Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research), Feb 1, 2016
Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with ... more Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with one hand or two has been treated as a strictly phonological matter. We argue that accounting for two-handed signs also requires considering meaning as a motivating factor. We report results from a Swadesh list comparison, an analysis of semantic patterns among two-handed signs, and a picture-naming task. Comparing four unrelated languages, we demonstrate that the two hands are recruited to encode various relationship types in sign language lexicons. We develop the general principle that inherently "plural" concepts are straightforwardly mapped onto our paired human hands, resulting in systematic use of the two hands across sign languages. In our analysis, "plurality" subsumes four primary relationship typesinteraction, location, dimension, and composition-and we predict that signs with meanings that encompass these relationships-such as 'meet', 'empty', 'large', or 'machine'-will preferentially be twohanded in any sign language.
By comparing two sign languages of approximately the same age but which arose and developed under... more By comparing two sign languages of approximately the same age but which arose and developed under different social circumstances, we are able to identify possible relationships between social factors and language structure. We argue that two structural properties of these languages are related to the size and the heterogeneity versus homogeneity of their respective communities: use of space in grammatical structure and degree of lexical and sublexical variability. A third characteristic, the tendency toward single-argument clauses appears to be a function of a different social factor: language age. Our study supports the view that language is not just a structure in the brain, nor is it strictly the domain of the individual. It is very much a socio-cultural artifact. Keywords: community and language structure; sign languages; ISL; ABSL; variation; space; argument structure
Just as vocalization proceeds in a continuous stream in speech, so too do movements of the hands,... more Just as vocalization proceeds in a continuous stream in speech, so too do movements of the hands, face, and body in sign languages. Here, we use motion-capture technology to distinguish lexical signs in sign language from other common types of expression in the signing stream. One type of expression is constructed action, the enactment of (aspects of) referents and events by (parts of) the body. Another is classifier constructions, the manual representation of analogue and gradient motions and locations simultaneously with specified referent morphemes. The term signing is commonly used for all of these, but we show that not all visual signals in sign languages are of the same type. In this study of Israeli Sign Language, we use motion capture to show that the motion of lexical signs differs significantly along several kinematic parameters from that of the two other modes of expression: constructed action and the classifier forms. In so doing, we show how motion-capture technology can help to define the universal linguistic category “word,” and to distinguish it from the expressive gestural elements that are commonly found across sign languages.
A common feature of discourse coherence is hierarchical organization: more generally, central rel... more A common feature of discourse coherence is hierarchical organization: more generally, central relations (characterizing the overall topic or goal) dominate complementary or modifying relations. In this hierarchy, higher levels tend to be marked by stronger prosodic cues than lower levels. This study seeks to understand how such a system emerges in human communicationwhat is present at the outset, and what takes time to develop. Specifically, we investigate whether the conceptualization of hierarchical organization precedes overt linguistic structuring, and whether distinct types and strengths of prosodic marking at different hierarchical levels can be discerned in the process of emergence. The only empirical evidence for such an investigation comes from sign languages, because they can arise de novo at any time. Sign languages offer the additional advantage of directly linking instantiations of linguistic structure to articulations of different visually perceived bodily articulators. Our study of a young sign language, Israeli Sign Language (ISL), finds that conceptual hierarchical structuring of discourse arises very early. However, the organization of bodily articulators to linguistically mark hierarchical information takes time to emerge: Younger ISL signers use smaller, less salient articulators at lower levels of the hierarchy compared to older signers.
Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science, 2010
Where does our psycholinguistic framework stand with respect to linguistic frameworks? In her ove... more Where does our psycholinguistic framework stand with respect to linguistic frameworks? In her overview of linguistic approaches to English compounding, Lieber (2009b) notes that theories can be classified into two sets. One set takes a purely syntactic or morphological prospective (e.g. Bauer 1978; Lees 1963; Levi 1978; Lieber 1992), whereas the other proposes that interpretive processes are not tied to syntactic processes but, instead, rely on lexical-semantic structures (e.g. Allen 1978; Lieber 2004, 2009a; Ryder 1994; Selkirk 1982). Our framework integrates these two approaches in that it relies on a compound's morphosyntactic structure as well as on conceptual knowledge about the constituents.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
One of the most important breakthroughs in contemporary phonology was the discovery that the sign... more One of the most important breakthroughs in contemporary phonology was the discovery that the signs of sign languages are comprised of a finite list of formational units which recombine to create large vocabularies. It showed that the property of duality of patterning does not result from the nature of the vocal-auditory channel, but rather characterizes any natural human language, including manual-visual languages. However, sign languages are also unlike spoken languages. In sign languages, unlike spoken languages, form and meaning are closely linked, and iconicity permeates all levels of sign language grammar, including phonology. This chapter reveals the subtle interplay between the meaningless and the meaningful at the phonological level in sign languages, showing that a strict bifurcation is neither warranted nor explanatory. Instead, the ubiquity of iconicity in sign languages reveals the flexibility of human language, a flexibility that is heightened in artistic expression. Authentic examples from sign language theatre show how latent phonological iconicity can be blatantly exploited, becoming a potent aesthetic and communicative tool.
The term “multimodality” incorporates visible gestures as part of language, a goal first put forw... more The term “multimodality” incorporates visible gestures as part of language, a goal first put forward by Adam Kendon, and this idea revolutionized the scope of linguistic inquiry. But here I show that the term “multimodality” itself is rife with ambiguity, sometimes referring to different physical channels of transmission (auditory vs. visual), and sometimes referring to the integration of linguistic structures with more imagistic, less conventionalized expressions (see David McNeill's work), regardless of the physical channel. In sign languages, both modes are conveyed in a single, visual channel, revealed here in the signing of actors in a sign language theatre. In spoken languages, contrary to expectations raised by defining “modality” in terms of the physical channel, we see that the channel of transmission is orthogonal to linguistic and gestural modes of expression: Some visual signals are part and parcel of linguistic structure, while some auditory (intonational) signals h...
A basic design feature of language is duality of patterning, the existence of a meaningless level... more A basic design feature of language is duality of patterning, the existence of a meaningless level of elements that combine to create meaningful morphemes and words (Hockett 1960). Although the signs of sign languages have iconic origins, Stokoe (1960) showed that sign languages do have a meaningless level, akin to phonology, setting the stage for much subsequent linguistic research on sign languages at all levels (Sandler and Lillo-Martin 2006). Here we show, following Lepic et al. (2016), that part of the phonological structure across sign languages is often motivated by meaning. Specifically, two-handedness is motivated, as are details of structure in two-handed signs previously believed to be strictly phonological and hence meaningless, such as symmetry, dominance, type of movement, and patterns of contact between the two hands. We further develop a templatic model of sign structure (Sandler 1986, 1989) to reveal which aspects of the phonological form in two-handed signs are ofte...
Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with ... more Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with one hand or two has been treated as a strictly phonological matter. We argue that accounting for two-handed signs also requires considering meaning as a motivating factor. We report results from a Swadesh list comparison, an analysis of semantic patterns among two-handed signs, and a picture-naming task. Comparing four unrelated languages, we demonstrate that the two hands are recruited to encode various relationship types in sign language lexicons. We develop the general principle that inherently “plural” concepts are straightforwardly mapped onto our paired human hands, resulting in systematic use of the two hands across sign languages. In our analysis, “plurality” subsumes four primary relationship types — interaction, location, dimension, and composition — and we predict that signs with meanings that encompass these relationships — such as ‘meet’, ‘empty’, ‘large’, or ‘machine’ — wil...
Compositionality is a basic property of language, spoken and signed, according<br> to which... more Compositionality is a basic property of language, spoken and signed, according<br> to which the meaning of a complex structure is determined by the meanings of<br> its constituents and the way they combine (e.g., Jackendoff, 2011 for spoken<br> language; Sandler 2012 for constituents conveyed by face and body signals in<br> sign language; Kirby & Smith, 2012 for emergence of compositionality). Here<br> we seek the foundations of this property in a more basic, and presumably prior,<br> form of communication: the spontaneous expression of emotion. To this end, we<br> ask whether features of facial expressions and body postures are combined and<br> recombined to convey different complex meanings in extreme displays of<br> emotions. There is evidence that facial expressions are processed in a<br> compositional fashion (Chen & Chen, 2010). In addition, facial components<br> such as nose wrinkles or eye opening elicit syste...
Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research), Feb 1, 2016
Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with ... more Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with one hand or two has been treated as a strictly phonological matter. We argue that accounting for two-handed signs also requires considering meaning as a motivating factor. We report results from a Swadesh list comparison, an analysis of semantic patterns among two-handed signs, and a picture-naming task. Comparing four unrelated languages, we demonstrate that the two hands are recruited to encode various relationship types in sign language lexicons. We develop the general principle that inherently "plural" concepts are straightforwardly mapped onto our paired human hands, resulting in systematic use of the two hands across sign languages. In our analysis, "plurality" subsumes four primary relationship typesinteraction, location, dimension, and composition-and we predict that signs with meanings that encompass these relationships-such as 'meet', 'empty', 'large', or 'machine'-will preferentially be twohanded in any sign language.
By comparing two sign languages of approximately the same age but which arose and developed under... more By comparing two sign languages of approximately the same age but which arose and developed under different social circumstances, we are able to identify possible relationships between social factors and language structure. We argue that two structural properties of these languages are related to the size and the heterogeneity versus homogeneity of their respective communities: use of space in grammatical structure and degree of lexical and sublexical variability. A third characteristic, the tendency toward single-argument clauses appears to be a function of a different social factor: language age. Our study supports the view that language is not just a structure in the brain, nor is it strictly the domain of the individual. It is very much a socio-cultural artifact. Keywords: community and language structure; sign languages; ISL; ABSL; variation; space; argument structure
Just as vocalization proceeds in a continuous stream in speech, so too do movements of the hands,... more Just as vocalization proceeds in a continuous stream in speech, so too do movements of the hands, face, and body in sign languages. Here, we use motion-capture technology to distinguish lexical signs in sign language from other common types of expression in the signing stream. One type of expression is constructed action, the enactment of (aspects of) referents and events by (parts of) the body. Another is classifier constructions, the manual representation of analogue and gradient motions and locations simultaneously with specified referent morphemes. The term signing is commonly used for all of these, but we show that not all visual signals in sign languages are of the same type. In this study of Israeli Sign Language, we use motion capture to show that the motion of lexical signs differs significantly along several kinematic parameters from that of the two other modes of expression: constructed action and the classifier forms. In so doing, we show how motion-capture technology can help to define the universal linguistic category “word,” and to distinguish it from the expressive gestural elements that are commonly found across sign languages.
A common feature of discourse coherence is hierarchical organization: more generally, central rel... more A common feature of discourse coherence is hierarchical organization: more generally, central relations (characterizing the overall topic or goal) dominate complementary or modifying relations. In this hierarchy, higher levels tend to be marked by stronger prosodic cues than lower levels. This study seeks to understand how such a system emerges in human communicationwhat is present at the outset, and what takes time to develop. Specifically, we investigate whether the conceptualization of hierarchical organization precedes overt linguistic structuring, and whether distinct types and strengths of prosodic marking at different hierarchical levels can be discerned in the process of emergence. The only empirical evidence for such an investigation comes from sign languages, because they can arise de novo at any time. Sign languages offer the additional advantage of directly linking instantiations of linguistic structure to articulations of different visually perceived bodily articulators. Our study of a young sign language, Israeli Sign Language (ISL), finds that conceptual hierarchical structuring of discourse arises very early. However, the organization of bodily articulators to linguistically mark hierarchical information takes time to emerge: Younger ISL signers use smaller, less salient articulators at lower levels of the hierarchy compared to older signers.
Amsterdam studies in the theory and history of linguistic science, 2010
Where does our psycholinguistic framework stand with respect to linguistic frameworks? In her ove... more Where does our psycholinguistic framework stand with respect to linguistic frameworks? In her overview of linguistic approaches to English compounding, Lieber (2009b) notes that theories can be classified into two sets. One set takes a purely syntactic or morphological prospective (e.g. Bauer 1978; Lees 1963; Levi 1978; Lieber 1992), whereas the other proposes that interpretive processes are not tied to syntactic processes but, instead, rely on lexical-semantic structures (e.g. Allen 1978; Lieber 2004, 2009a; Ryder 1994; Selkirk 1982). Our framework integrates these two approaches in that it relies on a compound's morphosyntactic structure as well as on conceptual knowledge about the constituents.
