragone et al. (2011).
The optimal operation time was 44 h, shorter than typically reported values ranging
between 72 and 96 h when working with lactose loads lower than 100 g/L (Zoppellari
and Bardi, 2013; Christensen et al., 2011; Ozmihci and Kargi, 2007). This work
significantly contributes to improve the economy of this fermentation process. An
increase of ethanol volumetric productivity between 30 and 60% was obtained in this
work versus commonly reported productivity values of 0.5 – 0.9 g/L·h (Gabardo et al.,
2014; Diniz et al. 2013; Ozmihci and Kargi, 2007), using a non-supplemented high lactose
load CWP (Li = 132.5 g/L) as a substrate. The ethanol volumetric productivity of 1.23
g/L·h obtained in this work is similar to values reported by Saini et al. (2017) employing
the evolved adapted osmotolerant strain K. marxianus MTCC 1389.
On the other hand, the drawbacks of using directly Kluyveromyces strains to convert
lactose to ethanol, including low ethanol titers of 2.5 to 4.2% (v/v), low osmotic
tolerance and prolonged fermentation times (Parashar et al., 2016; Guimarães et al.,
2010; USDA Rural Business and Cooperative Programs, 2008), are overcome in this work.
The strain K. marxianus DSM 5422 under the optimized conditions converted directly
lactose to ethanol with ethanol titers of 6% (v/v) in shorter fermentation times (44 h)
employing high load lactose substrates with high osmotic tolerance. Thus, this study
concludes that K. marxianus DSM 5422 is a promising strain for producing high yields of
ethanol from non-supplemented high load lactose CWP. Although temperature, pH and
operating time are factors that significantly affect the fermentation process,
temperature showed the strongest effect on all responses.
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Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
experimental conditions and the responses obtained for each condition are shown in
Table 5.3.
Tabla 5.3.Experimental results of ethanol concentration (Ef), ethanol yield factor (YE/L),
ethanol profit factor (πE) and ethanol volumetric productivity (WE) according to a central
composite design employing S. cerevisiae Ethanol Red® for the fermentation of
hydrolyzed CWP (Li = 132.5 g/L).
The full quadratic model was statistically effective for the final ethanol concentration at
95% confidence level. The estimated regression coefficients for ethanol titers (g/L) and
the analysis of variance results are reported in the Supplementary Material in Tables
SM.5.6 and SM.5.7, respectively. The optimized fermentation conditions that
simultaneously maximized Ef and πE responses are 30.5 °C of temperature, 5.4 units of
pH and 60 hours of fermentation. The estimated ethanol titer was 48.5 g/L with an
ethanol yield factor of 0.37 g/g and an ethanol profit factor of 48.5 g/L, corresponding
with a conversion efficiency of 70.1% and an ethanol volumetric productivity of 0.81
g/L·h. To validate the fitted RSM model, the fermentation was experimentally tested at
129
Capítulo 5.
the optimized conditions. An ethanol titer of 47 g/L was achieved with a mean glucose
consumption of 99.4% and a mean galactose consumption of 97.3%, the ethanol yield
factor YE/L was 0.37 g/g, corresponding with 68.2% of the theoretical yield. The ethanol
productivity was of 0.73 g/L·h. These data confirm the predictability of the fitted model
for Ethanol Red® strain, with a percentage error between experimental and predicted
values of 3%. These results are in accordance with reported results of Zhang et al. (2015),
who recorded ethanol yield factors of 80% fermenting glucose synthetic media using S.
cerevisiae BY4747 with a sugar load of 120 g/L after 72 hours of fermentation. These
authors observed a strong effect of substrate concentration on ethanol yield,
establishing the critical substrate concentration in 160 g/L of sugar. The high
concentration of substrate decreased membrane fluidity and caused cell atrophy and
organelle dehydration (Zhang et al., 2015).
Moreover, the enzymatic hydrolysis of lactose into glucose and galactose can cause
catabolite repression (Gancedo, 1998), besides of being not economically convenient.
Strains affected by such phenomenon show slower fermentations of sugar mixtures,
such as glucose and galactose, compared to strains without catabolite repression
(Pasotti et al., 2017).
Therefore, the use of K. marxianus DSM 5422 is clearly preferable over S. cerevisiae
Ethanol Red ® for the fermentation of high lactose-loaded CWP.
The profiles of ethanol production and the conversion efficiency for the four supports
over time are shown in Figure 5.3. During the first cycles, the four inorganic supports
had a similar behavior with final ethanol concentrations about 60 g/L. However, it was
130
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
observed that the production of ethanol decreased drastically after the 6th cycle with
the supports of Tygon® and plastic. On the contrary, the samples with glass Raschig rings
and alumina beads, even though they suffered an ethanol production drop during cycle
6th, they resumed production in the next batch. Conversion yields (ηE) were higher than
80 % per all cycles using inorganic supports, with yields higher than 90 % for glass Raschig
rings and alumina beads in the 7th cycle.
70
65
60
Ef (g/L)
55
GRR
50 PRR
TRR
AB
45
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
time (h)
Figura 5.3. Evolution of ethanol concentration during ethanol fermentation for inorganic
supports [glass Raschig rings (GRR), plastic Raschig rings (PRR), tygon Raschig rings (TRR)
and alumina beads (AB)] during 7 fermentation cycles (Li = 130 g/L) employing K.
marxianus DSM 5422.
