Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cog... more Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cognitive activity, where the judgments of educators on the learning progress of students are expressed using marks or grades. These have high face-validity because they appear to represent intuitively sound descriptions of learning development. The language found in many such assessment structures and their protocols reflects the hierarchy within a revised Bloom's Taxonomy where, in the cognitive domain, evaluation and synthesis is regarded as superior to analysis or application, which are themselves rewarded above memory or understanding. Virtual worlds provide an opportunity to explore new educational contexts for analyzing and measuring cognitive processes that support learning. The present research used the Second Life virtual world as a medium for remotely located students to communicate in the collaborative construction and programming of robots. Iterative tasks were used to explore several neo-Bloomian cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions. Analysis of 60 hours of video from classroom activity, transcribed data and in-world interaction suggests that the hierarchy of descriptors and associated ratings that are used within assessment schemes based on neo-Bloomian taxonomies may not accurately correspond to the 'higher order' cognitive ability development of students.
Background-Researchers have demonstrated interest in using virtual worlds for science education a... more Background-Researchers have demonstrated interest in using virtual worlds for science education as they provide a number of benefits such as making science relevant to the learner and providing a means to present opportunities to engage students in authentic scientific inquiry (Niemitz et al., 2008). Virtual worlds have the added advantage of allowing geographically separate groups of learners to interact and work together. However, de Freitas (2008) in her study of virtual worlds confirmed the need for,“developing better ...
Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cog... more Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cognitive activity, where the judgments of educators on the learning progress of students are expressed using marks or grades. These have high face-validity because they appear to represent intuitively sound descriptions of learning development. The language found in many such assessment structures and their protocols reflects the hierarchy within a revised Bloom's Taxonomy where, in the cognitive domain, evaluation ...
In our recent research entitled ‘Designing Effective Spaces, Tasks and Metrics for Communication ... more In our recent research entitled ‘Designing Effective Spaces, Tasks and Metrics for Communication in Second Life’ TRANSANA software was used to transcribe 60 hours of recorded video data of participants (N=8) communicating the programming of LEGO robots in Second Life and face-to-face. The transcription was then coordinated with the respective video capture data using TAMS Analyzer software. The codes determined in our research were the Cognitive Processes and Knowledge Dimension taxonomic elements of Bloom’s revised taxonomy. The coded data was then viewed in a Google Motion Chart in an attempt to dynamically visualise and interpret the learning process. This paper will demonstrate the use of the inexpensive software, in particular providing some practical applications of the Google Motion Chart.
International Journal of Learning Technology, 2015
There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated h... more There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated human-robot interactions. This paper is an attempt to address this issue by proposing a new metric so that the educational potential when using robots can be further developed. Tasks in which students in Japan and UK interact in a 3D virtual space to collaboratively program robots to navigate mazes have resulted in quantitative data of immersion, Circuit Task Complexity and Robot Task Complexity. The data has subsequently been collated to create a proposed new metric for tasks involving robots, which we have termed Task Fidelity. The paper proposes that Task Fidelity is a quantitative measure of a set robot task in relation to a learner’s solution. By quantifying Task Fidelity educators utilizing robots in schools and in Higher Education will be able to provide tasks commensurate with the expected successful outcomes achieved by the learners.
In contexts other than immersive virtual environments, theoretical and empirical work has identif... more In contexts other than immersive virtual environments, theoretical and empirical work has identified flow experience as a major factor in learning and human-computer interaction. Flow is defined as a 'holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement'. We applied the concept of flow to modeling the experience of collaborative learning in an immersive virtual environment. The aims were, first, to psychometrically evaluate a measurement model of flow and, second, to test a structural model of flow. Pairs of small teams engaged in collaborative problem-solving tasks while communicating by way of an immersive virtual environment. Flow was measured after each session, using Guo and Poole's inventory for measuring flow in human-computer interaction. In relation to the first aim, partial-least-squares analysis demonstrated strong evidence for the measurement model. In relation to the second aim, the structural model was supported: the effect of learning-task characteristics on flow experience was mediated by its precursors, with extraneous variables held constant. It is reasoned that the experiment and resultant analysis of this work contributes to the development of measurement models and structural models of flow in immersive virtual environments.
