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British nuclear tests at Maralinga

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Maralinga Atomic Test Site in South Australia
Near Maralinga in Australia
300px
Map showing nuclear test sites in Australia
Coordinates Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
Type Nuclear test range
Site information
Operator United Kingdom
Status Inactive
Site history
In use 1955–1963
Test information
Subcritical tests 700
Nuclear tests 7
Remediation Completed in 2000

British Nuclear tests at Maralinga occurred between 1956 and 1963 at the Maralinga site, part of the Woomera Prohibited Area in South Australia and about 800 kilometres north-west of Adelaide. A total of seven nuclear tests were performed, with approximate yields ranging from 1 to 27 kilotonnes of TNT (4.2 to 113.0 TJ). Two major test series were conducted at the Maralinga site: Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler. The site was also used for hundreds of minor trials, many of which were intended to investigate the effects of fire or non-nuclear explosions on atomic weapons.

The site was contaminated with radioactive materials and an initial cleanup was attempted in 1967. The McClelland Royal Commission, an examination of the effects of the tests, delivered its report in 1985, and found that significant radiation hazards still existed at many of the Maralinga test areas. It recommended another cleanup, which was completed in 2000 at a cost of $108 million. Debate continued over the safety of the site and the long-term health effects on the traditional Aboriginal owners of the land and former personnel. In 1994, the Australian Government paid compensation amounting to $13.5 million to the local Maralinga Tjarutja people.

The Maralinga tests were subject to extreme secrecy, but by the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British nuclear tests. Some journalists investigated the subject and political scrutiny became more intense. Journalist Brian Toohey ran a series of stories in the Australian Financial Review in October 1978, based in part on a leaked Cabinet submission.[1] In June 1993, New Scientist journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article titled "Britain's dirty deeds at Maralinga" and several related articles.[2] In 2007, Maralinga: Australia's Nuclear Waste Cover-up by Alan Parkinson documented the unsuccessful clean-up at Maralinga.[3][4][5] Popular songs about the Maralinga story have been written by Paul Kelly, Midnight Oil, Anderson, Bruford, Wakeman, Howe and Alistair Hulett.

Historical context

On 3 October 1952, the United Kingdom tested its first nuclear weapon, named "Hurricane", at the Monte Bello Islands off the coast of Western Australia. A year later the first nuclear test on the Australian mainland was Totem 1 (9.1 kilotonnes of TNT (38 TJ)) at Emu Field in the Great Victoria Desert, South Australia, on 15 October 1953. Totem 2 (7.1 kilotonnes of TNT (30 TJ)) followed two weeks later on 27 October.[6]

The British government formally requested a permanent test facility on 30 October 1953. Due to concerns about nuclear fallout from the previous tests at Emu Field and the site's inadequate infrastructure and water supply, the recently surveyed Maralinga site was selected for this purpose.[7] The new site was announced in May 1955.[6][8] It was developed as a joint, co-funded facility between the British and Australian governments.[9]

Prior to selection, the Maralinga site was inhabited by the Pitjantjatjara and Yankunytjatjara Aboriginal people, for whom it had a "great spiritual significance". Many were relocated to a new settlement at Yulata, and attempts were made to curtail access to the Maralinga site. These were often unsuccessful.[10]

Major tests

Two major test series were conducted at the Maralinga site: Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler.

Operation Buffalo

Buffalo
Information
Country United Kingdom
Test site Maralinga Range, SAU
Period 1956
Number of tests 4
Test type air drop, dry surface, tower
Max. yield 15 kilotonnes of TNT (63 TJ)
Navigation
Previous test series Operation Mosaic
Next test series Operation Antler

Operation Buffalo commenced on 27 September 1956. The operation consisted of the testing of four nuclear devices, codenamed One Tree, Marcoo, Kite and Breakaway respectively. One Tree (12.9 kilotonnes of TNT (54 TJ)) and Breakaway (10.8 kilotonnes of TNT (45 TJ)) were exploded from towers, Marcoo (1.4 kilotonnes of TNT (5.9 TJ)) was exploded at ground level, and Kite (2.9 kilotonnes of TNT (12 TJ)) was released by a Royal Air Force Vickers Valiant bomber from a height of 35,000 feet (11,000 m).[11][12][13] This was the first British launching of a nuclear weapon from an aircraft.

