Wikipedia

Saudi Arabia

 

Saudi Arabia, [lower-alpha 4] na-achị obodo Saudi Arabia ( KSA ), [lower-alpha 5] bụ obodo dị na West Asia .  Ọ na-ekpuchi ọnụ ọgụgụ buru ibu nke Arab Peninsula, ma nwee mpaghara ala nke ihe dịka 2150 000 km2 , na-eme ka ọ bụrụ obodo nke ise na-ekwu n'Eshia, nke abụọ kasị ukwuu na mba Arab, na nke ikwu na West  Asia na Middle East.  Ókè ya n’ịkpakpa ahụ Uhie n’ebe ahụ ike;  Jordan, Iraq, na Kuwait n'ebe ugwu;  Ọwara Persian, Qatar na United Arab Emirates n'ebe ụmụaka ihe;  Oman dị na ndị na-ede egwuregwu azụ;  na Yemen n'ebe ndida.  Bahrain bụ obodo dị n'oge oké osimiri ngosi ya.  Ọwara nke Aqaba dị n'ebe ugwu igwu egwuregwu na-ekewa Saudi Arabia na Egypt na Israel .  Saudi Arabia bụ naanị obodo nwere oke osimiri n'ịkpakpakpa Uhie na Ọwara Peshia, ọtụtụ n'ime ala ya nwere ikike kpara nkụ, ala dị njikere, steepụ na ugwu.  Isi obodo Saudi Arabia na obodo kacha ukwuu bụ Riyadh;  Ala-eze ahụ bụkwa ebe obodo ikwu nsso nke Islam dị na Mak na Medina .

Arebia tupu Islam, egwuri nke mebere Saudi Arabia nke oge a, bụ saịtị nke ọtụtụ omenala na maliteanya oge ochie;  past ihe mere eme nke Saudi Arabia na-egosi ụfọdụ n'ime ihe mbụ nke mmadụ n'ụwa.  [1] Okpukpe nke abụọ kasị ukwuu n'ụwa, [2] Islam, ihe na nke bụ Saudi Arabia ogbugbu a.  Na-papa afụ nke asaa, onye aghọ Muhammad mere ka ọnụ ọgụgụ ndị bi na Arab Peninsula dị n'otu wee ngwá agha ndị agha .  [3] Mgbe ọ nwụsịrị na 632, ndị na-eso ụzọ ya n'ụzọ ngwa n'okpuru ọchịchị ndị mbụ n'ofe Arabia, na-emeri nnukwu ala na-enwe ụdị ya (site na Iberian Peninsula dị n'ebe-ego)  ruo ụzọ Central na South Asia n'ebe ihe ngosi) n'ime ihe dị ka iri afọ.  Ndị eze Arab sitere na Saudi Arabia nke oge a ntọala Rashidun (632-661), Umayyad (661-750), Abbasid (750-1517), na Fatimid (909-1171) caliphates, yana ọtụtụ usoro ndị ọzọ na Asia.  Africa, na Europe.

ami Saudi Arabia nke oge a nwere mpaghara ihe mere eme anọ dị iche iche: Hejaz, Najd, na nke Eastern Arabia (Al-Ahsa) na South Arabia ( 'Asir ).  [1] Eze Abdulaziz (nke a maara dị ka Ibn Saud na West) hiwere ala eze Saudi Arabia na 1932. O wee anọ mpaghara ahụ n'otu obodo site na mmeri usoro na 1902 na njide Riyadh, ụlọ nna nke ebe ya.  Ndị nke Saud .  Saudi Arabia bụ eze zuru oke, ebe a na-eme ike ike ndị na- ndabere na ịde n'etiti Eze, Council of Ministers, na mba omenala elites na- onyeisi a ukwuu authoritarian.  [2] [3] [4] A ndị òtù ndị Wahhabi ultraconservative n'ime Sunni Islam dị ka "aṅa nke omenala Saudi " ruo n'afọ 2000. [3] [5] Na 2016, ndị nsụgharị Saudi Arabia mere  nke na-Beta Beta nke mgbanaka mgba Wahabi ma ndị ọrụ nke ndị na-ahụ na-ahụ maka omume, na-abụ mmemme akụ na-ahụ nke Saudi Vision 2030 na ezoro iji kwalite na ihe onyonyo onyonyo mmadụ na ibe ya ma wuo ihe siri ike na ọha mmadụ.  dị irẹ.  [6] [7] [8] Na ya Basic Iwu, Saudi Arabia na-aga n'ihu na-ahụ onwe ya dị ka a eze Arab Islam obodo na Islam dị ka ndị mmadụ ya, Arabic dị ka ya ukara ọrụ, na  Riyadh dị ka isi obodo ya.

