T2B 80211

Tema 2.
-
Tecnologías inalámbricas de red
Redes WLAN: IEEE 802.11

 la capa física
 la capa MAC
 calidad de servicio: 802.11e
 MIMO: 802.11n
 herramientas de gestión
REDES INALÁMBRICAS Master Ingeniería de Computadores 2007/2008

2
El estándar IEEE 802.11

MIC 2007/2008
 En el 1997 nace el:

 IEEE Working Group for WLAN Standards:
http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/index.html
 Se define el MAC y tres diferentes niveles físicos, que operan a

1Mbps y 2Mbps:
 Infrarrojos (IR) en banda base
 Frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), banda de 2,4 GHz
 Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), banda de 2,4 GHz
 IEEE Std 802.11b (septiembre 1999): PHY
 Extensión de DSSS; hasta 11 Mbps

Layer
Infra-Red 802.11 IR
 IEEE Std 802.11a (diciembre 1999):

(IR) 1 / 2 Mbit/s
2.4 GHz (FHSS) 802.11 FHSS

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum 1 / 2 Mbit/s
 Otro estándar de nivel físico (OFDM): 2.4 GHz (DSSS)

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum
802.11 DSSS
1 / 2 Mbit/s
Orthogonal frequency domain multiplexing 802.11b / TGb

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802.11b-cor1 / TGb-cor1
High Data Rate Extension
Corrigendum MIB
5.5/11 Mbit/s
 Hasta 54 Mbps 802.11g / TGg

Data Rates >20 Mbit/s
 IEEE Std 802.11g (junio 2003) 5 GHz (OFDM)

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
802.11a / TGa
High Data Rate Extension
6/12/24 Mbit/s
Optional 9/18/36/54 Mbit/s
802.11h / TGh
Spectrum Managed
802.11a
 ... 802.11d / TGd

Regulatory Domain Update
WLANs Next Gemeration SC
Globalization &
Harmonization
3
IEEE 802.11 and WiFi

MIC 2007/2008
 Wi-Fi es un conjunto de estándares para redes inalámbricas basados

en las especificaciones IEEE 802.11.
 Wi-Fi es una marca de la Wi-Fi Alliance (anteriormente la Wireless
Ethernet Compatibility Alliance), la organización comercial que
prueba y certifica que los equipos cumplen los estándares IEEE
802.11x.
 El problema principal que pretende resolver la normalización es la
compatibilidad. Esto quiere decir que el usuario tiene la garantía de
que todos los equipos que tengan el sello Wi-Fi pueden trabajar
juntos sin problemas independientemente del fabricante de cada
uno de ellos.
 Se puede obtener un listado completo de equipos que tienen la
cetificación Wi-Fi en:
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 http://certifications.wi-fi.org/wbcs_certified_products.php?lang=en.
4
Spread Spectrum Technology

MIC 2007/2008
 Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can

wipe out narrow band signals for duration of the interference
 Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal
using a special code
power interference spread power signal

signal
spread
detection at interference
receiver
f f
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

5
DSSS
(Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
MIC 2007/2008
 XOR of the signal with

pseudo-random number
(chipping sequence)
 generate a signal with a wider tb
range of frequency: spread
user data
spectrum
0 1 XOR
tc
chipping
sequence
01101010110101 =
resulting
signal
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
01101011001010
tb: bit period

tc: chip period
6
FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

MIC 2007/2008
 Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 sequence of frequency changes determined via pseudo random number
sequence
 Two versions
 Fast Hopping:
several frequencies per user bit
 Pros: more immune to narrowband interference
 Cons: tight synchronization  increased complexity
 Slow Hopping:
several user bits per frequency
 Pros: cheaper
 Cons: less immune to narrowband interference
 Advantages
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period

 simple implementation
 uses only small portion of spectrum at any time
7
FHSS: Example
MIC 2007/2008
tb
user data
0 1 0 1 1 t
f
td
f3 slow
f2 hopping
(3 bits/hop)
f1
td t
f
f3 fast
f2 hopping
(3 hops/bit)
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
f1
tb: bit period td: dwell time

8
Notion of a channel
MIC 2007/2008
Signal Power
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Wireless communication is carried over a set of frequencies called a

channel
Thanks to: Mishra, Shrivastava, Banerjee, and Arbaugh, The University of Wisconsin, Madison
9
Channels in Wireless
MIC 2007/2008
Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel D
Fixed Block of Radio Frequency Spectrum
Available spectrum is typically divided into disjoint channels

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
10
Ideal Spectrum Usage

MIC 2007/2008
Channel A Channel B
Power
Frequency
 Use entire range of frequencies spanning a channel

 Usage drops down to zero right outside a channel
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
11
Realistic Spectrum Usage

MIC 2007/2008
Channel A Channel B
Wastage of spectrum
Real Usage
 In reality, this is what communication circuits can achieve

 Results in inefficient usage of spectrum
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
12
Realistic Spectrum Usage

MIC 2007/2008
Channel A Channel B
Wastage of spectrum
Real Usage
Is it possible to eliminate such inefficiencies ?

