Packer permeability testing in deep inclined

boreholes – feasibility study for Subsea Tunnel,

Nalcor Energy Strait of Belle Isle Program,
Newfoundland and Labrador
Sterling Parsons & Lorne Boone
Stantec Consulting Ltd., St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Mark Peddle
Nalcor Energy, St. John’s, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Ágúst Guðmundsson
Jarðfræðistofan GEOICE Geological Services, Reykjavik, Iceland

ABSTRACT
This paper presents the details and results of packer permeability testing performed in five deep inclined onshore
boreholes. The field investigation was part of the Nalcor Energy’s Lower Churchill Project to assess the feasibility of
constructing a subsea tunnel for the transmission of power cables across the Strait of Belle Isle. Over 200 packer
permeability tests were carried out using several different equipment arrangements to assess the in-situ permeability of
the geological formations. As part of the permeability testing, moderately high test pressures were used during packer
testing in an attempt to initiate hydrojacking. This paper provides an overview of the test methodology, packer test
equipment and results of packer testing. Interpretation of the data is discussed with consideration of the test methods
and equipment used.

RÉSUMÉ
Cet article présente les détails et les résultats d’essais de perméabilité exécutés avec un packer dans cinq trous de
forage obliques profonds sure le rivage. Les observations sur le terrain ont été exécutées dans le cadre du projet de la
partie inférieure du fleuve Churchill de Nalcor Energy pour évaluer la faisabilité de la construction d’un tunnel sous -
marins pour la transmission de lignes de transport d’interconnexion qui traverseront le Détroit de Belle Isle. Au-dessus
de 200 essais de perméabilité ont été réalisés avec un packer utilisant plusieurs aménagements de matériels différents
pour évaluer la perméabilité de formations géologiques in situ. Dans le cadre des essais de perméabilité, des essais à
haute pression ont été utilisés dans un effort d’initier l’hydrojacking. Cet article fournit une vue d’ensemble des
méthodologies de l’essai, les matériels et les résultats d’essais de perméabilité exécutés avec un packer.
L’interprétation des données en est discutée avec une considération de la méthodologie d’essai et les matériels utilisés.

1 INTRODUCTION

The Churchill River in Labrador is a significant source of

renewable, clean electrical energy; however, the potential
of this river has yet to be fully developed. The existing
5,428 MW Churchill Falls generating station, which began
producing power in 1971, harnesses about 65 per cent of
the potential generating capacity of the river. The
remaining 35 per cent is located at two sites on the lower
Churchill River, known as the Lower Churchill Project
(LCP). The Lower Churchill Project, one of Nalcor
Energy's five lines of business, is the most attractive
undeveloped hydroelectric project in North America.
The Strait of Belle Isle (SOBI) (refer to Figure 1) which
divides Labrador and Newfoundland must be crossed
with subsea power cables to transmit the electricity to the
island of Newfoundland. The SOBI is 17.5 km across at
its narrowest point and has a combination of risk
scenarios that necessitates further investigation prior to
project commencement. The Strait is fraught with sea ice Figure 1: Map of the Strait of Belle Isle Indicating Drilling
and icebergs for part of the year, high currents, difficult Locations (SNC-Lavalin, 2010a)
bathymetry, harsh weather conditions and significant
geotechnical uncertainty. To further develop this project, Nalcor conducted
studies for two potential crossing scenarios with one
being the seabed submarine installation option, and the downhole camera logging (visual and acoustical) and a
other being the option to tunnel underneath the Strait of limited program of field laboratory testing. Detailed
Belle Isle. This paper describes the packer permeability borehole locations are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
testing that was carried out as part of the feasibility
assessment of the subsea tunnel option. Also the paper
provides comments on the observed advantages of
hydraulic versus mechanical packers based on the
bedrock conditions encountered.

1.1 Field Investigations Program

In 2009 Nalcor Energy, Lower Churchill Project (NE-LCP)

initiated geotechnical investigations of geological
structures in the Strait of Belle Isle (SOBI) area, in the
Province of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. The
investigations consisted primarily of a land based, near-
shore diamond core-drilling program, as summarized in
Table 1: Borehole Details.