. [1]Achọpụtara mpaghara ala na 1938 wee soro ọtụtụ ihe ndị ọzọ na-eso ụzọ na mpaghara ọmụmụ.  [1] [2] Saudi Arabia abụrụla mba nke abụọ na-ahụ pụtara n'ụwa (n'azụ US) na ndị na-ebupụ ego kacha ukwuu n'ụwa, na-achịkwa nchekwa nke abụọ nchoputa n'ụwa yana nchekwa.  gas nke anọ .  [3] Edebere ahụ dị ka akụ na nọrọ mba ụwa na-akpata nnukwu ego yana ọ bụ naanị mba Arab bụ nke nnukwu akụ na nyere G20 .  [4] [5] Steeti ahụ kụla nka n'ihi ọtụtụ ihe na-achagharị ya, ndị ọrụ ya na obodo Yemen, ebubo nkwado iyi ọha egwu Islam na-eme oke ikike mmadụ ya na-enweghị mma, ọke na-agha igbu igbu ya.  mmadụ eme ihe .  [6] [2

A na-ahụta Saudi Arabia ma ikike mpaghara na nke etiti .  [1] [2] Akụ na nna Saudi bụ nke ukwuu na Middle East;  Akụ na aka nke iri na ndị kasị ukwuu n'ụwa site n'ọnụ GDP na nke iri na asaa kasị ukwuu site na PPP .  Dị ka obodo nwere nnukwu mmadụ Development Index, [3] ọ na-enye mahadum n'efu, akara ụtụ isi ego onwe onye, ​​[4] na usoro vidiyo zuru ụwa ọnụ n'efu .  Saudi Arabia bụ ebe obibi nke atọ kacha kwabatara n'ụwa .  Ota otu n'ime ndị kasị nta n'ụwa, yana ihe dị ka ọkụ 50 nke ndị bi na ya dị nde 32.2 [5] n'okpuru afọ 25. [6] Na mgbakwunye na ịbụ onye so na Gulf Cooperation Council  , Saudi Arabia bụ onye na-arụsi ọrụ ike na onye ntọala nke United Nations, Organization of Islamic Cooperation, Arab League, Arab Air Carriers Organisation na OPEC .  Saudi Arabia bụ onye mmekọ ụka nke Shanghai Cooperation Organisation .

. [2]N'ịgbaso nchikota nke ala eze Hejaz na Nejd, a set steeti ọhụrụ ahụ al-Mamlakah al-ʿArabīyah as-Saʿūdīyah ( ntụgharị nke المملكة العربية السعودية</link> na Arabic ) site n'iwu eze na 23 September 1932 site n  'aka onye nchoputa ya, Abdulaziz bin Saud .  Ọ bụ ebe na a na-akarị nke a dị ka "Alaeze Saudi Arabia" na Bekee, [1] ọ nọmba n'ụzọ "alaeze Saudi Arab", [2] ma ọ bụ "Alaeze Arab Saudi"

. [3]Okwu ahụ bụ "Saudi" sitere na mmewere as-Sa'ūdīyah n'aha Arabic nke mba ahụ, nke ụdị nke a maara dị ka nisba, nke sitere na aha dynastic nke ndị eze Saudi, Al Saud ( Arabic </link).  >).  egwuregwu ya na- echiche na obodo bụ ihe mmetụta nke eze.  [1] [2] Al Saud bụ aha Arabik hiwere site n'ịgbakwunye okwu Al, nke ere "nke" ma ọ bụ "nke anụ", [3] n'aha nke nna ochie.  N'ihe egwu Al Saud, nke a bụ Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin, nna nke onye nchoputa nke ike afã nke 18, Muhammad bin Saud.