International Journal of Learning Technology, 2015
There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated h... more There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated human-robot interactions. This paper is an attempt to address this issue by proposing a new metric so that the educational potential when using robots can be further developed. Tasks in which students in Japan and UK interact in a 3D virtual space to collaboratively program robots to navigate mazes have resulted in quantitative data of immersion, Circuit Task Complexity and Robot Task Complexity. The data has subsequently been collated to create a proposed new metric for tasks involving robots, which we have termed Task Fidelity. The paper proposes that Task Fidelity is a quantitative measure of a set robot task in relation to a learner’s solution. By quantifying Task Fidelity educators utilizing robots in schools and in Higher Education will be able to provide tasks commensurate with the expected successful outcomes achieved by the learners.
Science education is concerned with the meaningful pursuit of comprehension, knowledge and unders... more Science education is concerned with the meaningful pursuit of comprehension, knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes. In Vygotskian social‐constructivist learning, personal interpretation, decision-making and community cooperation fosters long‐term understanding and transference of learned concepts. In short, the construction of knowledge requires learners to be actively involved in the process of learning. For effective science learning, an instructor's pedagogical approach must be ...
This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the... more This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the last decade to summarise the different kinds of measures that have been used to explore cognitive load and critiques the strengths and limitations of those focussed on the development of direct empirical approaches. Over the last 40 years, cognitive load theory has become established as one of the most successful and influential theoretical explanations of cognitive processing during learning. Despite this success, attempts to obtain direct objective measures of the theory’s central theoretical construct – cognitive load – have proved elusive. This obstacle represents the most significant outstanding challenge for successfully embedding the theoretical and experimental work on cognitive load in empirical data from authentic learning situations. Progress to date on the theoretical and practical approaches to cognitive load are discussed along with the influences of individual differences on cognitive load in order to assess the prospects for the development and application of direct empirical measures of cognitive load especially in technology-rich contexts.
Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cog... more Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cognitive activity, where the judgments of educators on the learning progress of students are expressed using marks or grades. These have high face-validity because they appear to represent intuitively sound descriptions of learning development. The language found in many such assessment structures and their protocols reflects the hierarchy within a revised Bloom's Taxonomy where, in the cognitive domain, evaluation and synthesis is regarded as superior to analysis or application, which are themselves rewarded above memory or understanding. Virtual worlds provide an opportunity to explore new educational contexts for analyzing and measuring cognitive processes that support learning. The present research used the Second Life virtual world as a medium for remotely located students to communicate in the collaborative construction and programming of robots. Iterative tasks were used to explore several neo-Bloomian cognitive processes and knowledge dimensions. Analysis of 60 hours of video from classroom activity, transcribed data and in-world interaction suggests that the hierarchy of descriptors and associated ratings that are used within assessment schemes based on neo-Bloomian taxonomies may not accurately correspond to the 'higher order' cognitive ability development of students.
Background-Researchers have demonstrated interest in using virtual worlds for science education a... more Background-Researchers have demonstrated interest in using virtual worlds for science education as they provide a number of benefits such as making science relevant to the learner and providing a means to present opportunities to engage students in authentic scientific inquiry (Niemitz et al., 2008). Virtual worlds have the added advantage of allowing geographically separate groups of learners to interact and work together. However, de Freitas (2008) in her study of virtual worlds confirmed the need for,“developing better ...
Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cog... more Many educational institutions make use of assessment schemes based on an ordered hierarchy of cognitive activity, where the judgments of educators on the learning progress of students are expressed using marks or grades. These have high face-validity because they appear to represent intuitively sound descriptions of learning development. The language found in many such assessment structures and their protocols reflects the hierarchy within a revised Bloom's Taxonomy where, in the cognitive domain, evaluation ...
In our recent research entitled ‘Designing Effective Spaces, Tasks and Metrics for Communication ... more In our recent research entitled ‘Designing Effective Spaces, Tasks and Metrics for Communication in Second Life’ TRANSANA software was used to transcribe 60 hours of recorded video data of participants (N=8) communicating the programming of LEGO robots in Second Life and face-to-face. The transcription was then coordinated with the respective video capture data using TAMS Analyzer software. The codes determined in our research were the Cognitive Processes and Knowledge Dimension taxonomic elements of Bloom’s revised taxonomy. The coded data was then viewed in a Google Motion Chart in an attempt to dynamically visualise and interpret the learning process. This paper will demonstrate the use of the inexpensive software, in particular providing some practical applications of the Google Motion Chart.