Table1: Borehole Details

Borehole Average Inclination Figure 3: Borehole and Test Pit Locations on Labrador
Borehole Borehole
Length (degrees from horiz.)
No. Location Side of Strait (Note: Test pits as shown were carried out
(m) [range]
as part of the drill rig location process) (SNC-Lavalin,
NF-01 Savage Cove 71 ~ 30 2010a)
NF-01B Savage Cove 890 31 [24-34]
NF-02 Shoal Cove 955 29 [23-32]
NF-03 Lower Cove 146 44 [42-45]
LAB-01 Fox Cove 540 32 [25-34] The drilling program was intended to provide a
LAB-02 Point Amour 170 76 [76-77] description / understanding of the near shore lithology
including permeability, composition, stratigraphy,
identification/confirmation of potential near shore faults,
The investigations work was part of an overall the determination of the natural stresses within the local
program of geophysical investigations in the SOBI area rock mass, as well as a determination of the global
being carried out by NE-LCP. The information obtained tectonic rock stress regime (compression vs. tension
from the investigations would be utilized in the ongoing state).
engineering studies associated with the potential The seabed option has since been chosen as the
installation of power cables across the Strait. preferred method of crossing the Strait of Belle Isle.

1.2 Core Logging

The field program carried out consisted of detailed

geotechnical core logging to collect data for the Q-
method of rock mass classification. The Q–Method was
used because it is a system for the classification of rock
masses with regards to stability in tunnels and caverns
(Barton et. al. 1974).
The Q-method is defined by 6 parameters, whereby a
Q-value can be calculated for any rock mass according to
the following formula:

RQD Jr Jw
Q [1]
Jn Ja SRF

The six parameters are:

Figure 2: Borehole Locations on Newfoundland Side of RQD = Rock Quality Designation
Strait (SNC-Lavalin, 2010a) Jn = Joint set number
Jr = Joint roughness number
The borehole program consisted of core retrieval, Ja = Joint alteration number
detailed core logging, packer testing, water sampling,
 Jw = Joint water reduction factor orientation tool. NW size casing was advanced below
SRF = Stress Reduction Factor grade into competent bedrock at depths between 3 and 9
m and was grouted in place.
These parameters can be determined by engineering Grouting of the borehole was carried out a number of
geological field mapping, mapping in tunnels or from drill times within the top 100 meters of bedrock in the
cores. A high Q-value means good stability, whereas low boreholes. Grouting was carried out to maintain the
values indicate poor stability. integrity of the borehole walls through severely fractured
A determination of the joint water reduction factor (Jw) zones, and to ensure an adequate volume of drill water
is based on water leakage into the cavern. In general, the return was maintained as the borehole was advanced.
determination of Jw before a tunnel or cavern has been Drill water return was especially important for the inclined
excavated can be difficult. However, permeability boreholes as the use of rod grease was restricted
measurements in boreholes can provide useful because of environmental concerns.
information for design criteria. (NGI, 1997) Single packer testing was completed as the boreholes
were advanced. Straddle (double) packer testing was not
2 REGIONAL GEOLOGY completed during the field program. Measurements of
borehole orientation (azimuth and inclination) were taken
The boreholes completed for the Strait of Belle Isle at regular intervals as drilling progressed and upon
investigation record the geological development of a completion of the boreholes. Downhole geophysical
continental margin from the basement Precambrian logging was undertaken after drilling was completed.
gneisses and granitic rocks of the North American Craton, As the field program progressed, a number of
to the younger Precambrian and Palaeozoic aged modifications were made to both the drill rig tooling as
sedimentary rocks. The sedimentary rocks are dominated well as to the testing and sampling equipment.
by sandstones of the Bradore Formation which
unconformably overlie the basement rocks. This unit is 3.2 Packer Testing Equipment
believed to represent a deltaic to shallow marine
environment. The Bradore Formation is overlain by a Two different types of packer systems were used for
transgressive (advance of the sea over land areas) permeability testing, these included hydraulic packers
sequence of shale and limestone strata of the Forteau and mechanical packers. The hydraulic packers
Formation which are indicative of quieter marine and near consisted of an NQ size wireline packer assembly
shore deposition. The Forteau Formation is in turn manufactured by Inflatable Packers International Limited
overlain by a regressive (contraction of the sea from land (IPI). Hydraulic packers were selected over pneumatic
areas) sequence of primarily quartzitic marine sandstones packer systems because the hydraulic packer does not
of the Hawke Bay Formation. These sedimentary rocks require the use of inflation lines or compressed gas at
are contained within the Labrador Group. Another high pressures. A manufacturer supplied flowmeter was
sequence of sedimentary rocks comprising the Port au used which was capable of testing at pressures of 6890
Port Group in turn overlies the Labrador Group. These kPa (1000 psi) and flows of 0.02 to 100 L/min.
rocks represent biogenic sedimentation in a shallow Due to the inclination of the boreholes, it was at times
marine environment and are represented by dolomitic challenging to properly install and retrieve the hydraulic
limestones of the March Point Formation. The upper most packer. As a result, several techniques and equipment
rocks exposed in the investigation area consist of were utilized, this included the use of a specialized self-
primarily limestones and dolostones and shale of the Petit unlatching wireline overshot.
Jardin Formation. These overlie the March Point and An NQ mechanical packer manufactured by
represent shallow water marine to tidally influenced Temiskaming Industrial Mining Equipment Limited (TIME)
sedimentation (Knight, 1977). The stratigraphy beneath was used to carry out permeability testing primarily in
the Strait of Belle Isle is illustrated in Figure 9: Geological zones of high permeability, but was also used in zones of
Cross-Section Beneath SOBI. low permeability. The packer consisted of a series of four
to eight rubber sleeves that were expanded by the weight
3 METHOD OF INVESTIGATION of the rods, or if necessary, by additional force from the
drill. This packer was selected because of its simplicity
3.1 Drilling Operations and its ability to handle flows greater than 300 L/min.
Two flow meters manufactured by Omega (700 series)
A total of six boreholes were completed using three drill were used as part of the mechanical packer flowmeter
rigs during the field campaign. The summarized borehole assembly, which included a 3.8 to 37.9 L/min flowmeter
details are presented in Table 1. Borehole NF-01 was and a 38 to 380 L/min flowmeter. All flowmeters were
abandoned at 71 m depth due to the drill string becoming calibrated prior to use.
stuck within a highly fractured zone. Borehole NF-01B Packer testing was completed utilizing two types of
was relocated approximately 44 metres west-southwest of pumps. In zones of low to moderate leakage the drill rig’s
NF-01. The total meterage drilled during the field pump often provided sufficient water volume and
program was 2772 m, including NF-01. pressure. Depending on the rig, the drill rig’s pumps
Each of the drill rigs included a fully-equipped unitized achieved maximum flows ranging from approximately 50
3 to 100 L/min. Two high capacity flow pumps were also
drill and large exterior water storage tank (approx. 5 m )
used specifically for packer testing. Core drilling was available for testing in zones of high permeability. The
completed using an NQ-3 core barrel fitted with a core pumps achieved maximum flows during testing of
approximately 380 L/min at a pressure of 90 kPa (13 psi) hysteresis. If the stepped down pressures did
to 230 L/min at a pressure of 3100 kPa (450 psi). not follow the same path as the stepped up
pressures then testing continued by stepping up
3.3 Equipment Calibrations at 60% and 100%. Depending on formation flow
conditions the procedure varied between tests.
Prior to the start of drilling at each borehole location, a In some cases where high flows and/or back
calibration test was carried out for each packer assembly pressures were anticipated, testing followed a
to quantify the amount of friction pressure losses created cyclical methodology whereby the test pressures
through the flowmeter and the packer assembly. Results were stepped-up for example: 20%, 40%, 60%,
of a calibration test completed for the mechanical packer 40%, 60%, 80%, 60%, 80% and 100% of the
for borehole LAB-01 are illustrated on Figure 4. maximum pressures.

In addition to assessing the bedrock permeability and

500 hydrojacking pressures, the testing procedure was
intended to assess the storage capacity, the hysteresis
400 sealing, and overall response of the rock mass.
Depending on the age or condition of the drill rods,
Flow (L/min)

300 water leakage can occur at the joints threads. An

accounting of the amount of leakage is preferred for an
accurate determination of bedrock formation permeability.
200
In order to reduce the leakage at the drill rod connections,
each connection was “wicked” using burlap materials.
100
Drill rod leakage could not be estimated using the
mechanical packer but could be roughly estimated by
0 comparing the number rods and the measured leakage
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 from the hydraulic packer. For a determination of leakage
Square Root Pressure (√kPa)
with depth and test pressure, a correction chart was
Figure 4: Mechanical Packer Calibration for LAB-01 plotted using the hydraulic packer. An illustration is
(SNC-Lavalin, 2010b) presented in Figure 5.