Akụkọ ihe mere eme

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Anthropomorphic stela (narị afọ nke anọ BC), nkume ájá, 57x27 cm, si El-Maakir-Qaryat al-Kaafa ( National Museum of Saudi Arabia, Riyadh)

. [4]Enwere ihe ọmụma na ebe obibi ndị na Arab Peninsula ọdịdị na ihe dịka 125000 afọ gara aga.  [1] ima e mere n'afọ 2011 ụmụ na ụmụ mmadụ mbụ nke oge a n'ebe ndị malite na Gafe Eshia, Africa ihe dị ka afọ 75000 gara aga gafe Bab-el-Mandeb na-alụ Horn nke Africa na Arabia.  [2] A na-ahụta ala ndị Arab dị ka onye bụ isi na ike nke evolushọn nke hominin na mgbasa.  Arabia nwere nnukwu mmebe gburugburu ebe obibi na Quaternary nke butere iwu igbochi na igwe mmadụ.  Arabia nwere isi ala Paleolithic dị ala bara aka, na ọnụ ọgụgụ saịtị Oldowan dị na mpaghara ahụ na-egosi oke ọrụ nke Arabia na-ahụ hominin nke Eurasia.

N'oge Neolithic, omenala ndị ama ama dịka Al-Magar, onye etiti ya dị na ndịda ọdịda anyanwụ Najd nke oge a tolitere. Enwere ike were Al-Magar dịka "Ngbanwe Neolithic" na ihe ọmụma mmadụ na nka nka. [5] A na-akọwa ọdịbendị a dị ka otu n'ime ụwa mbụ metụtara anụ ụlọ zuru ebe niile, ọkachasị ịnyịnya, n'oge oge Neolithic. [6] [7] E wezụga ịnyịnya, a chọtara anụmanụ dị ka atụrụ, ewu, nkịta, karịsịa nke ụdị Saluki, enyi nnụnụ, falcons na azụ̀ n'ụdị ihe oyiyi nkume na ihe osise nkume. E si na nkume dị n'ógbè ahụ mee ihe oyiyi Al-Magar, o yikwara ka e doziri ihe oyiyi ndị ahụ n'otu ụlọ dị n'etiti nke nwere ike ịbụ na ọ na-ekere òkè dị ukwuu na ndụ ọha na eze na okpukpe nke ndị bi. [8]

[9] [10]Na Mee 2021, ndị ọkachamara ihe ochie sere na saịtị Acheulean dị afọ 35000 aha ya bụ An Nasim na mpaghara Hail nwere ike ịbụ ebe obibi ndị kacha ochie na ugwu Saudi Arabia.  Ebu ụzọ mgbasa ozi ahụ n'afọ 2015 site na iji nhụsianya dị ike na ụdị palaeohydrological.  O nwere nkwụnye ego paleolake akụ ihe Middle Pleistocene .  354 artefacts, axes hand na stone tools, flakes nke ndị nwere nsogbu nyere ozi gbasara omenala ime ngwá ọrụ nke nwoke mbụ dị ndụ bi na South-West Asia.  E wezụga nke ahụ, artefacts Paleolithic yiri ihe foduru ntọala na saịtị Acheulean na Desert Nefud [11] [12]

 
[13]Ihe oyiyi "Ohu Ofufe" (2500 BC), n'elu one meter (3 ft 3 na) n'ịdị elu, dị ogologo ụdị Mesopotamian ma ọ bụ Harappan ọ nwere ike ime.  Foto sitere n'ikike nke National Museum of Korea