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
13
Define a new channel

MIC 2007/2008
Channel A Channel B
Channel A’
 Define a new channel as shown

 Overlaps with neighboring two channels
 Called a `partially overlapped’ channel
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Model interference between (A,A’) and (A’,B) algorithmically
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Define a new channel

MIC 2007/2008
Channel A Channel B
Channel A’
 Channel A’ would interfere with both A and B

 Is it possible to get any gains from using A, A’ and B ?
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
15
Los canales de 802.11b Overview

MIC 2007/2008
 El estándar prevé 14 canales de 22 MHz de amplitud

 el FCC solo utiliza los primeros 11
 3 canales que no solapan (1, 6,11)
 data rate de 11 Mbps
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Tres puntos de acceso pueden estar ‘cerca’ para obtener un total de 33 Mbps de
throughput agregado
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An 802.11 Experiment
MIC 2007/2008
Link A Ch 1 Ch 1 Ch 3 Ch 6
Link B Ch 3
Link C Ch 6
Amount of Interference
 Can we use channels 1, 3 and 6 without interference ?
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
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MIC 2007/2008
Link A Ch 1 Ch 1 Ch 3 Ch 6
Link B Ch 3
Link C Ch 6
Virtually non-overlapping !
 Typically partially overlapped channels are avoided

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 With sufficient spatial separation, they can be used !
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MIC 2007/2008
UDP Throughput (Mbps)

Link A Ch 1
5
Link B Ch X
35 meters
4
60 meters
3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance (meters)
LEGEND
Non-overlapping channels, A = 1, B = 6 5
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Partially Overlapped Channels, A = 1, B = 3 2

Partially Overlapped Channels, A = 1, B = 2 1
Same channel, A = 1, B = 1 0
Channel Separation
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802.11 DSSS Frame Format

MIC 2007/2008
 PPDU: PLCP protocol data unit

 Durante la transmisión las MPDU son precedidas por el preámbulo y la cabecera del PLCP para crear la PPDU
 El preámbulo y la cabecera del PLCP son transmitidas utilizando una modulación DBPSK a 1 Mbit/s
 Todos los bits son scrambled para obtener la función de ‘data whitener’
 Synchronization (SYNC) field
 Field allows receiver to perform necessary SYNC operations
 Also provides for:
 gain setting, energy detection, antenna selection, frequency offset compensation
 Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) field
 Indicates start of PHY-dependent parameters within PLCP Preamble
 SIGNAL field
 Indicates to PHY the modulation used for transmission (and reception) of the MPDU
 Data rate = signal field value x 100 kbit/s
 SERVICE field
 Reserved for future use. Value of 00 signifies IEEE 802.11 device compliance
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 LENGTH field
 Unsigned 16-bit integer. Indicates time (in μS) required to transmit the MPDU
 Header Error Check (HEC) field
 SIGNAL, SERVICE, and LENGTH fields protected with a CCITT CRC-16 Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
 All FCS calculations made prior to data scrambling
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HR/DSSS: Long Frame Format

MIC 2007/2008
 Same format as IEEE 802.11 DSSS Frame

 The only exceptions are:
 Encoding of the rate in the SIGNAL field. Represent rate in units of 100 kbit/s
 0A for 1 Mbit/s, 14 for 2 Mbit/s, 37 for 5.5 Mbit/s, 6E for 11 Mbit/s
 SERVICE field
 Rightmost bit (bit 7) used to supplement LENGTH field
 resolve an ambiguity in PSDU length in octets, when length expressed in μS
 Bit 3 used to indicate whether modulation method is CCK <0> or PBCC <1>
 Bit 2 used to indicate that transmit frequency and symbol clocks are derived from same oscillator
 An IEEE 802.11-compliant device shall set values of bits b0, b1, b4, b5, and b6 to 0
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
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HR/DSSS: Short Frame Format

MIC 2007/2008
 Short Synch field

 Consists of 56 scrambled “0” bits.
 So receiver can perform necessary SYNC
 Start Frame Delimiter (SFD) field
 Time reverse of long PLCP SFD field
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Not detected by non-compliant receivers

 SIGNAL field
 Only 1 Mbit/s removed
 Remaining fields same as HR DSSS Long Frame format
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IEEE 802.11b
MIC 2007/2008
 Data rate  Connection set-up time

 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbit/s, depending on  Connectionless/always on
SNR  Quality of Service
 User data rate max. approx. 6 Mbit/s  Best effort, no guarantees (unless
 Transmission range polling is used, limited support in
 300m outdoor, 30m indoor products)
 Max. data rate ~10m indoor  Manageability
 Frequency  Limited (no automated key
 Free 2.4 GHz ISM-band distribution, sym. Encryption)
 Security  Pros
 Limited, WEP insecure, SSID  Many installed systems and vendors
 Available worldwide
 Availability
 Free ISM-band
 Many products and vendors
 Cons
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Heavy interference on ISM-band