The fallout from these tests was measured using sticky paper, air sampling devices, and water sampled from rainfall and reservoirs.[14] The radioactive cloud from Buffalo 1 (One Tree) reached a height of 37,500 ft (11,400 m), exceeding the predicted 27,900 ft (8,500 m), and radioactivity was detected in South Australia, Northern Territory, New South Wales, and Queensland. All four Buffalo tests were criticised by the 1985 McClelland Royal Commission, which concluded that they were fired under inappropriate conditions.[15]

In 2001, Dr Sue Rabbit Roff, a researcher from the University of Dundee, uncovered documentary evidence that troops had been ordered to run, walk and crawl across areas contaminated by the Buffalo tests in the days immediately following the detonations;[16] a fact that the British government later admitted.[17] Dr Roff stated that "it puts the lie to the British government's claim that they never used humans for guinea pig-type experiments in nuclear weapons trials in Australia."[18]

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See also: List of nuclear weapons tests of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom's Buffalo series tests and detonations
Name [note 1] Date time (UT) Local time zone [note 2][19] Location [note 3] Elevation + height [note 4] Delivery, [note 5]
Purpose [note 6]		 Device [note 7] Yield [note 8] Fallout [note 9] References Notes
1/One Tree 27 September 1956 07:30:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: One Tree Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 180 m (590 ft) + 31 m (102 ft) tower,
 Red Beard 15 kt [20][21][22]
2/Marcoo 4 October 1956 07:00:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: Marcoo Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 180 m (590 ft) + 0.2 m (7.9 in) dry surface,
weapon effect		 Blue Danube 1.5 kt [20][21][22]
3/Kite 11 October 1956 05:57:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: Kite Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 180 m (590 ft) + 150 m (490 ft) air drop,
weapons development		 Blue Danube 3 kt [20][21][22]
4/Breakaway 22 October 1956 14:35:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: Breakaway Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 190 m (620 ft) + 31 m (102 ft) tower,
 Red Beard 10 kt [20][21][22]
  1. ↑ The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
  2. ↑ To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. All historical timezone data are derived from here:
  3. ↑ Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
  4. ↑ Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
  5. ↑ Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
  6. ↑ Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
  7. ↑ Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
  8. ↑ Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
  9. ↑ Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.

Operation Antler

Antler
Information
Country United Kingdom
Test site Maralinga Range, SAU
Period 1957
Number of tests 3
Test type balloon, tower
Max. yield 26.6 kilotonnes of TNT (111 TJ)
Navigation
Previous test series Operation Buffalo
Next test series Operation Grapple

Operation Antler followed in 1957. Antler was designed to test components for thermonuclear weapons, with particular emphasis on triggering mechanisms.[23] Three tests began in September, codenamed Tadje, Biak and Taranaki. The first two tests were conducted from towers, the last was suspended from balloons. Yields from the weapons were 0.93 kilotonnes of TNT (3.9 TJ), 5.67 kilotonnes of TNT (23.7 TJ) and 26.6 kilotonnes of TNT (111 TJ) respectively.[11] The Tadje test used cobalt pellets as a 'tracer' for determining yield;[15][24] later rumours developed that Britain had been developing a cobalt bomb.[24] The Royal Commission found that personnel handling these pellets were later exposed to the active cobalt 60.[15] Although the Antler series were better planned and organised than earlier series, intermediate fallout from the Taranaki test exceeded predictions.[15]

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See also: List of nuclear weapons tests of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom's Antler series tests and detonations
Name [note 1] Date time (UT) Local time zone [note 2][19] Location [note 3] Elevation + height [note 4] Delivery,[note 5]
Purpose [note 6]		 Device [note 7] Yield [note 8] Fallout [note 9] References Notes
1/Tadje 14 September 1957 05:05:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: Tadje Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 180 m (590 ft) + 31 m (102 ft) tower,
weapons development		 Pixie 930 t [20][21][22] Reportedly a cobalt-salted bomb, which was incorrect, as the cobalt left at the site was diagnostic. Test regarded as a failure.
2/Biak 25 September 1957 00:30:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: Biak Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 180 m (590 ft) + 31 m (102 ft) tower,
weapons development		 Indigo Hammer 6 kt [20][21][22]
3/Taranaki 9 October 1957 06:45:?? aCST (9.5 hrs)
 Maralinga Range, SAU: Taranaki Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found. 180 m (590 ft) + 300 m (980 ft) balloon,
weapons development		 26.6 kt [20][21][22]
  1. ↑ The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
  2. ↑ To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. All historical timezone data are derived from here:
  3. ↑ Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
  4. ↑ Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
  5. ↑ Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
  6. ↑ Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
  7. ↑ Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
  8. ↑ Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
  9. ↑ Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.