[14]Omenala ndị mbụ na Saudi Arabia akụkọ n'oge Ubaid, mgbe ha ikpuchira arịa dị iche iche na Dosariyah .  egwuregwu mbụ nke ahụ kwubiri na mpaghara ihe nke Saudi Arabia bụ ala nna nke ndị mbụ biri na Mesopotemia, na site na mgbakwunye, ọ ga-abụ na ndị Sumer si tọ.  Otú ọ dị, ndị nwere ike dị ka Joan Oates nhọrọ ịhụ sherds nke oge Ubaid n'ebe ụmụaka Arabia wee kwubie na sherds na-ahụ n'anya abụọ ikpeazụ nke oge Ubaid (oge atọ na aná), ebe ike ike obere obere oge.  ihe atụ.  dị ka Ubaid 3 ma ọ bụ Ubaid 2. N'ihi ya, a gbahapụrụ echiche ahụ na ndị na-achị na Saudi Arabia akwagawo n'ebe ndịda Mesopotemia ma guzobe omenala hụrụ mbụ nke mbụ n'ahụ ahụ.

Mgbanwe ihu igwe na ihe nke nna nkụtawoo njedebe nke usoro ndekọ a, ebe ọ bụ na e nwera ihe àmà nke ihe ochie site na mbụ awụ iri na-akpa.  [1] Mkpebi nke mpaghara ahụ na-ebuli ọzọ na oge Dilmun na-akpa na ncheta afọ nke atọ.  Ihe dị iche ndị a ma ama sitere na Uruk na-ezo aka n'ebe a na-akpọ Dilmun, nke ejiri ọla kọpa na-akpata ọtụtụ oge, na oge ndị ọzọ ọ bụ isi iyi osisi nke ndị dị na ndị Mesopotemia.  Ọtụtụ ndị na-akpa atụwo aro na Dilmun bu ụzọ pụta mpaghara mgbanwe nke Saudi Arabia, nke akwụkwọ ya na nnukwu obodo Dilmunite nke Umm an-Nussi na Umm ar-Ramadh n'ime ime yana Tarout n'afọ oké osimiri.  O egwu ka Tarout bụ ọdụ ụgbọ mmiri na isi obodo Dilmun.  [2] Mbadamba ụrọ e dere na Mesopotamia na-egosi na, n'oge mmepụta nke Dilmun, e nwere ụdị usoro iche ahaziri hazi.  N'afọ 1966, ọrụ ụwa na Tarout ọnwụ nke olili oge ochie nke wetara nnukwu ihe oyiyi dị egwu nke n'oge Dilmunite (n'etiti tupu afọ nke atọ BC).  Emere ihe oyiyi a na mpaghara n'okpuru siri ike nke Mesopotemia na bu nka nke Dilmun.

Ka ọ na-erule n'afọ 2200 BC, etiti Dilmun gbanwere n'ihi ihe amaghị ama site na Tarout na Saudi Arabian n'àgwàetiti Bahrain, na mmezi mepere emepe nke ukwuu pụtara n'ebe ahụ, ebe a chọtara ụlọ arụsị siri ike na ọtụtụ puku mkpọmkpọ ozu ndị malitere n'oge a. [13]

 
Qaṣr Al-Farīd, nke kasị ukwuu n'ime ili 131 e gbuturu nkume ndị e wuru site na mbụ awụ nke mbụ BC ruo na mbụ adọ nke mbụ AD, ya na facades ndị a na-achọ mma nke ọma, na nnukwu ebe ochie.  Nabatean mgbe ochie nke Hegra dị na mnkepaghara Al-' Ula n'ime mpaghara Al Madinah na Hejaz .  Ebe UNESCO World Heritage Site 2008.