International Journal of Learning Technology, 2015
There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated h... more There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated human-robot interactions. This paper is an attempt to address this issue by proposing a new metric so that the educational potential when using robots can be further developed. Tasks in which students in Japan and UK interact in a 3D virtual space to collaboratively program robots to navigate mazes have resulted in quantitative data of immersion, Circuit Task Complexity and Robot Task Complexity. The data has subsequently been collated to create a proposed new metric for tasks involving robots, which we have termed Task Fidelity. The paper proposes that Task Fidelity is a quantitative measure of a set robot task in relation to a learner’s solution. By quantifying Task Fidelity educators utilizing robots in schools and in Higher Education will be able to provide tasks commensurate with the expected successful outcomes achieved by the learners.
In contexts other than immersive virtual environments, theoretical and empirical work has identif... more In contexts other than immersive virtual environments, theoretical and empirical work has identified flow experience as a major factor in learning and human-computer interaction. Flow is defined as a 'holistic sensation that people feel when they act with total involvement'. We applied the concept of flow to modeling the experience of collaborative learning in an immersive virtual environment. The aims were, first, to psychometrically evaluate a measurement model of flow and, second, to test a structural model of flow. Pairs of small teams engaged in collaborative problem-solving tasks while communicating by way of an immersive virtual environment. Flow was measured after each session, using Guo and Poole's inventory for measuring flow in human-computer interaction. In relation to the first aim, partial-least-squares analysis demonstrated strong evidence for the measurement model. In relation to the second aim, the structural model was supported: the effect of learning-task characteristics on flow experience was mediated by its precursors, with extraneous variables held constant. It is reasoned that the experiment and resultant analysis of this work contributes to the development of measurement models and structural models of flow in immersive virtual environments.
International Journal of Learning Technology, 2015
There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated h... more There is no consensus regarding a common set of metrics for robot task complexity in associated human-robot interactions. This paper is an attempt to address this issue by proposing a new metric so that the educational potential when using robots can be further developed. Tasks in which students in Japan and UK interact in a 3D virtual space to collaboratively program robots to navigate mazes have resulted in quantitative data of immersion, Circuit Task Complexity and Robot Task Complexity. The data has subsequently been collated to create a proposed new metric for tasks involving robots, which we have termed Task Fidelity. The paper proposes that Task Fidelity is a quantitative measure of a set robot task in relation to a learner’s solution. By quantifying Task Fidelity educators utilizing robots in schools and in Higher Education will be able to provide tasks commensurate with the expected successful outcomes achieved by the learners.
Science education is concerned with the meaningful pursuit of comprehension, knowledge and unders... more Science education is concerned with the meaningful pursuit of comprehension, knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts and processes. In Vygotskian social‐constructivist learning, personal interpretation, decision-making and community cooperation fosters long‐term understanding and transference of learned concepts. In short, the construction of knowledge requires learners to be actively involved in the process of learning. For effective science learning, an instructor's pedagogical approach must be ...
This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the... more This critical and reflective literature review examines international research published over the last decade to summarise the different kinds of measures that have been used to explore cognitive load and critiques the strengths and limitations of those focussed on the development of direct empirical approaches. Over the last 40 years, cognitive load theory has become established as one of the most successful and influential theoretical explanations of cognitive processing during learning. Despite this success, attempts to obtain direct objective measures of the theory’s central theoretical construct – cognitive load – have proved elusive. This obstacle represents the most significant outstanding challenge for successfully embedding the theoretical and experimental work on cognitive load in empirical data from authentic learning situations. Progress to date on the theoretical and practical approaches to cognitive load are discussed along with the influences of individual differences on cognitive load in order to assess the prospects for the development and application of direct empirical measures of cognitive load especially in technology-rich contexts.
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Papers by Stewart Martin