Indo-Aryan languages

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Indo-Aryan
Indic
Geographic
distribution:
South Asia
Linguistic classification: Indo-European
Proto-language: Proto-Indo-Aryan
Subdivisions:
ISO 639-5: inc
Linguasphere: 59= (phylozone)
Glottolog: indo1321[1]
{{{mapalt}}}
1978 map showing Geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan languages. (Urdu is included under Hindi. Romani, Domari, and Lomavren are outside the scope of the map.)

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The Indo-Aryan or Indic languages are the dominant language family of the Indian subcontinent, spoken largely by Indo-Aryan people. They constitute a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages, itself a branch of the Indo-European language family. Indo-Aryan speakers form about one half of all Indo-European speakers (approx 1.5 of 3 billion), and more than half of all Indo-European languages recognized by Ethnologue.

The largest in terms of native speakers are Hindustani (Hindi-Urdu, about 250 million), Bengali (about 200 million), Punjabi (about 100 million),[2] Marathi (about 70 million), Gujarati and Rajasthani (about 50 million apiece), Bhojpuri (about 40 million), Odia (about 30 million), Sindhi (about 25 million), Saraiki (20 million) and Nepali, Sinhala and Assamese (about 15 million apiece), with a total number of native speakers of more than 900 million.

History

Indian subcontinent

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Old Indo-Aryan

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The earliest evidence of the group is from Vedic Sanskrit, the proto-language of the Indo-Aryan languages that is used in the ancient preserved texts of the Indian subcontinent, the foundational canon of Hinduism known as the Vedas. The Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni is of similar age to the language of the Rigveda, but the only evidence of it is a few proper names and specialized loanwords.

In about the 4th century BCE, the Vedic Sanskrit language was codified and standardized by the grammarian Panini, called "Classical Sanskrit" by convention.

Middle Indo-Aryan (Prakrits)

Outside the learned sphere of Sanskrit, vernacular dialects (Prakrits) continued to evolve. The oldest attested Prakrits are the Buddhist and Jain canonical languages Pali and Ardha Magadhi, respectively. By medieval times, the Prakrits had diversified into various Middle Indo-Aryan dialects. "Apabhramsa" is the conventional cover term for transitional dialects connecting late Middle Indo-Aryan with early Modern Indo-Aryan, spanning roughly the 6th to 13th centuries. Some of these dialects showed considerable literary production; the Sravakachar of Devasena (dated to the 930s) is now considered to be the first Hindi book.

The next major milestone occurred with the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent in the 13th–16th centuries. Under the flourishing Turco-Mongol Mughal empire, Persian became very influential as the language of prestige of the Islamic courts due to adoptation of the foreign language by the Mughal emperors. However, Persian was soon displaced by Hindustani. This Indo-Aryan language is a combination with Persian, Arabic, and Turkic elements in its vocabulary, with the grammar of the local dialects.

The two largest languages that formed from Apabhramsa were Bengali and Hindustani; others include Gujarati, Odia, Marathi, and Punjabi.

New Indo-Aryan

Dialect continuum

The Indo-Aryan languages of Northern India (that includes Assam Valley as for the language Assamese) and Pakistan form a dialect continuum. What is called "Hindi" in India is frequently Standard Hindi, the Sanskrit-ized version of the colloquial Hindustani spoken in the Delhi area since the Mughals. However, the term Hindi is also used for most of the central Indic dialects from Bihar to Rajasthan. The Indo-Aryan prakrits also gave rise to languages like Gujarati, Assamese, Bengali, Odia, Nepali, Marathi, and Punjabi, which are not considered to be part of this dialect continuum.

Hindustani

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In the Hindi-speaking areas, for a long time the prestige dialect was Braj Bhasha, but this was replaced in the 19th century by the Khariboli-based Hindustani. Hindustani was strongly influenced by Sanskrit and Persian, with these influences leading to the emergence of Modern Standard Hindi and Modern Standard Urdu as registers of the Hindustani language.[3][4] This state of affairs continued until the Partition of India in 1947, when Hindi became the official language in India and Urdu became official in Pakistan; because the basic grammar remains identical, the difference is more sociolinguistic than on actual language basis.[5][6][7]

Indo-Aryan superstrate in Mitanni

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Some theonyms, proper names and other terminology of the Mitanni exhibit an Indo-Aryan superstrate, suggest that an Indo-Aryan elite imposed itself over the Hurrian population in the course of the Indo-Aryan expansion. In a treaty between the Hittites and the Mitanni, the deities Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya (Ashvins) are invoked. Kikkuli's horse training text includes technical terms such as aika (eka, one), tera (tri, three), panza (pancha, five), satta (sapta, seven), na (nava, nine), vartana (vartana, turn, round in the horse race). The numeral aika "one" is of particular importance because it places the superstrate in the vicinity of Indo-Aryan proper as opposed to Indo-Iranian or early Iranian (which has "aiva") in general [8]

Another text has babru (babhru, brown), parita (palita, grey), and pinkara (pingala, red). Their chief festival was the celebration of the solstice (vishuva) which was common in most cultures in the ancient world. The Mitanni warriors were called marya, the term for warrior in Sanskrit as well; note mišta-nnu (= miẓḍha, ≈ Sanskrit mīḍha) "payment (for catching a fugitive)" (M. Mayrhofer, Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Altindoarischen, Heidelberg, 1986–2000; Vol. II:358).