Due to their higher stability over time, glass Raschig rings and alumina beads were
selected as immobilization supports to compare their behavior during a prolonged
operation period of more than 1.000 hours, working in 14 cycles refreshing CWP with
two different loads of lactose of 130 g/L and 170 g/L. For both inorganic supports, the
profiles of ethanol production are presented in Figure 5.4 (Li = 130 g/L) and Figure 5.5 (Li
= 170 g/L).
131
Capítulo 5.
70
60
50
Ef (g/L)
40
30
GRR
AB
20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
time (h)
70
60
Ef (g/L)
50
40
30
GRR
AB
20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
time (h)
132
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
The experimental results showed that K. marxianus DSM 5422 was able to metabolize
more than 90% of the lactose present in the broth to produce ethanol in 48 – 72 hours
of fermentation during the 14 operational cycles, working with a CWP with 130 g/L
lactose load. However, the strain only metabolized 80% of this disaccharide when the
CWP was loaded at Li = 170 g/L, independent of the support. For this reason, from the
7th cycle, the fermentation time was increased to 72 – 96 hours for this high loaded CWP.
As it can be observed in Figure 5.4, in general the ethanol production remained constant
at a value of 60 g/L during the 14 cycles for both supports, alumina beads and glass
Raschig rings, working with a CWP with a lactose load of 130 g/L. The best performance
was obtained with the alumina beads during all tested cycles with the exception of the
14th cycle, when a significant ethanol concentration drop was observed.
In the case of CWP loaded with 170 g/L lactose (Figure 5.5), the alumina beads had a
worse performance than the glass Raschig rings during all the experimental cycle but
their behavior was improving over time. The mean ethanol production was of 58.2 g/L
after 14 cycles prolonging during more than 1.000 hours of fermentation.
The mean fermentation kinetic parameters for each inorganic support at the two tested
CWP loads (130 g/L and 170 g/L) during the 14 cycles are summarized in Table 5.4. An
important decrease of all the kinetic parameters was observed working with lactose
concentrations of 170 g/L, due to possible inhibitions by substrate. It is noteworthy that
lactose consumption decreased in almost 25%, affecting significantly the profit factor
(πE) and the productivity (WE). In base of the results, it would be more convenient to
work with CWPs with lactose concentration lower than 170 g/L in order to get a total
lactose depletion and avoid environmental problems.
133
Capítulo 5.
5.4. Conclusions
High loaded cheese whey permeates (CWP) could be a feasible feedstock for ethanol
fermentation, contributing simultaneously to an efficient reuse of the main waste
stream of the dairy industry. The selection of an appropriate yeast strain is basic to
overcome current techno-economical process difficulties including low ethanol titers,
low osmotic tolerance and prolonged fermentation times. After the screening of eight
yeast strains of the genera Saccharomyces and Kluyveromyces, the best performance
was obtained employing K. marxianus DSM 5422, capable of fermenting directly high
lactose-load CWP (> 130 g/L) to ethanol without the need of adding nutrients to the
fermentation broth. The statistical optimization of fermentation conditions
(temperature, initial pH and time) allowed the maximization of the fermentation
performance (ethanol titer, ethanol yield and lactose consumption). Ethanol titers of 6%
(v/v) and a total consumption of lactose in only 44 h were attained. Moreover, the
feasibility of immobilizing this yeast strain on inorganic supports was assessed reporting
stable ethanol production, yielding ethanol titers of 60 g/L for more than 1.000 hours
(i.e. fourteen consecutive cycles), which remarkably reduces yeast cultivation costs.
Economic and scale-up studies are needed to verify the feasibility of the proposed
process.
Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to ITACyL and FEDER European Regional Development founds
(FEDER) for financial support. María Hijosa-Valsero is supported by a postdoctoral
134
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
contract (DOC-INIA, grant number DOC 2013-010) funded by the Spanish National
Institute for Agricultural and Food Research and Technology (INIA) and the European
Social Fund. Authors thanks R. Antón and N. del Castillo and G. Sarmiento for the
technical help during the experiments. The authors thank Tomsa Destil S.L for kindly
providing samples of S. cerevisiae CECT 13152 strain. The authors are grateful to
Quesería Entrepinares SAU for generously supplying cheese whey permeate.
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Capítulo 5.
140
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
Table SM.5.2. Estimated regression coefficients of lactose hydrolysis efficiency (η(G+Gal)/L). Note:
This model includes all the terms.
Term Coefficient SE coef. T P
Constant 43.7453 2.686 16.285 0
Time (h) -0.0727 1.782 -0.041 0.968
Initial pH 12.7981 1.782 7.181 0
Enzyme dosage (μL) 8.3756 1.782 4.699 0.001
Time (h) * time (h) -1.7973 1.735 -1.036 0.325
Initial pH * Initial pH -9.0575 1.735 -5.221 0
PRESS = 2814.42
R-square(pred.)
S = 6.58633
= 42.94%
R-square = 91.20 % R-square(adj.) = 83.29%
141
Capítulo 5.
Table SM.5.3. Analysis of variance of lactose hydrolysis efficiency (η(G+Gal)/L). Note: This model
includes all the terms.