In addition, the calibration acted as a surface test to

Rod Leakage Rate (L/min/kPa)
verify correct packer operation and to identify problems
0.0E+00 1.0E-03 2.0E-03 3.0E-03
due to hydraulic packer inflation, water injection and/or
0
any visible leaks. It was assumed that friction losses from
100
the drill rods were negligible.
200
Borehole Depth (m)

4 PACKER TESTING PROCEDURE 300

400
The packer testing program was completed in 500
consultation with Nalcor’s tunnelling consultant from 600
Jarðfræðistofan GEOICE Geological Services. In 700
preparation for testing drill water was circulated to flush
800
the hole. The equipment type used for testing was
900
selected based upon the test flows anticipated from the
wash water return during drilling or partial constant head 1000
tests. In general, test section lengths varied from 3 to 70 Figure 5: Estimated Rod Leakage from Hydraulic Packer
m, depending on the anticipated bedrock permeability. (SNC-Lavalin, 2010b)
Following the expansion of either the hydraulic or
mechanical packers, leakage was checked to ensure that
water was not passing by the packer, between the 5 PACKER TESTING
expanded gland/rubber and the drillhole wall. No
provision was made for monitoring test section pressures 5.1 Method of Analysis
directly.
Water injection (packer testing) was carried out based Considering the type of equipment used, the length of the
on the following procedure: test sections and the approximation of the field data, a
In general, “step pressure” testing was stepped simple method of analysis was carried out. Based on
up at 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% and 100% of the Cedergren (1989), bedrock permeability can be
maximum test pressure which often caused calculated using the following formulas:
widening of pre-existing fractures (hydrojacking)
or the maximum pressure limit of the equipment. Qavg w L
Following the 100% interval, the pressures were K ln , L 10rb [2]
2 LPnet rb
stepped down at 60% and 20% to assess for
 25.0
Where, K is the hydraulic conductivity, Qavg is the
geometric mean of the corrected measured flows, Pnet is 20.0
net pressure applied, L is the length of the test section, rb
is the radius of the borehole, and w is the unit weight of
water. Pnet can be expressed as: 15.0

Qave (L/min)
10.0
Pnet Pg Hg Dw' w
Pf [3]
5.0

In Eq. 3, Pg is the gauge pressure, Hg is the height of 0.0

the pressure gauge above the ground surface, Dw’ is the 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
vertical depth to the groundwater level, and Pf is the Pnet (kPa)
frictional pressure loss. Pf can be expressed as the Figure 6: Test results from LAB-01 from 242.5 to 264.0 m.
following: (SNC-Lavalin, 2010b)

Pf fQavg
2
[4] The vertical depth to the center of the test interval is
134.3 m below the ground surface. All packer tests
results were corrected for the varying inclination of the
borehole. The curve in Figure 6 demonstrates linear
Where f is a friction factor determined by calibration relationship, where flow is laminar travelling probably
for each individual packer setup. through clean fractures.
From the shape of the curve, a determination of
5.2 Packer Test Results fracture behaviour may be gained where flow can become
non-linear. This increase in permeability indicates
Packer permeability tests completed for the SOBI project fracture opening due to excess pressure. This increase
resulted in hydraulic conductivities in the range of opening of the fractures during testing may be an
-5
practically zero (no measureable flow) to 5.1x10 m/s, as indication of the onset of hydrojacking. (Hartmaier et al.,
summarized in Table 2. Testing was carried out in deep 1998).
inclined boreholes up to approximately 925 m length (452
m depth).
60.0

Table 2: Summary of Packer Testing Results (SNC- 50.0

Lavalin, 2010a)
40.0
No. Depth Range of
Qave (L/min)

BH# Range of K (m/s)

Tests Testing (m) 30.0
NF-01 10 17.0 – 71.2 NMF - 6.1x10-6
20.0
NF-01B 52 6.5 – 889.9 NMF – 6.4x10-6
-5
NF-02 64 10.3 – 925.4 NMF – 2.1x10 10.0
NF-03 20 8.5 – 146.1 5.6x10-8 – 4.2x10-6
LAB-01 38 10.3 – 540.1 5.5x10-9 – 5.1x10-5 0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
LAB-02 17 3.1 – 170.2 5.3x10-9 – 1.8x10-5 Pnet (kPa)
Note: NMF indicates no measureable flow. Due to the Figure 7: Test results from NF-03 from 26.1 to 32.5 m.
equipment and apparatus used, formations with very low (SNC-Lavalin, 2010b)
permeability’s could not be accurately measured.