Sanskritic interpretations of Mitanni royal names render Artashumara (artaššumara) as Arta-smara "who thinks of Arta/Ṛta" (Mayrhofer II 780), Biridashva (biridašṷa, biriiašṷa) as Prītāśva "whose horse is dear" (Mayrhofer II 182), Priyamazda (priiamazda) as Priyamedha "whose wisdom is dear" (Mayrhofer II 189, II378), Citrarata as citraratha "whose chariot is shining" (Mayrhofer I 553), Indaruda/Endaruta as Indrota "helped by Indra" (Mayrhofer I 134), Shativaza (šattiṷaza) as Sātivāja "winning the race price" (Mayrhofer II 540, 696), Šubandhu as Subandhu 'having good relatives" (a name in Palestine, Mayrhofer II 209, 735), Tushratta (tṷišeratta, tušratta, etc.) as *tṷaiašaratha, Vedic Tvastr "whose chariot is vehement" (Mayrhofer, Etym. Wb., I 686, I 736).

Romani language

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The Romani language is usually included in the Central Indo-Aryan languages.[9] Romani is conservative in maintaining almost intact the Middle Indo-Aryan present-tense person concord markers, and in maintaining consonantal endings for nominal case – both features that have been eroded in most other modern languages of Central India. It shares an innovative pattern of past-tense person concord with the languages of the Northwest, such as Kashmiri and Shina. This is believed to be further proof that Romani originated in the Central region, then migrated to the Northwest.

There are no known historical documents about the early phases of the Romani language.

Linguistic evaluation carried out in the nineteenth century by Pott (1845) and Miklosich (1882–1888) showed that the Romani language is to be a New Indo-Aryan language (NIA), not a Middle Indo-Aryan (MIA), establishing that the ancestors of the Romani could not have left India significantly earlier than AD 1000.

The principal argument favouring a migration during or after the transition period to NIA is the loss of the old system of nominal case, and its reduction to just a two-way case system, nominative vs. oblique. A secondary argument concerns the system of gender differentiation. Romani has only two genders (masculine and feminine). Middle Indo-Aryan languages (named MIA) generally had three genders (masculine, feminine and neuter), and some modern Indo-Aryan languages retain this old system even today.

It is argued that loss of the neuter gender did not occur until the transition to NIA. Most of the neuter nouns became masculine while a few feminine, like the neuter अग्नि (agni) in the Prakrit became the feminine आग (āg) in Hindi and jag in Romani. The parallels in grammatical gender evolution between Romani and other NIA languages have been cited as evidence that the forerunner of Romani remained on the Indian subcontinent until a later period, perhaps even as late as the tenth century.

Classification

There can be no definitive enumeration of Indic languages, as their dialects merge into one another. Named languages are therefore social constructs as much as objective ones.[citation needed] The major ones are illustrated here; for the details, see the dedicated articles.

The classification follows Masica (1991) and Kausen (2006).

Dardic

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The representative languages are:

Pashayi, Khowar, Kohistani, Shina, Kashmiri.

Northern Zone

Central Pahari
Garhwali, Kumauni
Eastern Pahari
Nepali (Gurkhali), etc.

Northwestern Zone

Dogri–Kangri region
Dogri–Kangri (Western Pahari)
Dogri, Kangri, Mandeali, etc.
Punjabi (Eastern Punjabi)
Lahnda (Western Punjabi)
Sindhi

Western Zone

Rajasthani
Marwari, Rajasthani
Gujarati
Bhil
Khandeshi

Central Zone (Madhya or Hindi)

File:Hindi Indoarisch.png
Indic, Central Zone

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Western Hindi
Hindustani, Haryanvi, etc.
Eastern Hindi
Fijian Hindi, Chhattisgarhi, etc.

DomariRomani and related Parya historically belonged to the Central Zone but lost intelligibility with other languages of the group due to geographic distance and numerous grammatical and lexical innovations.

Eastern Zone (Magadhan)

These languages derive from Magadhan Apabhraṃśa.[10]

Bihari
Bhojpuri (incl. Caribbean Hindustani), Maithili, etc.
Tharu
Odia
Halbic
Bengali–Assamese

Southern Zone languages

This group of languages developed from Maharashtri. It is not clear if Dakhini (Deccani, Southern Urdu) is part of Hindustani along with Standard Urdu, or a separate Persian-influenced development from Marathi.