 No service guarantees
 Relatively low data rate
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IEEE 802.11a
MIC 2007/2008
 Data rate  Connection set-up time

 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbit/s,  Connectionless/always on
depending on SNR  Quality of Service
 User throughput (1500 byte  Best effort, no guarantees (same as
packets): 5.3 (6), 18 (24), 24 (36), all 802.11 products)
32 (54)
 Manageability
 6, 12, 24 Mbit/s mandatory
 Limited (no automated key
 Transmission range distribution, sym. Encryption)
 100m outdoor, 10m indoor  Pros
 E.g., 54 Mbit/s up to 5 m, 48 up to
12 m, 36 up to 25 m, 24 up to 30m,
 Fits into 802.x standards
18 up to 40 m, 12 up to 60 m  Free ISM-band
 Frequency  Available, simple system
 Free 5.15-5.25, 5.25-5.35, 5.725-  Uses less crowded 5 GHz band
5.825 GHz ISM-band  Higher data rates
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Security  Cons
 Limited, WEP insecure, SSID  Shorter range
 Availability
 Some products, some vendors
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estándar IEEE 802.11g

MIC 2007/2008
 Ratificado en junio del 2003 por el IEEE Standards Board

 draft standard preliminar presentado en diciembre de 2001;
 ultimo draft v8.2
 Utiliza la banda de 2.4 GHz
 modulación OFDM y codificación PBCC
 Compatible ‘hacia atrás con IEEE 802.11b
 Pueden co-existir en la misma WLAN
 Nuevas velocidades de transmisión suportadas:
 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48 & 54 Mbps
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
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Ejemplo de parámetros físicos de un dispositivo real

MIC 2007/2008
 DATA SHEET de un Cisco Aironet 802.11a/b/g CardBus Wireless LAN

Client Adapter
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
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WiFi y salud
MIC 2007/2008
RFR's biological effects are measured in terms of specific absorption

rate (SAR) -- how much energy is absorbed into human tissue --
which is expressed in Watts per kilogram (W/kg). A dangerous level
(by U.S. standards) is considered to be anything above 0.08 W/kg.
Thus far, RFR measurements for Wi-Fi, both at home and abroad,
are a minute fraction of emissions that could amount to this level.
Wi-Fi, in fact, emits less than other common sources of RFR like
microwaves and mobile phones. Since mobile phones were recently
cleared as a potential carcinogen by a comprehensive, long-term
study conducted by the Danish Institute of Cancer Epidemiology in
Copenhagen, it seems very unlikely that devices emitting a lower
(and less frequent) level could be more dangerous.
 By Naomi Graychase, January 12, 2007

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 http://www.wi-fiplanet.com/news/article.php/3653711
 More information:
 http://www.fcc.gov/oet/rfsafety/
Tema 2.-

 la capa física
 la capa MAC
 MIMO: 802.11n

28
Arquitecturas disponibles
MIC 2007/2008
 Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)

 Estructura descentralizada
 Flexible:
 Redes pequeñas y grandes,
 Redes transitorias y permanentes
 Control del consumo de potencia
 infrastructure Basic Service Set (BSS)

 Componentes:
 Estación (STA)
 Access Point (AP)

o Point Coordinator (PC)
 Basic Service Set (BSS)

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Extended Service Set (ESS)

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El MAC: entregas de datos fiable

MIC 2007/2008
 CSMA/CA con binary

Servicios con
exponential backoff Servicios sin
contienda
contienda
 El protocolo mínimo consiste de

dos tramas: los datos y el Point
correspondiente ACK Coordination
MAC
Function (PCF)
Los 5 valores de timing: Distributed Coordination

Function (DCF)
• Slot time
• SIFS: short interframe space (< slot
time)
• PIFS: PCF interframe space (=SIFS+1slot)
• DIFS: DCF interframe space (=SIFS+2slots)
• EIFS: extended interframe space
DIFS DIFS ventana de contienda

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
PIFS
busy medium SIFS

slot
defer access
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Estructura de las tramas

MIC 2007/2008
2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4
Frame Duration / Seq. Frame

Addr. 1 Addr. 2 Addr. 3 Addr. 4 FCS
Control ID Control Body
Tipos de direcciones:
• Source address (SA)
prot. To FromMore PowerMore
• Destination Address (DA)
type subtype DS DS frags
retry
mgt data
WEPorder
vers
• Transmitter Address (TA)
2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 bits
• Receiver Address (RA)
• BSS identifier (BSSID)
• management (00)
• control (01),
• data (10), Función To From Addr. 1 Addr. 2 Addr. 3 Addr. 4
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
DS DS
• reserved (11) IBSS 0 0 RA = DA SA BSSDI -
From the AP 0 1 RA = DA BSSDI SA -
To the AP 1 0 RA = BSSDI SA DA -
Wireless DS 1 1 RA TA DA SA
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Special Frames: ACK, RTS, CTS

