Papers by ULUM Journal of Religious Inquiries
ULUM, 2020
The non-binding Islamic legal rulings or opinions (fatwās), which are issued by Muslim scholars o... more The non-binding Islamic legal rulings or opinions (fatwās), which are issued by Muslim scholars or Islamic religious institutions in response to questions of Muslim individuals may be said to represent the most dynamic genre of (past or present) Islamic legal literature. It was traditional case that the practice of iftā’ resided in the individual authority and effort of Muslim scholars. However, after the establishment of na- tional and international Islamic religious institutions at the beginning of the twentieth century, this practice has largely become the responsibility of specific bodies tasked with issuing fatwās from that day to this. Saudi Arabia’s Dār al-Iftā’ (the General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Iftā’) and Turkey’s Diyanet (the Pres- idency of Religious Affairs) are concrete outcomes of the twentieth century. Both institutions provide an idiosyncratic insight into the practice of iftā’ and more specifically its development and application within two quite different societies. One of the primary concerns of this thesis is therefore to identify the authority, function and role of the two institutions and their official fatwās in their respective environments.
ULUM, 2020
Colonialism, which emerged as a natural consequence of the Western thought that reduces "the othe... more Colonialism, which emerged as a natural consequence of the Western thought that reduces "the other" to "the same," has become apparent, particularly with the modernization process. Non-Western societies, who have been subjected to modernization, have had to struggle for "recognition" against the "imperialism of the same". "Recognition", the core idea of Fanon's thought, is also a "Hegelian concept"; the theory of recog- nition is based on Hegelian thought. We could assume that the post-Hegelian world took shape around the Hegelian dialectical thinking. Fanon, who is from an old colonial world where it was not yet customary to challenge slavery, thinks that stepping out of the dialectical Hegelian circle could enable you to resist and speak for yourself. This is because Fanon thinks that dialectics, which determines the necessity as the basis of freedom, strips one from his own being and own self. The other obstacle in the path of decolonization, which Fanon sees as a tool for changing the order of the world, is that the slave wants to look like the master; in Fanon's words, black skin wears a white mask, which is conceptualized as internalized orientalism. The present study focuses on Fanon's thought and aims to examine Hegel and his dialectics, along with Fanon and his critical dialogue with Hegelian dialectics and phenomenology around the theme of internalized ori- entalism, with a particular reference to Black Skin White Masks. Thanks to the deconstruction method it uses, and based on Fanon's black experience, the present study attempts to demonstrate that getting rid of alien- ation and speaking for yourself could be achieved by stepping out of Hegelian dialectical thinking and set- ting the removal of the mask as a precondition.
ULUM, 2020
his study on the field of early Tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis) history deals with the correlation bet... more his study on the field of early Tafsir (Qur’anic exegesis) history deals with the correlation between tafsir and classical Arabic dictionaries in the first four centuries of the Hijri. Examining the contact between the two disciplines allows the direction, nature and character of the relationship between the tafsir literature and dictionaries to be revealed. For this purpose, the dictionaries and commentary materials of the first four centuries are first examined using the text analysis method. The strength of Arabic lexicographical activities in the first four centuries is evident from the many strong texts that were produced. The plentiful works from this period have made the preference of Arabic dictionaries necessary with their high representational value. The preference of dictionaries that can provide abundant data on Qur’anic interpretation is due to the fact that the main subject of the thesis is the study of the tafsir-dictionary relationship. The temporal limitation of the study being the first four centuries AH required a halt at the stage described as the peak age of Arabic dictionaries. Considering this temporal scheme has a positive effect on the point of observing the effect of historical periods. Moreover, if the sharh and hashiye period of dictionaries started in the 5th century AH, encountering a wide range of tafsir data in the first four centuries is to be expected. However, limiting the scope of the study to the first four centuries of the Hijri also has a negative side. The negative effect of this temporal limitation is the difficulty of determining the relationship between species. This sit- uation arises from the distribution of the types of works produced in this process. In other words, while commentaries in the first four centuries are generally positioned at the beginning of this process, the part concentrating on dictionaries corresponds to the end of this process. Therefore, while examining the effect of commentaries on dictionaries is possible, examining the opposite effect of dictionaries on commentaries is difficult. Therefore, in order to observe the effect of dictionaries belonging to the first four centuries on tafsirs, examining tafsirs produced after the fourth century becomes necessary. As a matter of fact, linguistic commentaries having emerged in the fourth century is no coincidence, as this considered to be the period dictionaries emerged. For these works and their types to be free from the chain of interaction is unimagina- ble. Such exegeses focus on word analysis, Zamakhshari’s (d. 538/1144) al-Kashshāf, Abu Hayyan’s (d. 745/1344) al-Bahr al-muḥiṭ and Qurṭubī’s (d. 671/1273) al-Jāmiʻ li-aḥkām al-Qur’ān, indicate that past lexical accumulation had prepared the necessary conditions for the writing linguistic commentaries. The main aim of this doctoral dissertation in the field of tafsir is to reinforce the existence of the interactions between classical Arabic dictionaries and tafsirs from the first four centuries of the Hijri. Evidence of this shows, lex- icography to have been open to the direction of tafsir reveals its intensive work on tafsir. Arabic dictionaries use of Qur’anic verses as a material for istishad had the aim of strengthening their own data. However, Qur’anic verses in the dictionaries were not used just to reinforce data. Istishad with Qur’anic verses also prepares a space for their interpretation. Therefore, rich data on tafsir, appear in classical Arabic dictionar- ies.