Figure 7 presents the results of permeability testing at

Due to the limitations of the equipment used and the NF-03 from 26.1 m to 32.5 m. The vertical depth to the
method in which test pressures were estimated, the center of the test interval is 20.3 m below the ground
permeability was lower than was practically measurable surface. The curve in Figure 7 demonstrates a slight
at some test sections. In such instances, it was stated increase in permeability with increased pressure, as the
that no measureable flow was recorded. recovery curve shows a permanent increase permeability
Permeability test results are generally interpreted from within the formation. (Evans and Meier, 1995).
a plot of flow against pressure (PQ plot). Figure 6 As part of the packer testing program, hydrojacking or
presents the results of permeability testing at LAB-01 hydraulic jacking was carried out at various test interval
from 242.5 m to 264.0 m. locations up to 300 m vertical depth in the boreholes.
This data was gathered for future consideration by others,
 but was not part of the geotechnical scope of work. This in the joint begins to exceed the normal stress across the
depth was considered a maximum depth for the joint, causing the joint to dilate. Figure 8 presents the
construction of potential tunnels. Moderately high test results at NF-01B from 189.0 to 199.3 m depth in the
pressures (based on limits of the equipment used) were borehole. The plot demonstrates the non-linear increase
applied in an attempt to open the existing joints of the of flow with minimal increase of pressure. The vertical
formation or cause fracture widening. depth to the center of the test interval is 103.0 m below
The pressures applied during the permeability tests the ground surface. As a result, the effective overburden
were mainly focused on applying pressures which could stress at the middle of the test section is approximately
be expected in a tunnel (possible hydrostatic pressure 1670 kPa, which is roughly corresponds at the point on
near open water bearing joints). As the tunnel elevation non-linearity PQ response during the test.
(depth) was not decided, some test pressures may seem
high.
When considering the design of a tunnel, the primary 45.0
criterion when assessing the requirements for a tunnel 40.0
liner is whether the hydrostatic head at the depth of the
35.0
tunnel is less than the minimum principal stress in the
rock mass surrounding the tunnel. Under this condition 30.0
no liner is required. If the hydrostatic head is greater than 25.0

Qave (L/min)
the minimum principal stress, a steel liner is required to 20.0
isolate the pressurized tunnel water from the surrounding 15.0
rock. (Hartmaier et al., 1998)
10.0
Figure 8 below shows a PQ plot which demonstrates
the pressure dependency. At low pressure, a linear trend 5.0
is seen depending upon whether flow is laminar or 0.0
turbulent. Hydrojacking occurs when the water pressure -5.0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Pnet (kPa)
Figure 8: Test
Table 3: Summary of Packer Permeability Results by Formation (SNC-Lavalin, results from NF-01B from 189.0 to 199.3
2010a)
m. (SNC-Lavalin, 2010b)
Q-Value
Formation RQD Lugeons Kavg (m/s)
Range
Very poor to 2.8 - 160.7 3.5x10-7 - 2.1x10-5
Petit Jardin 0 - 75
excellent (avg 19.2) (avg 2.6x10-6)
Very poor to 0.9 - 179.8 2.1x10-5 - 1.3x10-7
March Point 0 - 150
excellent (avg 25.1) (avg 3.3x10-6)
Very poor to NMF - 26.7 NMF - 3.8x10-6
Hawke Bay 0 - 100
excellent (avg. <3.8) (avg. <5.6x10-7)
Dolomite: good to
NMF - 0.1 NMF - 2.4x10-8
Forteau (NFLD coast) excellent, 0 - 100
(avg. <0.04) (avg. <7.7x10-9)
Shale: Poor to fair
Very poor to 0.04 - 65.4 5.6x10-9 – 9.0x10-6
Forteau (LAB coast) 0 - 40
excellent (avg. 15.9) (avg. 2.3x10-6)
NMF - 1.9 NMF - 3.5x10-7
Bradore (NFLD coast) Fair to excellent 0 - 200
(avg. <0.4) (avg. <7.2x10-8)
Very poor to 0.03 - 444.5 5.33x10-9 - 5.05x10-5
Bradore (LAB coast) 0 -145
excellent (avg. 33.2) (avg. 3.98x10-6)