Minor tests

In addition to the major tests, a large number of minor trials were also carried out, from June 1955 and extended through to April 1963.[6] Although the major tests had been carried out with some publicity, the minor tests were carried out in absolute secrecy.[25] These minor tests left a dangerous legacy of radioactive contamination at Maralinga.[26][27]

The four series of minor trials were codenamed 'Kittens', 'Tims', 'Rats' and 'Vixen'.[25] In all, these trials included up to 700 tests, with tests involving experiments with plutonium, uranium, and beryllium.[28] Operation Kittens involved 99 trials, performed at both Maralinga and Emu Field in 1953–1961.[29] The tests were used in the development of neutron initiators, involving use of polonium-210 and uranium, and generated "relatively large amounts of radioactive contamination."[29] Operation Tims took place in 1955–1963, and involved 321 trials of uranium and beryllium tampers, as well as studies of plutonium compression.[29] Operation Rats investigated explosive dispersal of uranium.[29] 125 trials took place between 1956 and 1960.

The Vixen minor trials (Vixen A and Vixen B) were formulated to investigate what would happen to a nuclear device which burnt or was subject to a non-nuclear explosion.[25] 31 Vixen A trials between 1959 and 1961 investigated the effects of an accidental fire on a nuclear weapon, and involved a total of about 1 kg of plutonium.[30] Twelve Vixen B trials, between 1960 and 1963, attempted to discover the effects of high explosives detonating a nuclear weapon in a fire (typical of conditions which would occur in aviation accidents) and involved 22 kg of plutonium.[30] They produced "jets of molten, burning plutonium extending hundreds of feet into the air."[31] It was the lack of subsequent disposal of the plutonium from these minor trials – Vixen B especially – which created the major radiation problems at the site.[31]

The Vixen experimental tests used TNT to blow up simulated nuclear warheads containing plutonium-239. In total, Vixen B scattered 22.2 kg of plutonium around the Maralinga test site known as Taranaki, in particles of widely divergent size. Plutonium is not particularly dangerous externally - it emits alpha particles which are stopped by 9 cm (3.5 in) of air, or the dead layer of skin cells on the body, and is not a very intensive source of radiation, due to its long half-life of 24,000 years. It is most dangerous when it enters the body, in the worst case by breathing, and therefore tiny particles, often the result of such explosion testing, are the worst threat. The extreme biological persistence of plutonium's radioactive contamination and the cancer threat posed by alpha radiation occurring internally together establish plutonium's dangers.[32]

In terms of regular nuclear testing, Kittens represents bomb component testing, while Tims and Rats were early subcritical hydronuclear tests. Vixen is "safety testing" of a bomb; assuring that the core would not accidentally undergo criticality in the event of a fire or unintended crash. These are always messy (see the US equivalent at Plutonium Valley in Project 56), for a successful test subjects the core fuel to high explosives in the hope that it simply scatters rather than undergoes criticality. The differences in the sort of dangers presented by major vs the minor tests is that there was no critical explosion in the minor tests. In the major tests, the bomb cores reached critical mass; the plutonium or uranium fissile materials "burned" into highly radioactive fission products, and those, along with the unspent fuel and activated bomb case, tower and soil if the explosion was close to the ground, are lofted into the stratosphere to be dropped eventually as fallout globally. In Vixen, an equivalent amount of plutonium fuel was simply smashed by explosives and spread about much more locally. In Kittens, Tims and Rats, smaller amounts of various materials were similar exploded locally and spread about.

Legacy

In the 1950s, Hedley Marston's research into nuclear fallout from the Maralinga nuclear tests brought Marston into bitter conflict with the Australian government appointed Atomic Weapons Tests Safety Committee. He was vindicated posthumously by the McClelland Royal Commission, which found that significant radiation hazards existed at many of the Maralinga test sites long after the tests. His project tracked fallout across the continent by examining the thyroids of sheep and cattle as well as devices that filtered radioactive elements from air. Later the results, which showed dramatic increases of certain radioactive elements after British Nuclear Tests, caused a further, controversial study where the bones of deceased people (especially children) were burnt to ash and then measured for strontium-90. These tests showed that the tests had increased the concentration of strontium-90 dramatically. As well as finding this after British tests a notable 50% increase was noticed one year when there were no tests and it was cited as evidence that the previous year's hydrogen bomb tests had contaminated the majority of the world.[33]