ULUM, 2020
Bu makalenin amacı İslam düşüncesinin en önemli isimlerinden olan İbn Haldûn’un nedenselliğe ve a... more Bu makalenin amacı İslam düşüncesinin en önemli isimlerinden olan İbn Haldûn’un nedenselliğe ve aklî bilgiye dair düşüncelerine eleştirel bir şekilde yaklaşmaktır. Son derece yetkin ve etkili bir sosyolog, tarihçi ve devlet adamı olan İbn Haldûn’un Mukaddime eseri ümran ilmini etraflıca ele alan bir şekilde hazır- lanmıştır. İbn Haldûn tarafından tesis edilen ümran ilminin dayandığı en temel prensiplerden birisi şüphesiz ki nedensellik ilkesidir. Alemde olan her şeyi sebep-sonuç ilişkisi içinde anlamlandıran İbn Haldûn’un aynı metodu mucize ve keramet gibi konularda kullanmadığını görmekteyiz. Akıl ve vahiy ayrımına dayanan bu farklılaşmanın nedensellik bağlamında ortaya çıkan çelişkiyi tam olarak bertaraf ettiğini düşünmüyoruz. Makalenin ele aldığı diğer bir konu da İbn Haldûn’un filozoflara aklî bilgi konusunda yönelttiği eleştiridir. Tikellerden tümel oluşturmanın doğru bir yöntem olmadığını iddia eden İbn Haldûn tümellerin realiteye uygun olmadığına inanmaktadır. İbn Haldûn filozofları metafizik bilgi bağlamında eleştirir. Ancak biz ümran ilminin bir tür metafizik olduğunu kabul edersek İbn Haldûn’un yaklaşımının çelişkili olduğunu söyleye- biliriz.
ULUM, 2020
Meşihat makamının 1914-1922 yılları arasında yayınladığı Ceride-i İlmiye önceleri resmi yazışmala... more Meşihat makamının 1914-1922 yılları arasında yayınladığı Ceride-i İlmiye önceleri resmi yazışmaların, işlem- lerin duyurulduğu bir dergi özelliğindeydi. Sonraları Osmanlı devletinin, içerisinde bulunduğu durumun etki- siyle toplumu bilgilendirmek, yönlendirmek, halka psikolojik destek sağlamak vb. için daha çok ilmî ve dinî konularda makale yazmaya ağırlık veren bir dergi hüviyetine bürünmüştür. Resmî kurumun dergisi olması dolayısıyla ülkenin birçok yerine ulaştırılma imkânının olması, toplumu bilgilendirme noktasında yaygın din eğitimine katkı sağlamıştır. Çalışmanın amacı dini bilginin halka ulaştırılması hususunda Ceride-i İlmiye’nin ne düzeyde başarılı olduğunun tespit edilmesidir. Bu amaçla her biri dini ilimler konusunda yetkin ve saygın ya- zarlar tarafından kaleme alınarak dergide yayınlanan 9 makale belirlenerek içerik, dil, bilgi ve üslup açısından değerlendirilmiştir. Yapılan araştırmada söz konusu derginin Meşihat makamının resmi yayın organı olmasın- dan dolayı, dönemin resmi otoritesinin sahip olduğu fikirleri kısmen yansıttığı görülmüştür. İncelenen maka- lelerde, Osmanlı Devleti’nin içinde bulunduğu olumsuzlukların nedenlerinin İslam’ın emir ve yasaklarından uzaklaşılmış olmasında arandığı ve bu durumdan kurtulmanın ancak dine sımsıkı sarılmakla mümkün olacağı vurgusunun öne çıkarıldığı tespit edilmiştir. Makalelerde çoğunlukla sade, anlaşılır bir üslup tercih edilse de daha ileri düzeyde dini bilgiye sahip kimselerin anlayabileceği makalelerin de olduğu belirlenmiştir. Makale- lerde kavramların açıklanmasına, ayetlerden, hadislerden, ehl-i sünnet âlimlerinin görüşlerinden alıntılar ya- pılmasına ehemmiyet verildiği dikkat çekmiştir. Ayrıca dönemsel problemlerin konu seçiminde etkili olduğu anlaşılmıştır.