Basement (NFLD coast) Fair to excellent < 5 - 30 No Data No Data

0.03 - 1.5 5.48x10-9 - 2.63x10-7

Basement (LAB coast) Poor to excellent 0 - 200
(avg. 0.5) (avg. 9.32x10-8)
Note:
- NMF indicates no measureable flow. Due to the equipment and apparatus used, formations with very low
permeability’s could not be accurately measured.
- Average lugeons and Kavg calculated using measured permeability’s. Tests with NMF were not included in
calculation.
6 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS At shallow depths, the mechanical packer was
relatively efficient with respect to installation
The near surface bedrock consisting of limestones, time.
dolostones and shales of the Petit Jardin Formation, and In zones of low to moderate flow, the hydraulic
dolomitic limestones of the March Point Formation on the packer proved to be a time efficient tool,
NL side of SOBI and the shale and limestones units of the At deep depths, the hydraulic packer was more
Forteau Formation on the Labrador side of SOBI, efficient.
generally exhibit the highest degree of fracturing and
measured permeability’s. The shallowest portions of the Some observed challenges of using the hydraulic and
Bradore Formation sandstones also displayed this mechanical packers included:
general correlation. In general, the highest permeability’s Due to borehole inclination, it was at times
and fracturing was limited to the upper 25 m to 50 m challenging to install/retrieve the hydraulic
depth. packer.
The degree of fracturing represented by both the RQD The rubber sleeves of the mechanical packer
and Q-values (which includes RQD as one of its terms) were occasionally damaged from the exposed
generally confirmed that higher Q-values, which borehole wall.
corresponds to better quality bedrock, typically At deep depths, the use of the mechanical
demonstrated lower permeability values. On the other packer becomes time and cost prohibitive.
hand, lower Q-values, which correspond to lower quality
bedrock, typically demonstrated higher permeability Based on field observations, the following
values. A broad overview of the results is presented in improvements may be considered for future work:
Table 3 above.
The use of H-size hydraulic packer may have
helped reduce difficulties of packer installation
7 CONCLUSIONS
and retrieval.
Packer testing was carried out as part of the Nalcor The use of a downhole pressure transducer
Energy’s Lower Churchill Project to assess the feasibility would have assisted installation troubleshooting.
of constructing a subsea tunnel for the transmission of The drill rigs should be fitted with tower stands to
power cables across the Strait of Belle Isle. The remove drill rods for more efficient handling.
information obtained from the investigation will be used The constraints of the equipment limited the
for ongoing engineering studies associated with the maximum pressures that could be used, which
potential installation of power cables across the Strait and limited the ability to achieve hydrojacking at
will assist Nalcor Energy in selecting the preferred option deeper depths.
for crossing the Strait of Belle Isle. At this point in time,
the seabed option has been chosen as the preferred
method for crossing the Strait of Belle Isle. Some key ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
conclusions during this investigation are stated below.
The use of hydraulic and mechanical packer systems The writers would like to express thanks to Nalcor Energy
has resulted in the determination of hydraulic for permission to publish this paper. Stantec also thanks
conductivities within rock formations by way of deep SNC Lavalin for the opportunity to work together. The
inclined boreholes. In general, the permeability of the following individuals are also acknowledged for their input
deeper bedrock units were several orders of magnitude during the work and in preparation of this paper: Ian
smaller than the near surface bedrock units. The Knight, Geological Survey of NL; Mike Wawrzkow, SNC
hydraulic conductivities recorded generally show good Lavalin; Dr. Arun Valsangkar, Stantec Consulting Ltd.
correlation to the degree of fracturing or rock mass quality
as obtained using the Q-method. More specifically, the
bedrock formation strata at shallow depths generally REFERENCES
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fracturing (higher Q-values) and lower permeability Tunnel Support. Rock Mechanics, 6: 189-239.
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and Drawings. Report prepared for Nalcor Energy.
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Figure 9: Geological Cross-Section Beneath SOBI (Jarðfræðistofan GEOICE, 2010)