A Maralinga cleanup operation codenamed Operation Brumby was conducted in 1967.[6] Attempts were made to dilute the concentration of radioactive material by turning over and mixing the surface soil.[31] Additionally, the remains of the firings, including plutonium-contaminated fragments, were buried in 22 concrete-capped pits.[31]

In the 1970s, whistle-blower Avon Hudson disclosed details of the testing program to the Australian media at risk of incarceration. This raised public awareness of the test and began the journey towards a public inquiry into the tests and their legacy.

By the 1980s some Australian servicemen and traditional Aboriginal owners of the land were suffering blindness, sores and illnesses such as cancer. They "started to piece things together, linking their afflictions with their exposure to nuclear testing". Groups including the Atomic Veterans Association and the Pitjantjatjara Council pressured the government, until in 1985 it agreed to hold a royal commission to investigate the damage that had been caused.[27]

The McClelland Royal Commission into the tests delivered its report in late 1985, and found that significant radiation hazards still existed at many of the Maralinga test sites, particularly at Taranaki,[26] where the Vixen B trials into the effects of burning plutonium had been carried out. A Technical Assessment Group was set up to advise on rehabilitation options, and a much more extensive cleanup program was initiated at the site.[31]

The TAG Report plan was approved in 1991 and work commenced on site in 1996 and was completed in 2000 at a cost of $108 million.[26][34] In the worst-contaminated areas, 350,000 cubic metres of soil and debris were removed from an area of more than 2 square kilometres, and buried in trenches. Eleven debris pits were also treated with in-situ vitrification. Most of the site (approximately 3,200 square kilometres) is now safe for unrestricted access and approximately 120 square kilometres is considered safe for access but not permanent occupancy.[26] Alan Parkinson has observed that "an Aboriginal living a semi-traditional lifestyle would receive an effective dose of 5 mSv/a (five times that allowed for a member of the public). Within the 120 km², the effective dose would be up to 13 times greater."[35]

A Department of Veterans' Affairs study concluded that "Overall, the doses received by Australian participants were small. ... Only 2% of participants received more than the current Australian annual dose limit for occupationally exposed persons (20 mSv)."[36] However, such findings are contested. Australian servicemen were ordered to: repeatedly fly through the mushroom clouds from atomic explosions, without protection; and to march into ground zero immediately after bomb detonation. Airborne drifts of radioactive material resulted in "radioactive rain" being dropped on Brisbane and Queensland country areas. A 1999 study for the British Nuclear Test Veterans Association found that 30 per cent of involved veterans had died, mostly in their fifties, from cancers.[37]

Successive Australian governments failed to compensate servicemen who contracted cancers following exposure to radiation at Maralinga. However, after a British decision in 1988 to compensate its own servicemen, the Australian Government negotiated compensation for several Australian servicemen suffering from two specific conditions, leukemia (except lymphatic leukemia) and the rare blood disorder multiple myeloma.[38]

One author suggests that the resettlement and denial of aboriginal access to their homelands "contributed significantly to the social disintegration which characterises the community to this day. Petrol sniffing, juvenile crime, alcoholism and chronic friction between residents and the South Australian police have become facts of life."[10] In 1994, the Australian Government reached a compensation settlement with Maralinga Tjarutja, which resulted in the payment of $13.5 million in settlement of all claims in relation to the nuclear testing.[26]

Media coverage

According to Liz Tynan from James Cook University, the Maralinga tests were a striking example of what can happen when the popular media are unable to report on activities that the government may be trying to hide. Maralinga was an example of extreme secrecy, but by the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British nuclear tests. Some resourceful investigative journalists emerged, whistle-blowers such as Avon Hudson spoke out and political scrutiny became more intense. The investigative journalist Brian Toohey ran a series of stories in the Australian Financial Review in October 1978, based in part on a leaked Cabinet submission.[1]

In June 1993, New Scientist journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article entitled "Britain's dirty deeds at Maralinga" and several related articles. They are a detailed analysis of the legacy of Vixen B and the Australian government's prolonged negotiations with the United Kingdom on cleaning up Maralinga and sharing the cost of "safe-sealing" waste plutonium. Previously, much of this highly toxic nuclear waste had simply been lightly bulldozed into the soil rather than buried in deep, secure, purpose-built, concrete bunkers. In 1993, Anderson won two Michael Daley Awards for his Maralinga articles.[2]