ULUM, 2020
Jarida al-Ilmiah, originally known as Ceride-i Ilmiye in Ottoman Turkish, published by the Mashih... more Jarida al-Ilmiah, originally known as Ceride-i Ilmiye in Ottoman Turkish, published by the Mashihat Authority between 1914 and 1922, was initially a publication in which official correspondence and transactions were announced to the public. Later, with the impact of the difficult situation that the Ottoman State experienced at the time, it grew into a journal that focused more on writing articles on scientific and religious subjects, to inform the society, to guide it and to psychologically support it. Since it was a journal published by an official institution and enjoyed the opportunity to be delivered to remote parts of the country, it promoted non- formal religious education by informing the society. The purpose of this study is to assess to what extent Jarida al-Ilmiah was successful in providing the public with religious knowledge. With this purpose in mind, nine articles, each written by a competent and respected author in religious sciences, were sampled and evaluated with respect to content, language and style. The results revealed that the journal partially reflected the ideas of the official authority of the time as it was the official publication of the Mashihat Authority. A major point highlighted in the articles was that the perceived reasons for the problems of the Ottoman State were considered to be getting away from the orders and disregarding prohibitions of Islam and that it was only possible to get rid of this plight by firmly adhering to the religion. Although a plain and comprehensible style was apparent in the articles, there were also pieces of writing that could appeal to people with more advanced religious knowledge. A striking feature of the articles was that they placed emphasis on elucidating critical concepts, quoting verses, hadiths, and the views of Ahl as-Sunnah scholars. Moreover, it was found that the problems of the period were influential in the selection of the issues that the journal addressed.
ULUM, 2020
een in four verses of the Qurʾān and two different versions of a ḥadīth narrated by the Abū Huray... more een in four verses of the Qurʾān and two different versions of a ḥadīth narrated by the Abū Hurayra (d. 57/678), al-Asmāʾ al-ḥusnā is an expression that refers to the beautiful or most beautiful names of Allah. Since the earliest periods of Islam, muslim scholars have written various books focusing on issues, such as al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā', the meanings of these names and praying with these names. The book Tafsīr al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā, written by the Abū Isḥāq al-Zajjāj (d. 311/923), a scholar specializing in language and syntax, is the first known work devoted to this subject. Similarly, the book al-Asmāʾ wa-l-ṣifāt by Ashʿarī theologian ʿAbd al- Qāhir al-Baghdādī (d. 429/1037-38) addresses the same subject. The present study discusses Māturīdite scholar Abū Ishāk al-Saffār's (d. 534/1139) understanding of Kalām based on his interpretation of al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā. Approximately one-third of his theology book called Talkhīṣ al-adilla li-qawāʿid al-tawḥīd is com- posed of his interpretation of al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā. An examination of the related sections in it reveals that al- Saffār attempts to explain the issue of divinity based on one hundred seventy-seven al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā. al- Saffār first explains the divine names provided in an alphabetical order from a semantic perspective. After- wards, he explains each holy name theologically by linking it to a related subject in theology. An analysis of his book Talkhīṣ al-adilla would reveal that he deals with all other theology issues in connection with the beautiful names of God, except for the subject of caliphate. Because no other work is known to have ad- dressed the beautiful names of God in such detail in the Ḥanafite-Māturīdite theological literature before al- Saffār, we decided to investigate what he offered in his work further. This article aims to introduce and evaluate his understanding of theology based on his interpretation of al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā. Thus, the original- ity of his book will be considered within the framework of the literature of al-asmāʾ al-ḥusnā.
ULUM, 2020
What are the sources of the naming of the ‘ilm al-kalām? In the emergence of this term, is the ex... more What are the sources of the naming of the ‘ilm al-kalām? In the emergence of this term, is the external influ- ences of Islāmic thought decisive than internal dynamics or not? Although it is not actually true, today there are many claims that link the naming of kalām to external influences. This problem of imputation is also the process of “self-fulfillment of a prophecy”. So how did the issue come to this? In the beginning, the first group of orientalists exemplified the concept of ‘kalām’ through the word ‘logos’ to improve the understand- ing of their readers or explain what meaning of kalâm is. Subsequent orientalists have loaded a truth value on this view by way of using this information as a reference. Some Muslim scholars who wanted to support religious knowledge with the philosophical method encouraged this understanding or approaching even if they did not want to do this. Thus, the claim that the term ‘kalām’ was taken from the Greeks was gradually adopted. In fact, there is no evidence in Islāmic classical sources confirming this claim. In reality, those con- siderations are a result of the Greek Western-centered perspective. In our article prepared to draw attention to this view, the conceptual ground on which the imputation of the Kalām science is based on Islāmic thought has been investigated. The thesis of the word ‘kalām’ which namely consists of the ability of speech, the speech of God, the reading of the Qur'an, and the reason for defending the Islamic creed is belong to Islamic thought is encouraged, and also the similarity between ‘kalām’ and ‘logos’ are accepted only commonness of natural language and basic human experiences.