Source Df SSS SSA MSA F P
Regression 9 4498.41 4498.41 499.82 11.52 0.000
Lineal 3 3194.98 3194.98 1064.99 24.55 0.000
Time (h) 1 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.00 0.968
Initial pH 1 2236.88 2236.88 2236.88 51.57 0.000
Enzyme dosage (μL) 1 958.03 958.03 958.03 22.08 0.001
Quadratic 3 1294.20 1294.20 431.40 9.94 0.002
Time (h) * time (h) 1 6.29 46.55 46.55 1.07 0.325
Initial pH * Initial pH 1 1101.83 1182.28 1182.28 27.25 0.000
Enzyme dosage (μL) *
1 186.08 186.08 186.08 4.29 0.065
Enzyme dosage (μL)
Interaction 3 9.23 9.23 3.08 0.07 0.974
Time (h) * initial pH 1 1.16 1.16 1.16 0.03 0.874
Time (h) * Enzyme dosage
1 1.01 1.01 1.01 0.02 0.882
(μL)
Initial pH * Enzyme dosage
1 7.07 7.07 7.07 0.16 0.695
(μL)
Residual error 10 433.80 433.80 43.38
Lack of fit 5 357.68 357.68 71.54 4.70 0.057
Pure error 5 76.12 76.12 15.22
Total 19 4932.21
Table SM.5.4. Estimated regression coefficients of ethanol (g/L) for strain K. marxianus DSM
5422. Note: This model includes all the terms.
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Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
Table SM.5.5. Analysis of variance of Ethanol (g/L) for strain K. marxianus DSM 5422. Note: This
model includes all the terms.
Source df SSS SSA MSA F P
Regression 9 3164.68 3164.68 351.63 36.88 0.000
Lineal 3 1869.17 1869.17 623.03 65.35 0.000
Temperature (°C) 1 1831.9 1831.9 1831.9 192.13 0.000
Initial pH 1 17.4 17.4 17.4 1.82 0.207
Time (h) 1 19.87 19.87 19.87 2.08 0.179
Quadratic 3 213.96 213.96 71.32 7.48 0.006
Temperature (°C) *
1 908.85 970.84 970.84 101.82 0.000
Temperature (°C)
Initial pH * Initial pH 1 36.19 96.65 96.65 10.14 0.010
time (h) * time (h) 1 136.5 136.5 136.5 14.32 0.004
Interaction 3 213.96 213.96 71.32 7.48 0.006
Temperature (°C) * Initial pH 1 82.95 82.95 82.95 8.7 0.002
Temperature (°C) * time (h) 1 129.61 129.61 129.61 13.59 0.004
Initial pH * time (h) 1 1.41 1.41 1.41 0.15 0.708
Residual error 10 95.35 95.35 9.53
Lack of fit 5 79.27 79.27 15.85 4.93 0.052
Pure error 5 16.07 16.07 3.21
Total 19 3260.05
Table SM.5.6. Estimated regression coefficients of Ethanol (g/L) for strain S. cerevisiae Ethanol
Red®. Note: This model includes all the terms.
Term Coefficient SE coef. T p
Constant 45.0389 1.3947 32.293 0
Temperature (°C) -8.6176 0.9253 -9.313 0
Initial pH 3.8474 0.9253 4.158 0.002
Time (h) -1.085 0.9253 4.158 0.002
Temperature (°C) * Temperature
-4.9045 0.9008 -5.445 0
(°C)
Initial pH * Initial pH -2.6647 0.9008 -2.958 0.14
Time (h) * Time (h) -1.6217 0.9008 -1.8 0.102
143
Capítulo 5.
Table SM.5.7. Analysis of variance of Ethanol (g/L) for strain S. cerevisiae Ethanol Red®. Note:
This model includes all the terms.
Source df SSS SSA MSA F P
Regression 9 1759.07 1759.07 195.45 16.71 0.000
Lineal 3 1232.45 1232.45 410.82 35.13 0.000
Temperature (°C) 1 1014.21 1014.21 1014.21 86.73 0.000
Initial pH 1 202.16 202.16 202.16 17.29 0.002
Time (h) 1 16.08 16.08 16.08 1.37 0.268
Quadratic 3 428.58 428.58 142.86 12.22 0.001
Temperature (°C) *
1 299.45 346.64 346.64 29.64 0.000
Temperature (°C)
Initial pH * Initial pH 1 91.23 102.33 102.33 8.75 0.014
Time (h) * time (h) 1 37.9 37.9 37.9 3.24 0.102
Interaction 3 98.04 98.04 32.68 2.79 0.095
Temperature (°C) * Initial pH 1 2.90 2.90 2.9 0.25 0.629
Temperature (°C) * time (h) 1 92.21 92.21 92.21 7.89 0.019
Initial pH * time (h) 1 2.93 2.93 2.93 0.25 0.628
Residual error 10 116.94 116.94 11.69
Lack of fit 5 96.93 96.93 19.39 4.85 0.054
Pure error 5 20.00 20.00 4.00
Total 19 1876
144
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
Fixed Values
Fixed Values
Fixed Values
Figure SM.5.1. Contour plots for the estimation of lactose hydrolysis efficiency (η(G+Gal)/L) as a
function of hydrolysis conditions (enzyme dosage, initial pH and time), according to the
mathematical RSM model.
145
Capítulo 5.
Anexo 5.1.
En la Figura A.5.1., se muestran las imágenes de la distribución y colonización de la cepa
K. marxianus DSM 5422 inmovilizada sobre cuatro soportes inertes por adsorción:
esferas de alúmina, anillos Raschig de plástico, anillos Raschig de Tygon® y anillos
Raschig de vidrio.
146
Yeast screening and cell immobilization on inert supports for ethanol production from cheese
whey permeate with high lactose loads
147
6. Effect of Nutrient Supplementation on
Biobutanol Production from Cheese Whey by
Acetone–Butanol–Ethanol Fermentatio
Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
fermentation
The edition of this manuscript was in accordance with the scientific journal requirements.
151
Capítulo 6.