Ka ọ na-erule ngwụsị nke Bronze Age, ndị mmadụ na ala ndị e dekọrọ n'akụkọ ihe mere eme (Midian na ndị Midian) dị na mpaghara ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ nke Saudi Arabia ka edekọtara nke ọma na Akwụkwọ Nsọ. N'etiti na Tabouk, o si na Wadi Arabah dị n'ebe ugwu ruo na mpaghara al-Wejh na ndịda. [15] Isi obodo Midian bụ Kurayyah, [16] ọ nwere nnukwu nnukwu ụlọ ewusiri ike nke nwere hectare 35 na n'okpuru ya bụ ebe mgbidi nwere hectare iri na ise. Obodo ahụ nabatara ihe ruru puku mmadụ iri ruo puku iri na abụọ. [17] E gosiri ndị Midian n’ihe omume abụọ bụ́ isi na Baịbụl bụ́ ndị na-akọ banyere agha abụọ ndị Izrel na Midian lụrụ, bụ́ ebe e nwere ná mmalite narị afọ nke 11 TOA. Na ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị, a kọwara ndị Midian dị ka ndị eze ise (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Họọ, na Reba) na-achị, aha ndị ahụ yiri ka ọ bụ aha obodo ndị dị mkpa nke Midian. [18] Ọ bụ ihe a na-echekarị na ndị Midian họpụtara otu ebo dị iche iche, ndị na-anọkarị otu ebe biri na Hijaz mgbe ndị mmekọ ya na-ata nri, na mgbe ụfọdụ na-akwakọrọ ihe ruo n'ala dị anya dị ka Palestine. [19] Ndị Midian na-akwagharị bụ otu n’ime ndị mbụ ji azụrụ kamel mere ka ha nwee ike ịgafe n’ebe ndị siri ike n’ógbè ahụ. [19]

 
Nnukwu akpụrụ akpụ sitere na Al-'Ula na Hejaz (narị afọ nke isii–4 BC), ọ gbasoro nhazi nka nke ala-eze Lihyan . E ji ọcha see ihe oyiyi mbụ ahụ. ( Louvre Museum, Paris ) [20]

Na njedebe nke narị afọ nke asaa BC, alaeze na-apụta pụtara na ihe nkiri akụkọ ihe mere eme nke ugwu ọdịda anyanwụ Arabia. Ọ malitere dịka Sheikdom nke Dedan, nke tolitere n'alaeze nke ebo Lihyan. [21] Ngosipụta izizi nke ọchịchị steeti, Eze nke Lihyan, bụ n'etiti narị afọ nke isii BC. [22] Nkeji nke abụọ nke ala-eze ahụ hụrụ mgbanwe nke Dedan site na steeti nkịtị nke naanị mmetụta ha nwere bụ n'ime mgbidi obodo ha, gaa n'alaeze nke nwere ngalaba sara mbara nke gosipụtara oke mmepeanya Lihyan. [21] Steeti nke atọ mere na mmalite narị afọ nke atọ BC site na ọrụ akụ na ụba gbawara agbawa n'etiti ndịda na ugwu nke mere ka Lihyan nweta nnukwu mmetụta dabara adaba na ọnọdụ ya n'okporo ụzọ ndị njem. [23]

Lihyan bụ alaeze Arab oge ochie siri ike na ahaziri nke ọma nke rụrụ ọrụ omenala na akụ na ụba na mpaghara ugwu-ọdịda anyanwụ nke ala Araba. [24] Ndị Lihyan chịrị nnukwu ngalaba sitere na Yathrib nke dị na ndịda na akụkụ nke Levant n'ebe ugwu. [25] N'oge ochie, a na-akpọbu Gulf of Aqaba Gulf of Lihyan. Akaebe maka nnukwu mmetụta Lihyan nwetara. [26]

Ndị Lihyan dabara n’aka ndị Nabataea n’ihe dịka 65 BC mgbe ha jichiri Hegra wee na-aga Tayma, na n’isi obodo ha Dedan na 9 BC. Ndị Nabataean chịrị akụkụ dị ukwuu nke ugwu Arebia ruo mgbe Alaeze Ukwu Rom weghaara ngalaba ha, bụ́ nke kpọgharịrị ya Arabia Petraea, ma nọgide n'okpuru ọchịchị ndị Rom ruo 630. [27]

 
N'ókè kachasị ukwuu, Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) kpuchiri 11100 000. km2 [28] na nde mmadụ 62 (pasent 29 nke ndị bi n'ụwa), na-eme ka ọ bụrụ otu n'ime alaeze ukwu kachasị ukwuu n'akụkọ ihe mere eme na mpaghara abụọ na oke nke ndị bi n'ụwa. Ọ dịkwa ukwuu karịa alaeze ukwu ọ bụla gara aga n'akụkọ ihe mere eme.