Maralinga: Australia’s Nuclear Waste Cover-up is a book by Alan Parkinson about the clean-up following the British nuclear tests at Maralinga, published in 2007.[3] Parkinson, a nuclear engineer, explains that the clean-up of Maralinga in the late 1990s was compromised by cost-cutting and simply involved dumping hazardous radioactive debris in shallow holes in the ground. Parkinson states that "What was done at Maralinga was a cheap and nasty solution that wouldn't be adopted on white-fellas land."[4][5]

In popular culture

Ground Zero is a fictional political conspiracy thriller about what happened during the Maralinga tests.

The 1991 folk song "Plains of Maralinga" by Alistair Hulett describes the tests and their deadly side-effects on the Pitjantjatjara people.

The Career Highlights of the Mamu is an Australian play by Trevor Jamieson and Scott Rankin, performed by the Adelaide Festival in February–March 2002. The play tells the story of the Tjuntjuntjara Aboriginal people, who lived in the desert country between South Australia and Western Australia, and their experience with British nuclear testing at Maralinga and Emu Field. Tribal elders describe being moved out of the area, and the death and illness of their people when they attempted to return to their contaminated homelands.[39][40]

Maralinga: The Anangu Story, by the Yalata & Oak Communities with Christobel Mattingley (Allen & Unwin, 2009), is an information book about the history and culture of the region, the controversy and its original owners. Aimed at young people, the book was awarded a silver Honour medal in 2010 by the Children's Book Council of Australia.[41]

The Stranglers referenced the nuclear tests in Australia in their song "Nuclear Device (The Wizard of Aus)".

The tests were the subject of the song "Birthright" by progressive rock group Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe. The Australian band Midnight Oil wrote a song about the tests called "Maralinga".

The Australian writer Judy Nunn published a novel titled Maralinga in 2011.

The novel ″The Last Albatross″ by Ian Irvine referenced this location as the source of weapons grade plutonium used in a terror plot against Australia.

Web comic author Aaron Diaz wrote a one-page comic re-imagining the Maralinga tests.[42]

The fictional story of a man with leukemia who was present during the tests featured in the 1982 A Country Practice episode "Field of Thunder." [43]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 Maralinga - Australia's nuclear waste cover-up
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Nuclear waste and indigenous rights
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Maralinga's nuclear nightmare continues
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  7. ↑ Atomic Weapons Tests in: Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  8. ↑ Sources give slightly varying dates for the request and selection of the site.
  9. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  11. ↑ 11.0 11.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  12. ↑ Some sources quote different yields. For example, Parkinson (MAPW 2000) states that their yields were 15 kt, 10 kt, 1.5 kt and 3 kt respectively.
  13. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  14. ↑ Atomic Weapons Tests–Buffalo 1, 2, 3 and 4 in: Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  16. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  17. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  18. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  21. ↑ 21.0 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4 21.5 21.6 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  22. ↑ 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  23. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 Maralinga: nuclear testing in Australia Green Left, 2 August 1995. Retrieved 2 December 2008
  28. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  29. ↑ 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Atomic Weapons Tests—Minor Trials in: Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  31. ↑ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  32. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  33. ↑ Book Review: "Fallout: Hedley Marston and the British bomb tests in Australia", by Tim Sherratt, Historical Records of Australian Science, vol. 14, no. 2, November 2002, pp. 209–10.
  34. ↑ Richard Broinowski (2003). Fact or Fission: The Truth About Australia's Nuclear Ambitions, Scribe Publications, p. 177.
  35. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  36. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  37. ↑ Do atomic test victims deserve compensation? Archived 12 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  38. ↑ Richard Broinowski (2003). Fact or Fission: The Truth About Australia's Nuclear Ambitions, Scribe Publications, pp. 178.
  39. ↑ The Career Highlights of Mamu
  40. ↑ Richard Broinowski (2003). Fact or Fission: The Truth About Australia's Nuclear Ambitions, Scribe Publications, pp. 175–176.
  41. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.
  42. ↑ http://dresdencodak.com/2005/06/23/operation-buffalo/
  43. ↑ Lua error in package.lua at line 80: module 'strict' not found.

Further reading

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External links

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