MIC 2007/2008
 Acknowledgement
bytes 2 2 6 4
ACK Frame Receiver
Duration CRC
Control Address
 Request To Send
bytes 2 2 6 6 4
 Clear To Send Frame Receiver Transmitter
RTS Duration CRC
Control Address Address
bytes 2 2 6 4
Frame Receiver
CTS Duration CRC
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Control Address
32
Addressing and DS bits

MIC 2007/2008
DS
RA (BSSID) TA
SA/TA
AP
AP SA RA
Client
AP
DA
Client DA
Server
Server
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Función To From Addr. 1 Addr. 2 Addr. 3 Addr. 4

DS DS
IBSS 0 0 RA = DA SA BSSID -
From the AP 0 1 RA = DA BSSID SA -
To the AP 1 0 RA = BSSID SA DA -
Wireless DS 1 1 RA TA DA SA
33
Ejemplo de funcionamiento del DCF

MIC 2007/2008
 Los intervalos de backoff son escogidos dentro de la congestion

window . Es decir en el intervalo [0, CW]
 La CW puede variar entre 31 slots (CWmin) y 1023 slots (CWmax)
 CW se incrementa después de una transmisión fallida y se re-
inicializa después de una transmisión con éxito
B1 = 25 B1 = 5
wait data
data wait
B2 = 20 B2 = 15 B2 = 10
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 B1 y B2 son intervalos de backoff en las STA 1 y 2

 CW = 31
34
Otro ejemplo
MIC 2007/2008
 El transmisor utiliza CW = CWmin (15 slots) del 802.11a y ha seleccionado un

random backoff time de 12 slots.
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
35
Situaciones problemáticas
MIC 2007/2008
Hidden node Exposed node
A
A
B
C
B
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
C
D
36
Hidden nodes
MIC 2007/2008
Obstacle Null
The obstacle The received
prevents MU1 and signals cancel
MU2 from hearing one another
one another resulting in a
NULL signal
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
MU3 cannot hear

MU1 or MU2
because of the
distance Opposite Side of AP
37
Near-Far problem
MIC 2007/2008
 The Near/Far problem is created when:

 A station near the AP uses high power while
 A station located far from the AP uses Low power.
 This results in corruption of the traffic from the far station.
High power
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
station near
the AP
38
Mecanismo RTS/CTS
MIC 2007/2008
 Se basa en el network allocation vector (NAV)
DIFS
fuente RTS data
SIFS SIFS SIFS
destino CTS ACK
DIFS
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
otro STA NAV (RTS) ventana de contienda
NAV (CTS)
defer access
39
PCF: Point Coordination Function

MIC 2007/2008
PIFS SIFS SIFS SIFS PIFS SIFS SIFS
PC
Data+Poll Data+Poll Data+Poll CF-End
Beacon DATA+ACK ACK
STA1 SIFS
(no response)
CP Contention Free Period CP
NAV
STA2 Station 2 sets NAV(Network Allocation Vector) Reset
STA3 Station 3 is hidden to the PC, it does not set the NAV.
Time
It continues to operate in DCF.
• Los beacon se utilizan para mantener la sincronización de los timers

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
en las estaciones y para enviar información de control

• El AP genera los beacon a intervalos regulares
• Las estaciones saben cuando llegará el siguiente beacon
los target beacon transmission time (TBTT) son anunciados en el
anterior beacon
40
PCF: los superframe

MIC 2007/2008
 Hay una alternancia de contention-free period (CFP) y contention

period (CP)
 Un CFP y el siguiente CP forman un superframe.
802.11 periodic Superframe
CFP(Contention Free Period) CP(Contention Period)
CF-End
PC CF-Poll
STAs Beacon DATA DATA DATA DATA DATA DATA

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
41
Servicios
MIC 2007/2008
 La arquitectura IEEE 802.11 define 9 servicios: para la estación y

para la distribución
 Station services:
 Authentication Parecidos a conectar/desconectar
 Deauthentication el cable en una red tradicional
 Privacy  WEP
 Data delivery
 Distribution services:
 Association  genera una conexión entre STA y AP
 Disassociation
 Reassociation  como association pero informando del AP anterior
 Distribution
 integration  conexión de la WLAN con otras LANs;
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
uso de un portal
42
Variables de estado y servicios

MIC 2007/2008
En una IBSS no hay ni

State 1: auth., ni ass. Se
Class 1 permite la
frames unauthenticated,
implementación del
unassociated data service
Successful authentication Deauthentication notification
Class 1 & 2
State 2: Deauthentication notification
frames authenticated,
unassociated
Successful authentication Disassociation notification

or reassociation
State 3: Una STA puede

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Class 1, 2 & 3
frames authenticated, estar autenticada
associated por varios AP pero
asociada con solo
un AP
43
Scanning
MIC 2007/2008
 Parámetros: BSStype, BSSID, SSID, ScanType, ChannelList,