6.1. Introduction
Biocatalytic processes are presented as a real alternative to face new social challenges
of a post-oil era. Since the 1980s, there has been an ongoing search for alternative fuels
to be used either directly or mixed with fossil fuels. Interest in butanol production is
increasing (Meesukanun and Satirapipathkul, 2014), because this alcohol presents
higher energy content, lower volatility, lower hygroscopicity and it is less corrosive than
ethanol. Additionally, butanol is an important chemical compound with many
applications, like the production of solvents, resins and plasticisers.
With the aim of reducing fermentation costs, the utilization of an agro-industrial waste
with high polluting potential is of great relevance (Pisano et al., 2015). An interesting
substrate for ABE fermentation is whey. This liquid effluent obtained from the cheese
manufacturing process presents high volumetric production and high organic loads.
Typical chemical and biological oxygen demand (COD and BOD) values are 50 – 102
kg/m3 and 27 – 60 kg/m3, respectively (Ergüder et al., 2001). This high organic load is
mainly due to its lactose content (48 – 60 g/L), which may be too low for most industrial
152
Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
fermentation
fermentation processes, but results optimal in the case of butanol production. Cheese
whey is also characterised by high protein content in the range of 33 – 67 g/L and fat
content in the range of 8 – 10 g/L, which also contributes to its high organic load.
ABE fermentation has been extensively studied as an alternative for whey valorization.
Most of these studies have been conducted in batch conditions resulting in higher
acetone/butanol/ethanol production ratios than those typically obtained when
fermenting carbohydrate substrates, such as starch or molasses (3: 6: 1). Reported
solvent concentrations range between 5 – 15 g/L, with typical butanol productivities and
yields ranging from 0.1 – 0.3 g/L·h and 0.23 – 0.40 gsolvents/gsubstrate (Alam et al., 1988;
Napoli et al., 2010; Welsh and Veliky, 1984), respectively.
The objective of this work was to improve lactose transformation in ABE fermentation
of nanofiltered sheep cheese whey. In the first place, the composition of the
fermentation medium (including the necessity of nutrient addition) was optimised for a
maximal butanol production. Secondly, the effect of initial lactose concentration was
studied in order to increase the fermentation yield and favour lactose depletion, thus
reducing the polluting potential of the resulting effluent.
153
Capítulo 6.
Tabla 6.1. Composition of the nanofiltered sheep cheese whey employed in the
experiments.
Concentration Concentration Concentration
Previous works indicate that ABE fermentation is properly developed up to lactose levels
of 50-60 g/L (Qureshi and Maddox, 2005). Therefore, in the present work the
nanofiltered whey was diluted with distilled water in order to obtain initial lactose
concentrations which were more suitable for the development of C. beijerinckii. An
adequate balance of organic and inorganic nutrients is required for growth and solvent
production by Clostridium sp. Current studies confirm the fact that nutrient
supplementation, particularly the addition of yeast extract, is essential for solvent
production (Ezeji et al., 2013). In the present work, the need for addition of
supplementary nutrients was studied with the following substances: yeast extract
(Fluka, Buchs, Switzerland) as vitamin source, KH2PO4 and KHPO4 (Sigma-Aldrich) as
phosphorus source, NH4Cl (Panreac, Castellar del Vallés, Spain) as nitrogen source,
154
Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
fermentation
Fermentation media (before inoculation), bottles, control instruments and any material
in contact with microorganisms susceptible to contamination were autoclaved for 15
min at 121 °C. The only exceptions were MgSO4·7H2O, FeSO4·7H2O and cysteine, which
were added to the fermentation media as solutions filtered through syringe nylon filters
with 0.20 µm pore size and 25 mm diameter (Auxilab SL, Beriáin, Spain). It was
experimentally observed that cheese whey must be autoclaved before the inoculation
of C. beijerinckii, regardless whether the whey has been previously pasteurised or
nanofiltered, since lactic acid bacteria can survive these latter processes and inhibit ABE
fermentation.
155
Capítulo 6.
Fermentation yields and productivity were calculated at the end of each run.
Fermentation yield (Yi/L, g/g) was calculated as the ratio between the metabolite (i)
produced and lactose consumed. The metabolite productivity rate (Wi, g/(L·h)) was
calculated as the ratio of metabolite (i) expressed in concentration (g/L) and the time of
fermentation (h).
156
Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
fermentation
The results for butanol concentration and YB/L showed parallelism. There were six
independent variables with a positive effect on the response variables (FeSO4·7H2O,
MgSO4·7H2O, NH4Cl, CaCO3, added lactose and temperature). However, the only
nutrient with a significant (p < 0.05) effect on butanol concentration and YB/L was
FeSO4·7H2O (Table 6.2). All those nutrients with a negative effect (yeast extract,
cysteine, K2HPO4, KH2PO4) were considered to be detrimental for the ABE process, and
they were therefore set at the lower values of their ranges for the subsequent
experiments. The effects on the variable Consumed lactose were slightly different, since
this variable is more dependent on the initial lactose concentration.
The following step consisted on an RSM experiment where only three variables were
optimized, whereas the others were kept at fixed values, according to Table 6.3.
157
Capítulo 6.
Tabla 6.3. Conditions of the RSM experiment. In the case of the RSM variables, axial
values are indicated.