ULUM, 2020
Öteki, kişi ya da bir grubun kendini tanımladığı özelliklerin dışında kalanları ifade eden bir ka... more Öteki, kişi ya da bir grubun kendini tanımladığı özelliklerin dışında kalanları ifade eden bir kavramdır. İnsan ve toplumlar bireysel ve kültürel açıdan birbirlerinden farklı özellikler taşırlar. Farklılık, hayatın her alanında görülen bir olgudur. İnanç, dil, etnik köken ve kültürel alanlardaki farklılıklar aslında insan hayatına anlam ve değer katan olgulardır. Bununla birlikte söz konusu farklılıklar çoğu kez birer çatışma nedeni haline de gele- bilmektedir. Farklılıkların korunması, yaşatılması, saygı duyulması ve insan hayatının zenginliği olduğunun öğ- retilmesi, çatışmaların önlenmesi ya da asgari düzeye çekilebilmesi açısından mutlaka gereklidir. Bütün bun- ların gerçekleştirilebilmesi ise eğitim ve hukuki düzenlemeler ile mümkün olabilir. Kültürel farklılıkların bir arada yaşaması anlamını taşıyan çok kültürlülük, insan toplumlarının temel özelliklerinden birisidir. Bu ne- denle, toplumda farklılıklarla ilgili yaşanan sorunlar ve çözüm yollarının da dünden bugüne ortak tarafları vardır. Bu düşünceden hareketle makalenin amacı, çok kültürlü yapıya sahip Osmanlı toplumunda, İslam dı- şındaki inançlara mensup tebaanın eğitim haklarının hukuki kaynakları ve bu hakkın nasıl kullanıldığının tanı- tılmasıdır. Öncelikle Osmanlı hukuk sistemi İslam Hukukuna dayanmaktadır. İslam hukukunda Müslüman ve gayrimüslimlerin görev ve sorumlulukları birbirlerinden ayrılmıştır. Ancak bu farklılık gayrimüslimlerin inanç, ibadet, eğitim, seyahat ve ticaret gibi temel hak ve hürriyetlerden mahrum oldukları anlamına gelmez. İslam hukuku, farklı inanç mensuplarının temel haklarını, kendi yapısı içinde güvence altına alır. Bunun ötesinde Türk devlet anlayışında, farklılıkların hukuki hakları kullanmalarına saygılı olmak geleneği vardır. Bu itibarla Osmanlı Devleti din ve devlet geleneğine bağlı gerekçelerle farklı etnik köken ve dînî inançlara mensup teba- asının eğitim haklarına saygılı olmuş ve kullanmalarına engel olmamıştır. Osmanlı Devleti’nde eğitim sistemini Tanzimat öncesi ve sonrası olarak iki döneme ayırmak gerekir. Her iki dönemde de Müslüman ve gayrimüs- limlerin eğitim kurumları temel özellikleri açısından birbiriyle benzer özellikler taşır. Her iki grubun eğitim kurumları vakıflar tarafından desteklendiği gibi amaç, program ve öğretmenleri de dini niteliklidir. Tanzimat döneminde 1869 yılında Maarif-i Umumiye Nizamnamesinin hazırlanmasından sonra eğitim üzerindeki dînî etki, yerini toplumsal ihtiyaç ve eşit vatandaşlık haklarına dayanan bir anlayışa terk etmiştir. Eğitim faaliyetleri daha önce sadece cemaat vakıflarına bağlı olarak yerine getirilirken, Tanzimat döneminde bu kurumların yanı sıra resmi devlet okulları (mektep) da kurulmuştur. Eğitim sisteminde yapılan düzenlemeler sonucunda askeri ve sivil devlet okullarına bütün vatandaşlar ayırım yapılmadan kabul edilmiştir. Yeni eğitim sisteminin plan- landığı komisyonlarda gayrimüslim üyeler de yer almıştır. Böylece eğitim alanında hem idare hem de anlayış olarak laik bir yapıya doğru adım atılmıştır. Eğitim teşkilatının kapsamlı olarak düzenlendiği Maarif-i Umumiye Nizamnamesinde gayrimüslimlerin kendi cemaatleri için ayrıca özel okullar açmalarına izin verilmiştir. Yine bu yasal düzenleme ile ilkokulların her cemaat için ayrıca açılması ve programda yer alan din derslerinin de farklılıklara göre okutulması kararlaştırılmıştır. Orta dereceli okulların programlarında II. Abdülhamit döne- minden itibaren İslam din derslerine yer verilmiş; ancak gayrimüslimler muaf tutulmuştur. Orta dereceli mek- teplerde din derslerine yer verilmesinin nedeni, gayrimüslimlerin devlet okulları yerine genellikle kendilerinin kurduğu özel cemaat ya da yabancı mekteplerini tercih etmeleridir. Osmanlı Devleti hukuki olarak “öteki” yahut “azınlık” statüsünde tuttuğu gayrimüslimlere eğitim alanında haklar tanımıştır. Bu haklar sayesinde asırlar boyunca Osmanlı idaresinde yaşayan hiçbir dini ve etnik yapı yok olmamış, bütün farklılıklar dini ve kültürel kimliklerini korumuştur. Bu anlayış ve uygulama, günümüz toplumları için de dikkate alınması gere- ken önemli bir tecrübe olarak kabul edilmelidir.
ULUM , 2020
The comparison of Ottoman and European history can be viewed as a novel approach in historical st... more The comparison of Ottoman and European history can be viewed as a novel approach in historical studies. Therefore, this study adopted such an approach by focusing on two important figures of the Ottoman and British intellectual life. These two people, who are often known for their catalogue and bibliographic works, were studied with respect to their intellectual skills, educational and intellectual backgrounds. The study focused on similarities and differences, and efforts were made to uncover the reasons lying behind them. This is because, being leading figures in their own cultural contexts, Kātib Çelebī and Edward Bernard are intellectuals of the Ottoman Classical Period and of the Renaissance, respectively. This study basically aimed to compare and contrast Kātib Çelebī [d. 1067/1657] and Edward Bernard [d. 1697] in terms of their educa- tional background, studies, and mental background. It addressed how both scholars were brought up, what kind of works they produced besides why and how they produced them. Furthermore, based on the data from this comparison, the study also investigated if Kātib Çelebī could be considered as a Renaissance intel- lectual. The reader's attention was drawn to the characteristics of the period, and an overall description of a typical intellectual in the seventeenth century was provided. Thus, this was intended to paint a global picture of the mentality of the period. Therefore, it was shown that alternative perspectives are also possible when it comes to Ottoman and European history.