ProbeDelay, Min/MaxChannelDelay
 ScanType: Pasivo
 Las estaciones esperan beacons de los APs
 ScanType: Activo
 Las estaciones envían probe requests
 Se genera un scan report
 La fase siguiente es la fase de joining; esta fase precede la
secuencia de acciones hasta llegar a la asociación
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
44
BSSID y SSID
MIC 2007/2008
 BSSID (Basic Service Set Identity)

 BSS: dirección MAC del AP
 Ad-Hoc: numero random de 46 bit
 SSID (Service Set ID)

 Conocido como el Network Name por que básicamente es el nombre que
identifica la WLAN
 Longitud: 0~32 octetos
 0: el broadcast SSID
 Gestionado manualmente o de forma automática
 identificador único de 32 caracteres
 sirve para diferenciar las WLAN entre ellas
 Los puntos de acceso y las estaciones que quieran conectarse a una WLAN
única tienen que utilizar el mismo SSID
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
45
El Extended Service Set (ESS)

MIC 2007/2008
BSS
AP
Distribution System (DS)
WLAN LAN
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 No definido por el
estándar como realizarlo
 Inter-acces point protocol
(IAPP)
46
IAPP and the Task Group f

MIC 2007/2008
 Scope of Project: to develop recommended practices for an Inter-Access

Point Protocol (IAPP) which provides the necessary capabilities to achieve
multi-vendor Access Point interoperability across a Distribution System
supporting IEEE P802.11 Wireless LAN Links.
 Purpose of Project: ... including the concepts of Access Points and
Distribution Systems. Implementation of these concepts where purposely
not defined by P802.11 ... As 802.11 based systems have grown in
popularity, this limitation has become an impediment to WLAN market
growth.
This project proposes to specify the necessary information that needs to be
exchanged between Access Points to support the P802.11 DS functions.
The information exchanges required will be specified for, one or more
Distribution Systems; in a manner sufficient to enable the implementation
of Distribution Systems containing Access Points from different vendors
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
which adhere to the recommended practices

 Status
 The 802.11F Recommendation has been ratified and published in 2003.
 IEEE 802.11F was a Trial Use Recommended Practice. The IEEE 802 Executive Committee
approved its withdrawal on February 03, 2006
47
Procedimiento de Handoff
MIC 2007/2008
 Fase de ” reassociation”
 Cuatro mensajes IAPP
 IAPP Latency > 4 * RTT
STA New AP Old AP
 Los mensajes de ”Move Request” y de
”Move Response” utilizan TCP
IAPP Message
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
48
Wireless Distribution System
MIC 2007/2008
 IEEE 802.11, WDS means

 Multiple wireless “ports” inside the access-point, to wirelessly interconnect cells
(access-points connecting to other access-points)
 pre-IEEE 802.11, did not support WDS:
 Three ports exist in one access-point (one Ethernet, and two wireless cells)
 One wireless backbone extension can be made (using two radio modules in the
access-point)
 WDS allows:
 Extending the existing infrastructure with wireless backbone links
 Totally wireless system without any wired backbones, needed in locations where
large areas are to be covered and wiring is not possible
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
49
Wireless Distribution System
MIC 2007/2008
Channel 11
Channel 1
Channel 1
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Channel 6
50
WDS Wireless Distribution System

MIC 2007/2008
 WDS, consiste en “puentear” dos redes cableadas para obtener

conexión entre ellas, por ejemplo entre dos edificios de una misma
empresa
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
51
WDS Wireless Distribution System

MIC 2007/2008
 Repeater: Consiste en un AP en modo WDS, que simplemente va a

repetir las señales que capte de sus “compañeros” de bridge
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
52
Operational processes
Traffic flow - WDS operation
MIC 2007/2008
AP-1000 or AP-500
Bridge learn
table
STA-
AP-1000 or AP-500 2
Bridge learn 2 Avaya Wireless PC-Card
STA-
table 2
1
STA- Association table
2
2 Avaya Wireless PC-Card STA-
STA-
2 2
1 Association table
STA- WDS
1 Packet for STA-2 Relay
WDS
ACK
Relay
Packet for STA-2

Packet for STA-2
ACK
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
ACK
BSS-B
STA-2
STA-1
BSS-A
REDES INALÁMBRICAS MIC 2007/2008 53
Linksys Wireless-G Access Point











Tema 2.-

 la capa física
 la capa MAC
 MIMO: 802.11n

IEEE802.11e
65
Limitations of the MAC standard for QoS

MIC 2007/2008
 DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)

 Only support best-effort services
 No guarantee in bandwidth, packet delay and jitter
 Throughput degradation in the heavy load
 PCF (Point Coordination Function)
 Inefficient and complex central polling scheme
 Unpredictable beacon frame delay due to incompatible cooperation between CP
and CFP modes
 Transmission time of the polled stations is unknown
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
IEEE802.11e
66
Overview of 802.11e
MIC 2007/2008
 Task group e formed in Sep. 1999 and Approved in March 2000