This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative... more This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY
One of the most important breakthroughs in contemporary phonology was the discovery that the sign... more One of the most important breakthroughs in contemporary phonology was the discovery that the signs of sign languages are comprised of a finite list of formational units which recombine to create large vocabularies. It showed that the property of duality of patterning does not result from the nature of the vocal-auditory channel, but rather characterizes any natural human language, including manual-visual languages. However, sign languages are also unlike spoken languages. In sign languages, unlike spoken languages, form and meaning are closely linked, and iconicity permeates all levels of sign language grammar, including phonology. This chapter reveals the subtle interplay between the meaningless and the meaningful at the phonological level in sign languages, showing that a strict bifurcation is neither warranted nor explanatory. Instead, the ubiquity of iconicity in sign languages reveals the flexibility of human language, a flexibility that is heightened in artistic expression. Authentic examples from sign language theatre show how latent phonological iconicity can be blatantly exploited, becoming a potent aesthetic and communicative tool.
The term “multimodality” incorporates visible gestures as part of language, a goal first put forw... more The term “multimodality” incorporates visible gestures as part of language, a goal first put forward by Adam Kendon, and this idea revolutionized the scope of linguistic inquiry. But here I show that the term “multimodality” itself is rife with ambiguity, sometimes referring to different physical channels of transmission (auditory vs. visual), and sometimes referring to the integration of linguistic structures with more imagistic, less conventionalized expressions (see David McNeill's work), regardless of the physical channel. In sign languages, both modes are conveyed in a single, visual channel, revealed here in the signing of actors in a sign language theatre. In spoken languages, contrary to expectations raised by defining “modality” in terms of the physical channel, we see that the channel of transmission is orthogonal to linguistic and gestural modes of expression: Some visual signals are part and parcel of linguistic structure, while some auditory (intonational) signals h...
A basic design feature of language is duality of patterning, the existence of a meaningless level... more A basic design feature of language is duality of patterning, the existence of a meaningless level of elements that combine to create meaningful morphemes and words (Hockett 1960). Although the signs of sign languages have iconic origins, Stokoe (1960) showed that sign languages do have a meaningless level, akin to phonology, setting the stage for much subsequent linguistic research on sign languages at all levels (Sandler and Lillo-Martin 2006). Here we show, following Lepic et al. (2016), that part of the phonological structure across sign languages is often motivated by meaning. Specifically, two-handedness is motivated, as are details of structure in two-handed signs previously believed to be strictly phonological and hence meaningless, such as symmetry, dominance, type of movement, and patterns of contact between the two hands. We further develop a templatic model of sign structure (Sandler 1986, 1989) to reveal which aspects of the phonological form in two-handed signs are ofte...
Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with ... more Traditionally in sign language research, the issue of whether a lexical sign is articulated with one hand or two has been treated as a strictly phonological matter. We argue that accounting for two-handed signs also requires considering meaning as a motivating factor. We report results from a Swadesh list comparison, an analysis of semantic patterns among two-handed signs, and a picture-naming task. Comparing four unrelated languages, we demonstrate that the two hands are recruited to encode various relationship types in sign language lexicons. We develop the general principle that inherently “plural” concepts are straightforwardly mapped onto our paired human hands, resulting in systematic use of the two hands across sign languages. In our analysis, “plurality” subsumes four primary relationship types — interaction, location, dimension, and composition — and we predict that signs with meanings that encompass these relationships — such as ‘meet’, ‘empty’, ‘large’, or ‘machine’ — wil...
Compositionality is a basic property of language, spoken and signed, according<br> to which... more Compositionality is a basic property of language, spoken and signed, according<br> to which the meaning of a complex structure is determined by the meanings of<br> its constituents and the way they combine (e.g., Jackendoff, 2011 for spoken<br> language; Sandler 2012 for constituents conveyed by face and body signals in<br> sign language; Kirby & Smith, 2012 for emergence of compositionality). Here<br> we seek the foundations of this property in a more basic, and presumably prior,<br> form of communication: the spontaneous expression of emotion. To this end, we<br> ask whether features of facial expressions and body postures are combined and<br> recombined to convey different complex meanings in extreme displays of<br> emotions. There is evidence that facial expressions are processed in a<br> compositional fashion (Chen & Chen, 2010). In addition, facial components<br> such as nose wrinkles or eye opening elicit syste...
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