RSM variables Fixed parameters
CaCO3 (g/L) 0-10 Yeast extract (g/L) 1 K2HPO4 (g/L) 0
The number of variables to be optimized was reduced to three in order to simplify the
process, and they were chosen according to the sign and value of their effects in the
Plackett-Burman test. The RSM design had 20 experiments and included 8 cube points,
6 central points and 6 axial points (α=1.68179). The initial lactose concentration in each
experiment was obtained by diluting the nanofiltered whey with distilled water. The
fermentation was performed at 35 °C during 92 h, and the studied responses were
butanol concentration and YB/L. It was decided to prioritize butanol concentration and,
according to the RSM mathematical estimations, an optimal of 10.09 g/L butanol would
be theoretically obtained when 5.35 g/L CaCO3, 56.7 g/L initial lactose and 0.019 g/L
FeSO4·7H2O are used. Contour plots can be seen in Figure 6.1.
Figura 6.1. Contour plots for butanol production in the RSM experimental design.
Therefore, the final composition of the whey was established as follows: an initial
concentration of lactose at 57 g/L (obtained by dilution with water), and the addition of
158
Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
fermentation
1 g/L yeast extract, 5 g/L CaCO3, 0.019 g/L FeSO4·7H2O, 0.2 g/L MgSO4·7H2O and 2.1 g/L
NH4Cl.
In order to find a compromise between lactose consumption and the feasibility of ABE
fermentation, four different initial lactose concentrations were tested (30 g/L, 40 g/L,
50 g/L and 60 g/L, obtained by dilution of the nanofiltered whey), maintaining the
addition of supplementary nutrients established in Section 6.3.1. (1 g/L yeast extract, 5
g/L CaCO3, 0.019 g/L FeSO4·7H2O, 0.2 g/L MgSO4·7H2O and 2.1 g/L NH4Cl). The samples
were fermented during 92 h, providing the results shown in Table 6.4.
159
Capítulo 6.
Tabla 6.4. Fermentation results for different initial lactose concentrations. Note: For the
dependent variables marked with an asterisk (*) some letters are given between
brackets, which are related to the results of the ANOVA. If two treatments share one of
the letters, there are no significant differences between treatments (i.e. between initial
lactose concentrations); if they do not have any letter in common, there are significant
differences (p < 0.05) between treatments. In the case of those dependent variables
without an asterisk, no significant differences appeared between treatments.
Initial lactose concentration (g/L)
Dependent variables 30 40 50 60
Acetone (g/L) 1.01 ± 0.22 1.19 ± 0.13 1.27 ± 0.33 1.69 ± 0.33
Butanol (g/L) 8.51 ± 0.17 8.91 ± 0.48 8.47 ± 1.21 9.15 ± 2.32
Ethanol (g/L) 0.12 ± 0.00 0.14 ± 0.01 0.13 ± 0.01 0.14 ± 0.03
Acetic acid (g/L) * 0.69 ± 0.06 (a) 1.15 ± 0.09 (b) 1.24 ± 0.18 (b) 1.64 ± 0.22 (c)
Butyric acid (g/L) 1.44 ± 0.34 1.01 ± 0.15 0.98 ± 0.15 1.28 ± 0.23
Lactose consumption (%) * 86.8 ± 5.4 (a) 52.2 ± 4.1 (b) 52.0 ± 9.0 (b) 50.7 ± 12.8 (b)
Y B/L (g/g) * 0.328 ± 0.018 (a) 0.428 ± 0.019 (b) 0.327 ± 0.011 (a) 0.301 ± 0.006 (a)
Lactose consumption was significantly larger (86.8%) when the initial lactose
concentration was at its lowest level (30 g/L); whereas the best YB/L yields were obtained
for initial lactose concentrations of 40 g/L, attaining a value of 0.428 g/g, which is
considerably high, since the theoretical YB/L value is 0.41 g/g for lactose (Napoli, 2009).
As Madihah et al. (2001) concluded, limited nitrogen concentrations or low
carbon/nitrogen ratios result in better yields and productivities. A higher lactose content
in the medium increases fermentation time and reduces lactose exploitation, therefore
reducing solvent product rates. In addition, an increase in the production of acetic acid
was observed with the increase in the initial value of lactose concentration (Table 4).
The production of metabolites (acetone, butanol, ethanol, acetic acid and butyric acid)
is directly related to lactose utilisation due to the stoichiometry of the reaction. Initial
lactose concentrations also affected A: B: E ratios. Hence, the following ratios were
calculated: 8:71:1 for 30 g/L, 9:66:1 for 40 g/L, 10:64:1 for 50 g/L and 12:64:1 for 60 g/L.
These values are similar to those reported in literature for whey but vary significantly
from those traditionally reported when using glucose as a substrate (ABE ratio of 6:3:1)
160
Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
fermentation
(Qureshi and Blaschek, 2001). In fact, Bahl et al. (1986) also obtained variations in these
ratios by altering nutritional factors affecting growth conditions.
6.4. Conclusions
Nutrient addition and optimization are essential when subjecting cheese whey to ABE
fermentation. This optimization must be performed with each type of whey, since its
composition and fermentation suitability differ depending on the cheese manufacturer.
Experimental design methodologies, like Plackett-Burman and RSM, can simplify the
optimization process and provide reliable results. In addition, lactose consumption and
YB/L yield can be maximized and yet without a loss in butanol concentration.
Acknowledgements
Authors are grateful to ITACyL (Instituto Tecnológico Agrario de Castilla y León) for
financial support. MH-V is supported by a postdoctoral contract (DOC-INIA, grant
number DOC 2013-010) funded by the Spanish Agricultural and Agrifood Research
Institute (INIA) and the European Social Fund. Authors thank Raquel Antón and Nuria
del Castillo for their technical help during the experiments.