 Current version: IEEE P802.11e/D6.0, November 2003
 Backwardly compatible with the DCF and PCF
 New QoS mechanism: HCF (Hybrid Coordination Function)
 Contention-based channel access
 EDCA (Enhanced Distributed Channel Access)
 was Enhanced Distributed Coordination Function (EDCF)
 Controlled channel access (includes polling)
 HCCA (HCF controlled channel access)
 The station that operates as the central coordinator for all other
stations within the same QoS supporting BSS (QBSS) is called the
hybrid coordinator (HC).
 The HC reside inside an AP
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 A BSS that includes an 802.11e-compliant HC is referred to as a

QBSS.
IEEE802.11e
67
Fundamental improvements
MIC 2007/2008
 TXOP (Transmission Opportunity)

 TXOP is an interval of time during which a backoff entity has the right to deliver
MSDUs. A TXOP is defined by its starting time and duration.
 An 802.11e station that obtains medium access must not utilize radio resources for a
duration longer than a specified limit.
 Can be allocated via contention (EDCA-TXOP) or granted through HCF (polled-
TXOP or HCCA-TXOP)
 The duration of an EDCA-TXOP is limited by a QBSS-wide parameter referred to
as TXOP-limit which is distributed regularly by the HC within an information field
of the beacon.
 No station can transmit across a TBTT
 A station is allowed to transmit frames directly to another backoff
entity in a QBSS, without involving communication with the AP
 using the direct link protocol (DLP)
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
IEEE802.11e
68
EDCF (Enhanced DCF)

MIC 2007/2008
 Review of DCF
 CSMA/CA
 Transmit the frame directly if the medium is found idle for DIFS (DCF InterFrame
Space)
 Otherwise, defer the transmission and start the backoff process
 Backoff_time = rand[0, CW], CWmin < CW < CWmax
 The backoff timer decreases only when the medium become idle.
 Transmit the frame once backoff timer expires
 How to provide priorities
 Change the contention window size
 newCW[TCi] = ((oldCW[TCi]) * PFi ) –1
 PFi is the persistence factor
 Replace DIFS with AIFS (Arbitration InterFrame Space)
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 AIFS[i] = DIFS + TCi

IEEE802.11e
69
EDCF
MIC 2007/2008
 CSMA/CA and Exponential Backoff

 Eight Traffic Categories (TCs) within one station
High priority Low priority

DCF TC7 TC6 TC5 TC4 TC3 TC2 TC1 TC0
Backoff Backoff Backoff Backoff Backoff Backoff Backoff Backoff Backoff

(AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS) (AIFS)
Scheduler
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
(resolve virtual collisions by granting permission to highest priority)

Transmission Transmission
attempt AIFS:Arbitration Inter-Frame Space
attempt
IEEE802.11e
70
EDCA parameters for AC

MIC 2007/2008
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
4 access categories (AC),

 AIFS[AC] = SIFS + AIFSN[AC] * aSlotTime, AIFSN[AC]  2.
IEEE802.11e
EDCA and AC Mapping

IEEE802.11e
72
HCF: Hybrid Coordination Function

MIC 2007/2008
 During CFP
 Poll STAs and give a station the permission to access channel
 Starting time and maximum duration of each TXOP are specified by the HC
 During CP
 Can use the EDCA rules
 HC can issue polled TXOPs in the CP by sending CF-Poll after a PIFS idle period
 Controlled Contention
 Allows STAs to request the allocation of polled TXOPs
 STAs send resource request frames with the requested TC and TXOP duration
 HC sends an ACK for resource request to the STA
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
IEEE802.11e
HCF superframes
IEEE802.11e
Performance
75
QoS: 802.11e and WMM™

MIC 2007/2008
 QoS needed for audio, voice, video

 Original Wi-Fi® didn’t have QoS
 IEEE 802.11e is new QoS standard
 Still in process after more than 4 years
 Both “prioritized” and “guaranteed” QoS
 WMM (Wi-Fi Multimedia)
 Prioritized QoS subset of 802.11e draft
 Widely accepted by 802.11e members
 Added to Wi-Fi certification in September 2004
 Already included in some products
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
76
WMM™ for Video

MIC 2007/2008
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Source: Wi-Fi Alliance

Tema 2.-

 la capa física
 la capa MAC
 MIMO: 802.11n

78
IEEE 802.11n
MIC 2007/2008
 802.11n is a technology that enables Wi-Fi networks to do more,

faster, over a larger area.
 With the potential to deliver up to five times the throughput and up
to twice the range of previous-generation Wi-Fi gear, products
based on the new 802.11n draft 2.0 standard can do more than
ever before.
 Would make possible a whole-home coverage and content-rich
applications such as streaming high-definition video, online gaming
with multiple users on a single network, and speedy file transfer of
photos, music, and more.
 The Wi-Fi Alliance began testing and certifying 802.11n draft 2.0
products in June 2007.
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
IEEE802.11n
79
Ways to increase data rate