N’oge na-adịghị anya tupu Islam abịa, ewezuga obodo ndị a na-ere ahịa n’obodo mepere emepe (dị ka Mecca na Medina), ọtụtụ n’ime ihe a ga-aghọ Saudi Arabia bụ ndị obodo na-akwagharị akwagharị. [29] A mụrụ onye amụma Alakụba Muhammad na Mecca n'ihe dị ka 570 OA . Na mmalite narị afọ nke asaa, Muhammad jikọtara ebo dị iche iche nke peninsula wee mepụta otu ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị okpukpe Islam. [30] Mgbe ọ nwụsịrị na 632, ndị na-eso ụzọ ya gbasaa ngwa ngwa n'okpuru ọchịchị ndị Alakụba n'ofe Arabia, na-emeri nnukwu ala na-enwetụbeghị ụdị ya (site na Iberian Peninsula dị n'ebe ọdịda anyanwụ ruo akụkụ Central na South Asia n'ebe ọwụwa anyanwụ) n'ime ihe dị ka iri afọ. N'oge na-adịghị anya Arabia ghọrọ mpaghara ndọrọ ndọrọ ọchịchị nke ụwa ndị Alakụba ka a na-elekwasị anya na nnukwu ala na ndị e meriri ọhụrụ. [30]

 
Agha nke Badr, 13 Maachị 624 OA

N'ime ọtụtụ narị afọ nke 10, ndị Qarmatians Isma'ili -Shi'ite bụ ike kachasị ike na Ọwara Peshia. Na 930, ndị Qarmatians kwakọrọ ihe Mecca, kpasuru ụwa ndị Alakụba iwe, ọkachasị na izu ohi nke Nkume ojii . [31] Na 1077–1078, onye Arab Sheikh aha ya bụ Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni meriri ndị Qarmatians na Bahrain na al-Hasa site n'enyemaka nke Alaeze Ukwu Seljuq ukwu wee guzobe usoro ndị eze Uyunid . [32] [33] Uyunid Emirate mechara gbasaa na ókèala ya sitere na Najd ruo ọzara Siria . Ndị Usfurid kwaturu ha na 1253. [34] Ọchịchị Usfurid dara mbà mgbe ndị ọchịchị Peshia nke Hormuz weghaara Bahrain na Qatif na 1320. [35] Ndị vassals nke Ormuz, usoro ndị eze Shia Jarwanid bịara ịchị ọwụwa anyanwụ Arabia na narị afọ nke 14. [36] [37] Ndị Jabrids weghaara mpaghara ahụ mgbe ha kwaturu ndị Jarwanid na narị afọ nke 15 wee lụso Hormuz ọgụ ihe karịrị afọ iri abụọ na mpaghara ahụ maka ụtụ akụ na ụba ya, ruo n'ikpeazụ kwetara ịkwụ ụtụ na 1507. [36] Ebo Al-Muntafiq mechara weghara mpaghara ahụ wee bata n'okpuru Ottoman suzerainty. Ndị agbụrụ Bani Khalid mechara nupụrụ ha isi na narị afọ nke 17 wee weghara ọchịchị. [38] Ọchịchị ha sitere na Iraq ruo Oman n'ogo ya ma ha bịakwara n'okpuru Ottoman suzerainty. [39] [40]