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Effect of nutrient supplementation on biobutanol production from cheese whey by ABE
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163
7. In situ two-stage gas stripping for the
recovery of Butanol from Acetone-Butanol-
Ethanol (ABE) fermentation broths
In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of butanol from ABE fermentation broths
Keywords: gas stripping, butanol, ABE fermentation, Clostridium beijerinckii, response surface
methodology.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
167
Capítulo 7.
The edition of this manuscript was in accordance with the scientific journal requirements.
168
In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of butanol from ABE fermentation broths
7.1. Introduction
Biobutanol is not only an important commodity with capacity as a platform chemical.
Moreover, butanol is an advanced biofuel which overcomes most of the limitations of
ethanol as a biofuel. In this line, butanol has higher energy content, lower volatility,
lower hygroscopicity and it is less corrosive than ethanol (Taconi et al., 2009). It could
be even directly used in current internal combustion engines without any modification.
However, until now, ABE fermentation, the most common process to produce
biobutanol, is not economically competitive with petrochemical processes (Kumar and
Gayen, 2011). The high cost of traditional food feedstocks, together with the low titer,
yield and volumetric productivity of butanol in fermented broths, solvent toxicity and
the high cost of solvent recovery processes compromise its economic feasibility (Green,
2011).
To decrease the feedstock cost, the utilization of agrofood wastes with high polluting
potential is of great relevance. Interesting substrates for ABE fermentation are cheese
whey and cheese whey permeate (CWP) (Diez-Antolinez et al., 2016). On the other hand,
integrated fermentation with in situ product recovery is an effective way to reduce ABE
fermentation energy costs (Xue et al., 2012; 2014a). Among butanol recovery methods,
gas stripping has some advantages such as an easy operation, simple scale-up, low
capital investment and low energy cost (Kumar and Gayen, 2011; Xue et al., 2013,
2014a). However, gas stripping typically removes large amounts of water in the butanol
stream and requires a high energy input due to its lower selectivity in comparison with
other recovery techniques (Qureshi et al., 2005). To improve gas stripping efficiency,
coupling gas stripping to broths with butanol concentrations higher than 8 g/L;
concentration at which the condensate vapor has a butanol concentration higher than
its solubility in water (7.7%, w/w) - increases butanol concentration in the organic phase
of the condensate (Chen et al., 2014).
In this study, a central composite design with three independent variables (feed
temperature, gas flow and refrigeration temperature) was used to determine the
optimum combination of these working conditions to maximize the response variables
[butanol selectivity (αB) and butanol recovery efficiency (ηB)]. Moreover, a two-stage gas
169
Capítulo 7.
170
In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of butanol from ABE fermentation broths
Figura 7.1. Setup diagram of the gas stripping system used in the experiments
A central composite design with three independent variables (feed temperature, gas
flow and refrigeration temperature) was used to determine the optimum combination
of these working conditions to maximize the response variables (butanol selectivity (αB)
and butanol recovery efficiency (ηB)). The RSM design had 20 experiments and included
8 cube points, 6 central points and 6 axial points (α=1.68179). The responses measured
for each trial were introduced in the model to obtain three-variable quadratic
polynomial regression equations to estimate the response variables. These equations
were used to mathematically determine the values of the three independent variables
(T feed, Gas flow and T refrigeration) which maximized the response values (butanol
selectivity and butanol recovery). The response variables were calculated according to
Equations (1) (Lu et al., 2016) and (2), respectively:
𝛼⁄ = (ec. 7.1)
171
Capítulo 7.
The final output of the RSM is an equation for each response variable, which is used to
estimate the most adequate values for the independent variables to maximize αB and
ηB. The estimated optimal working conditions were experimentally validated with a
synthetic aqueous solution and with a real fermentation broth. Moreover, the effect of
gas stripping on bacteria was assessed by performing two consecutive stripping
processes separated by a resting fermentation period where bacteria were kept at fed-
batch conditions. The optimal working conditions calculated with the RSM equations
were experimentally validated at various operation times (4 – 18 h). Besides, alternative
feed temperatures (35 °C) suitable for bacteria were also tested.
172
In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of butanol from ABE fermentation broths
water and lactose were added to the fermentation to guarantee a total volume of 500
mL and a lactose concentration of ~40 g/L; yeast extract (0.5 g) was also supplemented.
When bacteria had reached again their stationary phase and produced ~10 g/L butanol,
a second stripping cycle was performed employing the same working conditions that
were used in the first cycle.
173
Capítulo 7.
Tabla 7.1. Gas stripping performance indicators for a synthetic aqueous medium (5 g/L
A; 10 g/L B; 1.67 g/L E) under optimal RSM conditions. Operation conditions: T feed =
60 °C, Gas flow = 1.34 L/min, T refrigeration = 5 °C. A: Acetone, B: Butanol, E: Ethanol.
Recovery efficiency, η Concentration in
Selectivity, α
(%) condensate, (g/L)
Stripping
A B E A B E A B E
time (h)
18 1.74 3.61 3.64 41.6 84.6 87 9.41 34.71 6.34
10 3.66 5.52 5.32 59.2 86.8 86.6 19.23 51.32 9.46
4 6.28 10.36 7.74 51.3 79.8 64.2 32.55 92.14 13.69
174
In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of butanol from ABE fermentation broths
other works which observed that solutions containing butanol concentrations near or
exceeding butanol solubility in water (~ 7.7%, w/w) and subjected to gas stripping result
in a significantly high concentrated butanol condensate, thus improving the energy-
saving potential of gas stripping for energy-efficient dewatering technologies (Xue et al.
2013; 2014a,b; Chen et al., 2014).