MIC 2007/2008
 Conventional single tx and rx radio systems

 Increase transmit power
 Subject to power amplifier and regulatory limits
 Increases interference to other devices
 Reduces battery life
 Use high gain directional antennas
 Fixed direction(s) limit coverage to given sector(s)
 Use more frequency spectrum
 Subject to FCC / regulatory domain constraints
 Advanced MIMO: Use multiple tx and / or rx radios!
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
IEEE802.11n
80
Conventional (SISO): Wireless Systems

MIC 2007/2008
channel
Bits DSP Radio Radio DSP Bits
TX RX
 Conventional “Single Input Single Output” (SISO) systems were favored for
simplicity and low-cost but have some shortcomings:
 Outage occurs if antennas fall into null
 Switching between different antennas can help
 Energy is wasted by sending in all directions
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Can cause additional interference to others

 Sensitive to interference from all directions
 Output power limited by single power amplifier
IEEE802.11n
81
MIMO Wireless Systems

MIC 2007/2008
Radio Radio
D D
Bits S
channel
S Bits
P Radio Radio P
TX RX
 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO) systems with multiple parallel radios improve
the following:
 Outages reduced by using information from multiple antennas
 Transmit power can be increased via multiple power amplifiers
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
 Higher throughputs possible

 Transmit and receive interference limited by some techniques
IEEE802.11n
82
MIMO Alternatives
MIC 2007/2008
 There are two basic types of MIMO technology:
 Beamforming MIMO
 Standards-compatible techniques to improve the range of existing data rates using
transmit and receive beamforming
 Also reduces transmit interference and improves receive interference tolerance
 Spatial-multiplexing MIMO
 Allows even higher data rates by transmitting parallel data streams in the same
frequency spectrum
 Fundamentally changes the on-air format of signals
 Requires new standard (11n) for standards-based operation
 Proprietary modes possible but cannot help legacy devices
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
IEEE802.11n
83
Beamforming MIMO Overview

MIC 2007/2008
Consists of two parts to make standard 802.11 signals “better

Uses multiple transmit and/or receive radios to form coherent 802.11a/b/g
compatible signals
 Receive beamforming / combining boosts reception of
standard 802.11 signals
Radio D
S Bits
Bits Radio
TX P
Radio
RX
 Phased array transmit beamforming to focus energy to each

REDES INALÁMBRICAS
receiver
D Radio
Bits S
P Radio Bits
Radio RX
TX
IEEE802.11n
84
Spatial Multiplexing MIMO Reality

MIC 2007/2008
 Spatial multiplexing concept:

 Form multiple independent links (on same channel) between transmitter and receiver
to communicate at higher total data rates
 However, there are cross-paths between antennas
 The correlation must be decoupled by digital signal processing algorithms
DSP Radio Radio D

Bit S Bit
Bits
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
Bits Merge
Split P
DSP Radio Radio
TX RX
Tema 2.-

 la capa física
 la capa MAC
 MIMO: 802.11n
 Evolución del estándar

86
Evolución del estándar IEEE 802.11

MIC 2007/2008
 OFFICIAL IEEE 802.11 WORKING GROUP PROJECT TIMELINES

 IN PROCESS - Standards, Amendments, and Recommended Practices
 http://grouper.ieee.org/groups/802/11/Reports/802.11_Timelines.htm
 802.11p: Inter car communications
 Communication between cars/road side and cars/cars
 Planned for relative speeds of min. 200km/h and ranges over 1000m
 Usage of 5.850-5.925GHz band in North America
 802.11s: Mesh Networking
 Design of a self-configuring Wireless Distribution System (WDS) based on
802.11
 Support of point-to-point and broadcast communication across several hops
 802.11r: Faster Handover between BSS
 Secure, fast handover of a station from one AP to another within an ESS
 Current mechanisms (even newer standards like 802.11i) plus incompatible
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
devices from different vendors are massive problems for the use of, e.g., VoIP in
WLANs
 Handover should be feasible within 50ms in order to support multimedia
applications efficiently
87
Evolución del estándar IEEE 802.11