ULUM, 2020
Esmâ-i hüsnâ, Kur’ân’da dört âyette ve Ebû Hüreyre’den (öl. 57/678) rivayet edilen bir hadisin fa... more Esmâ-i hüsnâ, Kur’ân’da dört âyette ve Ebû Hüreyre’den (öl. 57/678) rivayet edilen bir hadisin farklı iki ver- siyonunda yer alan Allah’ın güzel/en güzel isimleri anlamında bir ifadedir. Esmâ-i hüsnânın hangi isimler olduğu, bu isimlerin anlamları ve bu isimlerle dua etme gibi konuları içeren kitaplar, erken dönemlerden itibaren İslâm âlimleri tarafından kaleme alınmıştır. Lugat ve nahiv âlimi Ebû İshak ez-Zeccâc’ın (öl. 311/923) Tefsîru esmâ’illâhi’l-hüsnâ adlı eseri, bu konuya tahsis edilmiş bilinen ilk çalışmadır. Eş‘âri kelâmcısı Abdülkāhir el-Bağdâdî’nin (öl. 429/1037-38) el-Esmâʾ ve’ṣ-ṣıfât adlı eseri de aynı konuya dairdir. Bu çalışmada, Mâtürîdî âlimi Ebû İshâk es-Saffâr’ın (öl. 534/1139) esmâ-i hüsna yorumu çerçevesinde kelâm anlayışı ele alınmıştır. Onun Telḫîṣü’l-edille li-ḳavâʿidi’t-tevḥîd adlı kelâm eserinin yaklaşık üçte birlik bir kısmını esmâ-i hüsnâ yorumu oluşturmaktadır. Bu bölüm incelendiğinde Saffâr’ın ulûhiyet konusunu 177 esmâ-i hüsnâyı esas alarak izah etmeye çalıştığı görülmektedir. Saffâr, alfabetik bir sıra içerisinde ele aldığı ilâhî isimleri öncelikle lugavî (semantik) yönden açıklamaktadır. Sonrasında ise incelediği ilahî ismi, bir kelâm konusu ile bağlantı kurarak kelâmî perspektifle izah etmektedir. Onun eseri incelendiğinde hilâfet konusu hariç diğer kelâm bahislerini, esmâ-i hüsna ile bağlantılı kurarak ele aldığı anlaşılmaktadır. Saffâr öncesi Hanefî- Mâtürîdî kelâm literatürü içinde esmâ-i hüsnânın bu kadar kapsamlı ele alındığı başka bir eserin bilinme- mesi, bizi bu konu özelinde araştırma yapmaya yöneltmiştir. Bu makalede onun esmâ-i hüsnâ temelli kelâm anlayışı tanıtılmaya ve değerlendirilmeye çalışılacaktır. Böylece esmâ-i hüsnâ literatürü çerçevesinde onun eserinin özgünlüğü de ele alınmış olacaktır.
ULUM, 2020
The other is a notion that refers to those that are outside the characteristics that a person or ... more The other is a notion that refers to those that are outside the characteristics that a person or group describes themselves. People and societies have different characteristics from each other individually and culturally. Difference is a phenomenon seen in all aspects of life. Faith, language, ethnicity, and cultural differences are phenomenas that add meaning and values to human life actually. Nevertheless, these differences can be- come cause of conflict often. Teaching of preserving, sustaining, respecting of differences and that these are wealth of human life is absolutely necessary for prevent or to keep to the minimum level conflicts. All these can be realized through education and legal regulations. Multiculturalism which means coexistence of cul- tural differences is one of the main characteristics of human societies. Because of that, problems and solu- tions related to differences in society also have common sides from yesterday to today. Based on this idea, the aim of the article is to introduce the legal sources of educational rights of subjects belonging to beliefs other than Islam and how this right is used in Ottoman society with a multicultural structure. Firstly, Otto- man legal system is based on Islamic Law. In Islamic Law, duties and responsibilities of muslims and non- muslims are different from each other. But this difference does not mean that non-muslims deprived main rights and freedoms such as faith, worship, education, travel and trade. Islamic law guarantees the funda- mental rights of members of different faiths within its structure. In addition, in the Turkish understanding of the state, there is a tradition of respecting differences in the exercise of legal rights. In this respect, the Ottoman State respected the educational rights of its subjects belonging to different ethnicities and religious beliefs on grounds related to religion and state tradition and did not prevent them from using them. It is necessary to divide the Ottoman education system into two periods before and after the Constitutional Re- forms (Tanzimat) Era. In both periods muslim and non-muslim’s educational institutions have similiar basic features. Educational institutions of both groups are supported by foundations, and their purpose, program and teachers are religious. After the preparation of the General Education Regulations (Maarif-i Umumiye Nizamnamesi) dated 1869 during the Tanzimat period, religious influence on education has been replaced by an understanding based on social needs and equal civil rights. While educational activities were previ- ously carried out only under the Community Foundations, Official Public Schools (mektep) were established in addition to these institutions during the Tanzimat period. As a result of the regulations made in the edu- cation system, all citizens were admitted to military and civilian public schools without distinction. Non- muslim members had taken part in commisions which new education system planned, too. Thus, a step was taken towards a secular structure in the field of education as both administration and understanding. In the General Education Regulations, in which the educational organization is organized extensively, non-mus- lims are also allowed to open private schools for their communities. With the same judicial arrangement, it was permitted to open primitive schools for every religious communities. Since the Abdulhamid II era, reli- gious classes have been included in the programs of secondary schools, but non-muslims have been exempt. The reason why religious classes are included in secondary schools is that non-muslims usually prefer private congregations or foreign schools established by them instead of Public Schools. The Ottoman state le- gally granted rights in the field of education to non-muslims, who held the status of “other” or “minority”. Thanks to these rights, no religious and ethnic structure that lived under Ottoman rule for centuries was destroyed, and all differences retained their religious and cultural identity. This understanding and practice should be considered an important experience that should also be considered for today's societies.