Figura 7.2. a) Dynamic evolution of ABE solvent concentration in the condensate during
second-stage gas stripping; b) Dynamic evolution of ABE solvents recovery during
second-stage gas stripping.
The optimal working conditions established with synthetic medium were tested with
cheese whey fermentation broth. According to the previous experiments, the selected
time for gas stripping was 4 h (Table 7.1). It must be noted that it was necessary to add
0.3 mL of an antifoaming agent to the solution before connecting the gas stripping. The
results of this experiment are given in Table 7.2 (First stripping cycle). A good selectivity
(αB = 11.08) and a high butanol concentration (119 g/L) were found in the condensate.
Once more, this butanol concentration was above its solubility limit in water and two
phases could be separated. The upper butylic phase represented 7% of the total
condensate volume with concentrations of 661.5 g/L butanol, 13.4 g/L acetone and 7.6
g/L ethanol, whereas the bottom aqueous phase represented 93% of the total
condensate volume and its concentrations were 77.1 g/L butanol, 14.1 g/L acetone and
2.2 g/L ethanol.
175
Capítulo 7.
Tabla 7.2. Gas stripping performance indicators for the fermentation broth (cheese
whey with C. beijerinckii CECT 508). Stripping conditions T feed = 60 °C, Gas flow = 1.34
L/min, T refrigeration = 5 °C, t = 4 h. Initial concentrations (1st stripping): 3.02 g/L A;
12.04 g/L B; 0.23 g/L E. Initial concentrations (2nd stripping): 4.71 g/L A; 9.63 g/L B; 0.29
g/L E. A: Acetone, B: Butanol; E:Ethanol.
Recovery efficiency, η Concentration in condensate,
Selectivity, α
(%) (g/L)
Cycle Nº A B E A B E A B E
1st stripping
4.65 11.08 9.32 27.60 59.29 55.83 13.89 118.9 2.14
cycle
2nd stripping
4.79 13.95 17.11 25.41 66.97 91.99 22.16 119.43 4.94
cycle
176
In situ two-stage gas stripping for the recovery of butanol from ABE fermentation broths
On the other hand, the optimal feed temperature (60 °C) was not very appropriate for
bacterial growth, and cells needed 6-7 days to recover after applying stripping. However,
Xue et al. (2012) reported that the asporogenic mutant C. acetobutylicum JB200 was
successfully subjected to eight gas stripping periods with six feeding cycles over 326 h,
keeping butanol concentrations of 6 – 13 g/L in the broth. These data differ significantly
from our results with C. beijerinckii CECT 508, which needs longer recovery times.
7.4. Conclusions
Process parameters of gas stripping, including feed temperature, gas flow rate and
refrigeration temperature, were crucial for butanol recovery. A two-stage gas stripping
process was proven as an efficient technique to obtain a highly concentrated butanol
stream, attaining 350 – 400 g/L butanol in the condensate, with a concentration of 477
g/L of butanol in the organic phase. This contributes to reducing energy consumption
for dewatering in a final butanol purification process. Besides, the resistance of
Clostridium beijerinckii CECT 508 to gas stripping was assessed and, although bacteria
were negatively affected by the stripping process (T feed = 60 °C), they could recover
and produce butanol again.
177
Capítulo 7.
Acknowledgments
The present work was performed as part of the H2020-LCE-2015 Waste2Fuels project
(Sustainable production of next generation biofuels from waste streams - GA-654623),
funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme.
MH-V is supported by a postdoctoral contract (DOC-INIA, grant number DOC 2013-010)
funded by the Spanish Agricultural and Agrifood Research Institute (INIA) and the
European Social Fund. Authors thank R. Antón, N. del Castillo and G. Sarmiento for their
technical help.
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model solutions and fermentation broth by adsorption, Bioprocess and Biosystems
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from corn stover using Clostridium beijerinckii P260, Bioresource Technology 154, 222-
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enhanced butanol production from sugarcane-sweet sorghum juices, Biomass and
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stripping, Biotechnology and Bioengineering 109, 2746-2756.
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enhanced butanol fermentation and energy-saving product recovery, Bioresource
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180
8. Conclusiones/ Conclusions
Conclusiones / Conclusions
4. La levadura K. marxianus DSM 5422 fue inmovilizada con éxito por atrapamiento
en esferas de alginato a escala de laboratorio durante 12 días (288 horas) para
fermentar suero industrial concentrado. Se obtuvieron concentraciones medias
de etanol de 83,2 g/L, una productividad de etanol de 1,60 g/L·h y un
rendimiento de fermentación del 83,2%.
183
Capítulo 8.
6. Entre los desafíos de este proceso destacan las bajas concentraciones finales de
etanol en el caldo, la baja tolerancia osmótica de las levaduras y los prolongados
tiempos de operación. Será necesario evaluar el desarrollo y rendimiento de la
configuración de fermentación planteada en procesos continuos en reactores de
biopelícula a escala experimental y demostrativa.
184
Conclusiones / Conclusions
185
Capítulo 8.
The main conclusions obtained from this research related to the “Eco-sustainable
production of biofuels and bioproducts from whey” are summarized below:
3. It has been shown that the yeast K. marxianus DSM 5422 suffers serious
substrate inhibition problems with lactose concentrations in whey permeate
above 230 g/L, although the limit of the working concentration should be set at
190 g/L to avoid drastic reductions in productivity.