MIC 2007/2008
 Otros grupos interesantes

 802.11t: Performance evaluation of 802.11 networks
 Standardization of performance measurement schemes
 802.11v: Network management
 Extensions of current management functions, channel measurements
 Definition of a unified interface
 802.11w: Securing of network control
 Classical standards like 802.11, but also 802.11i protect only data frames, not the
control frames. Thus, this standard should extend 802.11i in a way that, e.g., no
control frames can be forged.
 Note: Not all “standards” will end in products, many ideas get stuck
at working group
 Info: www.ieee802.org/11/, 802wirelessworld.com,
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
standards.ieee.org/getieee802/
Tema 2.-

 la capa física
 la capa MAC
 MIMO: 802.11n

herramientas
89
Herramientas genéricas
MIC 2007/2008
 Existen varias herramientas de red de propósito general, que suelen estar

disponibles para la mayor parte de los sistemas operativos, y que permiten obtener
información importante relativa a conectividad, direccionamiento IP, etc. Estas son:
 ipconfig / ifconfig
 route
 ping / traceroute
 Ethereal (aplicación que no integra el S.O.)
 Por otro lado están disponibles herramientas de red que sólo se aplican a las redes
locales inalámbricas, como:
 Kismet
 Airopeek
 Network Stumbler
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
herramientas
90
Wireshark / Ethereal
MIC 2007/2008
 Herramienta de código abierto disponible para Linux y Windows

 Permite capturar paquetes en modo promiscuo de cualquier
interface del sistema
 Ofrece una descripción muy detallada de cada paquete recibido,
permitiendo visualizar las diferentes cabeceras de los protocolos
utilizados y el contenido de los datos (¡peligroso!)
 Permite guardar los resultados del análisis en un fichero y
recuperarlos más tarde
 Permite obtener estadísticas variadas
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
herramientas
Wireshark / Ethereal
herramientas
92
Kismet
MIC 2007/2008
 Kismet es una herramienta que opera con información del nivel MAC
de 802.11.
 Puede funcionar como:
 Detector de redes inalámbricas
 Sniffer (captura de paquetes en modo promiscuo)
 Sistema de detección de intrusos
 Además tiene otras características que lo hacen muy interesante
como:
 compatibilidad con Ethereal y Airsnort
 detección de rango IP de la red
 Descubierta de puntos de acceso ocultos
 Kismet viene con su propio programa de GPS que permite
interpolación de valores, aunque no es muy exacto:
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
herramientas
gKismet
herramientas
94
Network Stumbler
MIC 2007/2008
 Busca tramas de gestión 802.11

 Permite guardar y exportar los datos en varios formatos distintos
 Soporta GPS y permite guardar información GPS juntamente con los
demás datos
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
herramientas
95
Network Stumbler
MIC 2007/2008
El interface gráfico utilizado es muy intuitivo y permite

variados tipos de análisis de forma sencilla y directa:
REDES INALÁMBRICAS
REDES INALÁMBRICAS MIC 2007/2008 96 herramientas
Network Stumbler

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Tema 2.

Redes WLAN: IEEE 802.11

REDES INALÁMBRICAS Master Ingeniería de Computadores 2007/2008

El estándar IEEE 802.11

 En el 1997 nace el:

 Se define el MAC y tres diferentes niveles físicos, que operan a

 Extensión de DSSS; hasta 11 Mbps

 IEEE Std 802.11a (diciembre 1999):

2.4 GHz (FHSS) 802.11 FHSS

 Otro estándar de nivel físico (OFDM): 2.4 GHz (DSSS)

Orthogonal frequency domain multiplexing 802.11b / TGb

 Hasta 54 Mbps 802.11g / TGg

 IEEE Std 802.11g (junio 2003) 5 GHz (OFDM)

 ... 802.11d / TGd

IEEE 802.11 and WiFi

 Wi-Fi es un conjunto de estándares para redes inalámbricas basados

Spread Spectrum Technology

 Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can

power interference spread power signal

 Alternatives: Direct Sequence, Frequency Hopping

 XOR of the signal with

tb: bit period

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

 Discrete changes of carrier frequency

 frequency selective fading and interference limited to short period

tb: bit period td: dwell time

Wireless communication is carried over a set of frequencies called a

Channel A Channel B Channel C Channel D

Fixed Block of Radio Frequency Spectrum

Available spectrum is typically divided into disjoint channels

Ideal Spectrum Usage

 Use entire range of frequencies spanning a channel

Realistic Spectrum Usage

 In reality, this is what communication circuits can achieve

Realistic Spectrum Usage

Is it possible to eliminate such inefficiencies ?

Define a new channel

 Define a new channel as shown

 Model interference between (A,A’) and (A’,B) algorithmically

Define a new channel

 Channel A’ would interfere with both A and B

Los canales de 802.11b Overview

 El estándar prevé 14 canales de 22 MHz de amplitud

 Typically partially overlapped channels are avoided

 With sufficient spatial separation, they can be used !

UDP Throughput (Mbps)

Partially Overlapped Channels, A = 1, B = 3 2

802.11 DSSS Frame Format

 PPDU: PLCP protocol data unit

HR/DSSS: Long Frame Format

 Same format as IEEE 802.11 DSSS Frame

HR/DSSS: Short Frame Format

 Short Synch field

 Not detected by non-compliant receivers

 Data rate  Connection set-up time

 Heavy interference on ISM-band

 Data rate  Connection set-up time

estándar IEEE 802.11g

 Ratificado en junio del 2003 por el IEEE Standards Board