ULUM, 2020
The purpose of this study is to critically approach the thoughts of causality and rational knowle... more The purpose of this study is to critically approach the thoughts of causality and rational knowledge in Ibn Khaldūn, who is one of the greatest names of Islamic philosophy. Ibn Khaldūn, who is a tremendously com- petent sociologist, historian, and politician, constituted his work entitled Muqaddima in a way exhibiting the science of ʿumrān. One of the fundamentals of science undoubtedly is the theory of causality. We see that Ibn Khaldūn, who construed everything in the universe in the light of the causality, does not use the same theory when miracles and supernatural events are in question. This differentiation basing on the distinction of the human intellect and divine revelation has not eliminated any contradiction coming out in the context of the causality. Another matter we examine in this study is the critique of Ibn Khaldūn about rational knowledge against philosophers. According to him, it is not a correct method reaching the universals with abstractions made from the particulars. It is because such universals have not been compatible with the facts. Ibn Khaldūn criticizes the philosophers in the context of metaphysical knowledge. But, if we consider the science of ʿumrān to be a kind of metaphysics, we might say that his method contains some contradictions.
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ULUM Dini Tetkikler Dergisinin İngilizce ve Türkçe yayınlanan 3/2 2020 sayısı okuyucular... more Duyuru:
ULUM Dini Tetkikler Dergisinin İngilizce ve Türkçe yayınlanan 3/2 2020 sayısı okuyucularla buluştu. 8 araştırma, 6 tercüme, 2 doktora tezi özeti ve 1 kitap değerlendirmesinden oluşan son sayıya https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ulum linkten ulaşabilirsiniz.
ULUM, 2019
The aim of this study is to clarify whether the content of empathy, which is considered the proce... more The aim of this study is to clarify whether the content of empathy, which is considered the process that motivates prosocial behaviour and prevents individuals and people doing harm to each other, is in harmony with the Qurʾān or not. If Muslims understand each other and non-Muslims as well, this will help in decreasing the conflicts and contribute to world peace. In this paper, to present the theoretical framework of empathy we will consider the concepts closely related to empathy such as sympathy and altruism etc. After that, we will discuss the verses that appear to be related to empathy in the Qurʾān. During that effort, a risk of exceeding our human level awaits us: To claim that we can empathize with God. Can we put ourselves in His place? I must say from the perspective of the Muslim approach "No!" Nevertheless, considering both classical and modern era Qur'anic commentaries, we can investigate God's Book sent to the prophet Muḥammad (pbuh) to understand His intention. This is quite normal unless we claim that our level of understanding is absolute. According to preliminary findings, people are encouraged by the Qurʾān to do self-criticism, to keep themselves away from transgression, and not to take revenge. We suggest that, taken together, the logic behind these recommendations is for us to develop a sense of empathy in any situation of conflict.
ULUM, 2019
This study aims to shed light on the position of Imām al-Māturīdī (d. 333/944) on atomism. It con... more This study aims to shed light on the position of Imām al-Māturīdī (d. 333/944) on atomism. It consists of three sections. The first section will delineate some theories of matter along with the meaning of certain pertinent terms, which were widely accepted during al-Māturīdī's time. The following section will discuss whether Imām al-Māturīdī understood such notions as body (jism), substance (jawhar), and accident (ʿaraḍ) within the frame of traditional Islamic atomism. Moreover, this section will give some information on how al-Māturīdī approached the issues pertaining to physics and cosmology. The last section will cover the development of atomism in the Māturīdiyya kalām school after Imām al-Māturīdī.
ULUM, 2019
A book review is a multifaceted critical analysis of a book and an evaluation on the quality, val... more A book review is a multifaceted critical analysis of a book and an evaluation on the quality, value/meaning, significance, and contribution of the book to its own subject/field. It is not a report, summary, or advertisement, rather it is a serious scholarly work. Book reviews have certain functions such as, for academics, being aware of the recently published books and saving time by getting an idea about those publications through reading experts' evaluations about their significance, value, and contributions; for publishers, finding an opportunity for a kind of advertisement of their publications that mostly remain to a limited environment like academia; for authors, receiving a feedback about their books to enable them to improve them in future editions. Although there is not only one right method for book reviews, because they are personal and reflect the reviewer's personal ideas and remarks, this note makes suggestions on how to compose an ideal book review after providing a brief description of the nature of book reviews and includes some relevant technical notes hoping to be a helpful guide for those who want to write a book review.