5. The adsorption of the yeast K. marxianus DSM 5422 on inert supports, using non-
supplemented high lactose-loaded CWP, was effective and stable. Fermentation
yields greater than 90% were obtained, with titers of ethanol of 6% (v/v) and a
186
Conclusiones / Conclusions
6. The main challenges of ethanol fermentation are the low final titer of ethanol in
the broth, the low osmotic tolerance of yeasts and the long operating times. It
will be necessary to evaluate the development and performance of the proposed
fermentation configuration in continuous processes in biofilm reactors at
experimental and demonstrative scale.
7. In the case of ABE fermentation, it has been proven that the addition and
optimization of the nutrient intake to the whey are essential to improve ABE
fermentation with commercial non-genetically modified strains, such as C.
beijerinckii CECT 508. The use of experimental design tools such as Plackett-
Burman and RSM allows the optimization of these processes. Product-substrate
yields (YB/L) close to the theoretical value were obtained thanks to the
experimental design, with butanol titers of 8.9 g/L, using wheys with lactose
concentrations of 40 g/L.
187
9. Anexos
Anexos
Fermentación Alcohólica
Para la fermentación alcohólica, el mecanismo de fermentación simplificado a partir de
lactosa es:
·H2O 4 + 4 CO2
Lactosa Etanol
Las principales reacciones que tienen lugar en el proceso son (Napoli, 2009):
191
Capítulo 9.
Fase de Acidogénesis:
𝑀𝑊
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂 + 3𝑁𝐻 + 3 𝐴𝑇𝑃 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 3𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 𝑁+ 6𝐻 𝑂
𝑌
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂 + 4 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 8 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 4 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 4 𝐶𝑂 + 8 𝐻
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 6 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 4 𝐶𝑂 + 4 𝐻
Fase de Solventogénesis:
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 4 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 4 𝐶𝑂
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 2 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 4 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 6 𝐶𝑂 + 6 𝐻
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 4 𝐶𝑂
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂+ 2𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 4 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 6 𝐶𝑂 + 4 𝐻 + 𝐻 𝑂
𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 · 𝐻 𝑂+ 2𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 ⎯⎯⎯⎯ 4 𝐴𝑇𝑃 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 2 𝐶 𝐻 𝑂 + 6 𝐶𝑂 + 4 𝐻 + 𝐻 𝑂
Referencias:
Napoli F. Development of an integrated process for butanol production. Dottorato in Scienze
Biotecnologiche- XXII ciclo Indirizzo Biotechnologie Industriali. 2009. Universiy of Napoli
Federico II.
192
Anexos
El diseño de superficie de respuesta planteado en este trabajo para todos los casos en
los que se aplica la metodología de superficie de respuesta (Capítulos 4, 5, 6 y 7) es un
diseño central compuesto (DCC) con 2K + 2K + 6 experimentos, donde K es el número de
factores. El DCC está formado por los siguientes tres términos: 1) una porción factorial
no replicada con dos niveles para cada factor (2K); 2) un conjunto de puntos axiales
constituidos por experimentos idénticos al punto central, excepto por un factor, que
asume valores por debajo y por encima de la mediana de los dos niveles factoriales (2K);
3) un punto central replicado 6 veces para mejorar la precisión experimental (6
experimentos). Los puntos axiales y centrales permiten experimentos con tres niveles
para cada variable independiente. Los niveles son −α, 0, α (donde α es la distancia del
origen al punto axial en unidades codificadas), pudiéndose estimar de este modo los
coeficientes cuadráticos. El valor de α equivale a α=nF1/4, donde nF es el número de
puntos en el diseño factorial.
193
Capítulo 9.
𝑌 =𝑏 +∑ 𝑏 𝑥 +∑ 𝑏 𝑥 +∑ ∑ 𝑏 𝑥 + 𝜀 (ec. A.II.1)
Una vez que el polinomio de segundo orden ha sido ajustado a la respuesta, se examina
la forma de las curvas de superficie de respuesta y se determinan los máximos, los
mínimos o los puntos de silla que se encuentran en la región experimental seleccionada.
Para ello, se realiza un análisis canónico del modelo polinómico cuadrático predicho en
un enfoque matemático que permite ubicar el punto estacionario de la superficie de
respuesta y determinar si representa un punto máximo, mínimo o de silla de montar.
^´ = 𝑏 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝐵 𝑥 (ec.A.II.2)
𝑌
donde el vector b está formado por los coeficientes de la parte lineal (efectos
principales) y la matriz B está formada por los coeficientes correspondientes a las
interacciones y los términos cuadráticos puros.
𝑥 =− 𝐵 𝑏 (ec. A.II.4)
194
Anexos
Diseños de Plackett-Burman
El diseño de Plackett-Burman (PB) es un diseño de barrido o “screening”, que permite
identificar los principales factores al principio de la fase de experimentación, cuando no
se dispone de un conocimiento completo sobre el sistema. Es una metodología muy
eficiente para identificar un elevado número de factores con el menor número posible
de experimentos (Plackett y Burman, 1946).
En este diseño, cada factor se coloca a dos niveles y el número de experimentos debe
ser múltiplo de 4. Las variables pueden ser cualitativas o cuantitativas. Los niveles se
denominan -1 y +1, escribiéndose de modo simplificado como (-) y (+). Para la
construcción de la matriz para este diseño, la primera línea de signos viene dada y las
restantes se obtienen por permutaciones, a excepción de la última fila, en la que todos
los signos son negativos (-). En este diseño, los efectos principales tienen una compleja
relación de interacciones interefecto. Por ello, estos diseños deben utilizarse
fundamentalmente para estudiar los efectos principales cuando se supone que las
interacciones bidireccionales son insignificantes.
195
Capítulo 9.
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198