  1. ↑ Saudi Arabia has carried out 800 executions since 2015, says rights group. Independent.co.uk (15 April 2020).
  2. ↑ Safran (1988). Saudi Arabia: The Ceaseless Quest for Security. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9484-0. 
  3. ↑ Hariri-Rifai (1990). The heritage of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. GDG Exhibits Trust. ISBN 978-0-9624483-0-0. 
  4. ↑ Out of Africa I: The First Hominin Colonization of Eurasia.
  5. ↑ Al Magar – Paleolithic & Neolithic History. paleolithic-neolithic.com. Archived from the original on 17 August 2019. Retrieved on 19 November 2018.
  6. ↑ Sylvia. "Desert finds challenge horse taming ideas", BCC, 26 February 2013. Retrieved on 13 November 2016.
  7. ↑ John. "Carved in stone: were the Arabs the first to tame the horse?", thenational, 11 March 2013. Retrieved on 12 November 2016.
  8. ↑ Discovery points to roots of arabian breed – Features (en-US). Horsetalk.co.nz (2011-08-27). Archived from the original on 2022-05-19. Retrieved on 2022-05-07.
  9. ↑ Scerri (2021-05-12). "The expansion of Acheulean hominins into the Nefud Desert of Arabia" (in en). Scientific Reports 11 (1): 10111. DOI:10.1038/s41598-021-89489-6. ISSN 2045-2322. PMID 33980918. 
  10. ↑ Saudi Arabia discovers new archaeological site dating back to 350,000 years (English). Saudigazette (2021-05-12). Retrieved on 2021-05-17.
  11. ↑ Saudi Arabia discovers a 350,000-year-old archaeological site in Hail (en). The National (2021-05-13). Retrieved on 2021-05-17.
  12. ↑ Ancient site in Nefud Desert offers glimpse of early human activity in Saudi Arabia (en). Arab News. Retrieved on 2021-05-17.
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 Roads of Arabia p. 180
  14. ↑ Roads of Arabia p. 175.
  15. ↑ Koenig 1971; Payne 1983: Briggs 2009
  16. ↑ The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East.
  17. ↑ Michael D. Coogan.
  18. ↑ Knauf, 1988
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia p. 163.
  20. ↑ Farag (2022-09-07). Louvre Museum in Paris to display Saudi Arabia's ancient AlUla statue (en). The National. Retrieved on 2022-09-24.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective – p. 192
  22. ↑ J. Schiettecatte: The political map of Arabia and the Middle East in the third century AD revealed by a Sabaean inscription – p. 183
  23. ↑ The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective
  24. ↑ Rohmer, J. & Charloux, G. (2015), "From Liyan to the Nabataeans: Dating the End of the Iron Age in Northwestern Arabia" – p. 297
  25. ↑ Lion Tombs of Dedan. Saudi Arabia Tourism Guide (19 September 2017).
  26. ↑ Discovering Lehi.
  27. ↑ Taylor (2005). Petra. London: Aurum Press Ltd, 25–31. ISBN 978-9957-451-04-2. 
  28. ↑ Taagepera (September 1997). "Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia". International Studies Quarterly 41 (3): 475–504. DOI:10.1111/0020-8833.00053. 
  29. ↑ Gordon (2005). The Rise of Islam. Greenwood Publishing. ISBN 978-0-313-32522-9. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Lindsay (2005). Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World. Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-313-32270-9. 
  31. ↑ Glassé, Cyril (2008).
  32. ↑ Commins (2012). The Gulf States: A Modern History. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-84885-278-5. 
  33. ↑ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 94–95.
  34. ↑ Joseph Meri, Medieval Islamic Civilization, Taylor and Francis, 2006, p. 95
  35. ↑ Curtis E. Larsen.
  36. ↑ 36.0 36.1 Juan Ricardo Cole (2002). Sacred space and holy war: the politics, culture and history of Shi'ite Islam. Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-86064-736-9. Retrieved on 27 September 2017. 
  37. ↑ Arabia. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012.
  38. ↑ Zāmil Muḥammad al-Rashīd.
  39. ↑ Yitzhak Nakash (2011)Reaching for Power: The Shi'a in the Modern Arab World p. 22
  40. ↑ "Arabia, history of."
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