ULUM, 2019
Materialism, which reduces the whole of existence as simply matter and its interactions, and resp... more Materialism, which reduces the whole of existence as simply matter and its interactions, and respectively ignores the intervention of a divine being into the universe; it is often traced back to a time when philosophy was born. However, when we study the historical process, we find that materialism was a thought that was generally rejected by the majority. With the enlightenment and secularism that came following the Renaissance, Reforms and 17th Century Scientific Revolution in Europe, materialism gained more followers. In the 20th century, in what was known as its golden era, it became a world view by manifesting itself in the religious, social, political and economic spheres of life. Materialism came to the Ottomans following the first half of the 19th century through students who went to the West and newly established military and medical schools. Despite materialism forming the backbone of debates on westernization and secularism (perpetuating worldliness) towards the end of the 19th century, this did not deter many intellectuals from endorsing much of the values that came with materialism, and it led to many repercussions within the political and social realms of the Ottoman world. On the other hand, materialism was not welcomed but rather disapproved of by many Ottoman scholars of kalām(mutakallimūn)such as Abdullatif Harputi (1842-1916), Izmirli İsmail Hakkı (1868-1946), Mehmet Şemsettin Günaltay (1883-1961) and Ömer Nasûhi Bilmen (1882-1971). However, their criticism has caused them to break away from the classical period mutakallimūnin some respect. We attempt to outline the mentioned late period Ottoman mutakallimūn’s critique of materialism and compare their views with the classical mutakallimūn’s seemingly materialistic worldview.
ULUM, 2019
This paper studies the understanding and interpretation of a specific ḥadīth by Muhy al-dīn Ibn ʿ... more This paper studies the understanding and interpretation of a specific ḥadīth by Muhy al-dīn Ibn ʿArabī . His view on the ḥadīthabout ‘holding up the hands during ṣalāh(raf‘ al-yadain)’ is explained in the light of his well-known book, Futūḥāt al-Makkiyya. Besides the general knowledge and terminology of fiqhand ḥadīth, Ibn ʿArabī also utilized his unique methods and methodologies of taṣawwufto interpret the ḥadīth. It is concluded that in interpretation of a ḥadīth, Ibn ʿArabī differed from other scholars as he skillfully used these three areas of knowledge (fiqh, ḥadīth, and taṣawwuf) as a trivet and by synthesizing these three sciences, he approached to the issue in a comprehensive way. The dreams, one of Ibn ʿArabī’s special methods and one of Sufism’s wisdom sources, are presented within the context of the interpretation of ḥadīth. While Ibn ʿArabī was inspired the ḥadīthby a dream, he also stated its place and status in ḥadīth sources. Moreover, he derived several conclusions by critically reviewing the related ḥadīths.
ULUM, 2019
In XIX. century, the Ottoman State has witnessed changes in a number of areas. A review of the co... more In XIX. century, the Ottoman State has witnessed changes in a number of areas. A review of the content of penal codes legislated during Tanzimat Era in both 1840 and 1851 reveals that the transformation in criminal procedure, judicial system, administrative fields was attempted to be accommodated with penal codes. The aim of this study is to seek answers to the question of how the criminal law of the Ottoman State changed in the period starting with the 1858 Penal Code in the nineteenth century within scope of ta'zir (discretionary punishment) and more particularly, crime of murder and complicity as one of special forms of crime. The discussions of the criminal law scholars of the period about the nature of Article 45 regarding complicity in the 1858 Penal Code and their proposed solutions and how they developed new rules due to need in the process and at this point how they benefited from European penal codes, commentaries and their scholars will be attempted to demonstrate. More importantly, it will be witnessed how Ottoman judges used the classical principles in their minds when implementing the article of code. However, when looking from a broad perspective, we will see how the Classical Law School, in which Ottoman State was included through its 1858 Penal Code, and the crime policy of France and the French Penal Code have influenced Ottoman Criminal Law.
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ULUM Dini Tetkikler Dergisinin İngilizce ve Türkçe yayınlanan 3/2 2020 sayısı okuyucularla buluştu. 8 araştırma, 6 tercüme, 2 doktora tezi özeti ve 1 kitap değerlendirmesinden oluşan son sayıya https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ulum linkten ulaşabilirsiniz.
ULUM Dini Tetkikler Dergisinin İngilizce ve Türkçe yayınlanan 3/2 2020 sayısı okuyucularla buluştu. 8 araştırma, 6 tercüme, 2 doktora tezi özeti ve 1 kitap değerlendirmesinden oluşan son sayıya https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/ulum linkten ulaşabilirsiniz.
The concern of proving the omnipotence of God and justification of miracles has caused the early mutakallimūn either to reject the principle of causality completely or to handle it in a way that is to allow God's intervention and miracles. Afterwards, the doctrine of atomism interpreted in accordance with Islamic principles has included in the Kalām and it is accepted that the universe has an impermanent structure consisting of substance and accidents, and nature maintains to functioning via God’s continuous creation of accidents on the substance at any moment. Nevertheless, some Muʽtazilī theologians have not seen an obstacle to the approval of nature and causality to accept the existence of an omnipotent creator.
In this study, the theory of nature (ṭabʽ), which is one of two approaches that emerged in the early periods of Kalām as part of a conception of the universe and its consequences related to causality has been tackled. The theory of nature has emerged in the second century of Hijra as an alternative theory to atomism and has survived for nearly two centuries. Muʽtazilī scholars who adopted this theory such as Muʻammar b. ʽAbbād al-Sulamī (d. 215/830), Abū Isḥāq al-Naẓẓām (d. 231/845), Abū ʽUthmān al-Jāḥiẓ (d. 255/869) and Abū al-Qāsim al-Kaʽbī (d. 319/931) have defended innate and permanent nature of beings and the causality and continuity based on it in the universe. However, this theory has weakened and gone out of existence with the effect of criticisms directed by atomistic mutakallimūn to the theory and its defenders.
The study consists of an introduction and two chapters. In the introduction, firstly, a conceptual framework related to the study is presented and information is given about the problem, method, basic sources and terminology of the study. Then, a theoretical basis for concepts of causality and the classification of causes is established; thereafter the concepts of causality in the history of thought and the contexts in which the problem of causality are discussed has been put forward on the basis of the philosophical and theological traditions. In the first chapter, the concepts that form the basis of natural causality are given; in this context, the concepts related with the structure of universe such as nature, essence, accident, body and void; the theories related functioning of nature such as maʻnā, ṭabʽ/ṭabīʽa, kumūn-ẓuhūr, iʻtimād, fanā-bakā and tawlīd/tawallud are examined. In the second chapter, firstly the philosophical roots of the theory of nature have been researched, and then the idea of natural causality based on this theory and how the cause-effect relations are explained in the theories of iʻtimād-tawlīd and ‘ādah-iqtirān are discussed. Afterwards, the results of the thought of natural causality on proofs of God, divine acts and its relationship with nature, laws of nature, miracles and continuous creation have been discussed by having regard to the criticisms directed against this idea.
The first thing to consider about the issue of naturalism is that there are different naturalist theories throughout the history of thought. At this point, there are important differences between Muslim theologians' naturalist theories and atheist-deist naturalist approaches, as there are differences among themselves. Naturalist theologians who agree that there is a constant and permanent nature in beings and causality and continuity based on it in the universe are differentiated in their understanding of cosmology. While al-Muʻammar and al-Kaʽbī accepted a naturalism based on the doctrine of atomism, al-Naẓẓām and al- Jāḥiẓ developed a theory of nature which was based on anti-atomism and the idea of kumūn-ẓuhūr. When we consider that the atomic understanding of al-Muʻammar and al-Kaʽbī is different from each other, it is seen that there are three different theories among Muʻtazilī theologians.
It is possible to see the reflections of differences in nature theory in their understanding of causality. Meantime, atomist naturalists have a more rigid causality concept, anti-atomist naturalists have adopted a moderate theory of causality that allows for divine intervention and miracles. Nevertheless, all naturalist theologians have received intense criticisms both from their own sect and from dissident sects. Some of these criticisms are that the acceptance of nature and the principle of causality will break down the evidence of hudūth, limit the divine acts, make the beings independent from God and make miracles impossible. On the other hand, opponents of natural causality can be evaluated in two categories. Although the Basran branch of Mu‘tazilite rejects naturalism but adopts an understanding based on the theories of tawlīd, iʽtimād and ‘ādah, which includes necessity in some subjects and contingency in some subjects. On the other hand, the early Ashʽarī’s have tended to explain all relations between beings with God’s habit and completely reject the principle of causality as a result of their atomic interpretations.
When we look at the criticisms directed to natural causality, al-Muʻammar and al-Kaʻbī’s defence of a relatively strict concept of causality and the use of expressions restricting the activity of God on the beings make it difficult to eliminate these criticisms. The fact that lack of primary sources of their understanding of nature and causality reinforces this situation. Nevertheless, we believe that it is not right to consider equal the naturalist theologians with atheist and deist naturalist approaches. Yet all naturalist theologians believe that natures and causal laws can only affect the accidents and that the creation of a new object and substance is only within the power of God; they have also acknowledged that God is the indirect agent of all the acts they create, as he is the creator of objects and substances. However, while al- Naẓẓām and al-Jāḥiẓ leave a wider area for divine activity and miracles, stating that God can interfere with these natures and laws when God wishes and that he can act on the contrary; al-Muʻammar and al-Kaʽbī have argued that God can act within the framework of the laws and natures created by God, and accordingly miracles can only occur under these laws.
The restrictive statements that divine acts will occur within the framework of the principle of causality do not mean that naturalist Muslim theologians think that power of God is limited or beings dominate over God. On the contrary, they have stated that God can create beings without these natures if God wishes. They are based on the fact that God created beings in this way and determine the laws of nature in this manner. In other words, it is God's own will that restricts the divine acts. Therefore, there is no damnification to omnipotence of God. On the other side, the fact that beings act according to the principle of nature and causality does not mean that they can exist in a way that is wholly independent from God. Because it is not coherent to think that an entity that needs others to exist may have complete independence to survive.