Marathi

Konkani

Insular Indic
Sinhalese, Maldivian

The insular languages share several characteristics that set them apart significantly from the continental languages.

Unclassified

The following languages are related to each other, but otherwise unclassified within Indic:

Kuswaric[11]

Dhanwar (Rai), Bote and Darai

Chinali–Lahul Lohar[12]

Chinali, Lahul Lohar

The following other poorly attested languages are listed as unclassified within the Indo-Aryan family by Ethnologue 17:

Phonology

Consonants

Stop positions[13]

The normative system of New Indo-Aryan stops consists of five points of articulation: labial, dental, "retroflex", palatal, and velar, which is the same as that of Sanskrit. The "retroflex" position may involve retroflexion, or curling the tongue to make the contact with the underside of the tip, or merely retraction. The point of contact may be alveolar or postalveolar, and the distinctive quality may arise more from the shaping than from the position of the tongue. Palatals stops have affricated release and are traditionally included as involving a distinctive tongue position (blade in contact with hard palate). Widely transcribed as [tʃ], Masica (1991:94) claims [cʃ] to be a more accurate rendering.

Moving away from the normative system, some languages and dialects have alveolar affricates [ts] instead of palatal, though some among them retain [tʃ] in certain positions: before front vowels (esp. /i/), before /j/, or when geminated. Alveolar as an additional point of articulation occurs in Marathi and Konkani where dialect mixture and others factors upset the aforementioned complementation to produce minimal environments, in some West Pahari dialects through internal developments (*t̪ɾ, > /tʃ/), and in Kashmiri. The addition of a retroflex affricate to this in some Dardic languages maxes out the number of stop positions at seven (barring borrowed /q/), while a reduction to the inventory involves *ts > /s/, which has happened in Assamese, Chittagonian, Sinhala (though there have been other sources of a secondary /ts/), and Southern Mewari.

Further reductions in the number of stop articulations are in Assamese and Romany, which have lost the characteristic dental/retroflex contrast, and in Chittagonian, which may lose its labial and velar articulations through spirantization in many positions (> [f, x]).

Stop series Language(s)
/p/, //, /ʈ/, //, /k/ Hindi, Punjabi, Dogri, Sindhi, Gujarati, Bihari, Maithili, Sinhala, Oriya, Standard Bengali, dialects of Rajasthani (except Lamani, NW. Marwari, S. Mewari)
/p/, //, /ʈ/, /ts/, /k/ Nepali, E. and N. dialects of Bengali (Dacca, Maimansing, Rajshahi), dialects of Rajasthani (Lamani and NW. Marwari), Northern Lahnda's Kagani, Kumauni, many West Pahari dialects (not Chamba Mandeali, Jaunsari, or Sirmauri)
/p/, //, /ʈ/, /ts/, //, /k/ Marathi, Konkani, certain W. Pahari dialects (Bhadrawahi, Bhalesi, Padari, Simla, Satlej, maybe Kulu), Kashmiri
/p/, //, /ʈ/, /ts/, //, //, /k/ Shina, Bashkarik, Gawarbati, Phalura, Kalasha, Khowar, Shumashti, Kanyawali, Pashai
/p/, //, /ʈ/, /k/ Rajasthani's S. Mewari
/p/, /t/, /k/ Assamese
/p/, /t/, //, /k/ Romani
//, /ʈ/ Chittagonian

Nasals[14]

Sanskrit was noted as having five nasal-stop articulations corresponding to its oral stops, and among modern languages and dialects Dogri, Kacchi, Kalasha, Rudhari, Shina, Saurasthtri, and Sindhi have been analyzed as having this full complement of phonemic nasals /m/ /n/ /ɳ/ /ɲ/ /ŋ/, with the last two generally as the result of the loss of the stop from a homorganic nasal + stop cluster ([ɲj] > [ɲ] and [ŋɡ] > [ŋ]), though there are other sources as well.

Charts

The following are consonant systems of major and representative New Indo-Aryan languages, as presented in Masica (1991:106–107), though here they are in IPA. Parentheses indicate those consonants found only in loanwords: square brackets indicate those with "very low functional load". The arrangement is roughly geographical.

Romani
p t (ts) k
b d (dz) ɡ ɡʲ
tʃʰ
m n
(f) s ʃ x ()
v (z) ʒ ɦ
ɾ l
j
Shina
p ʈ ts k
b ɖ ɖʐ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ tʂʰ
m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
(f) s ɽ
w j
Kashmiri
p ʈ ts k t̪ʲ ʈʲ tsʲ
b ɖ ɡ d̪ʲ ɖʲ ɡʲ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ tʃʰ pʲʰ t̪ʲʰ ʈʲʰ tsʲʰ kʲʰ
m n ɲ
s ʃ
z ɦ ɦʲ
ɾ l ɾʲ lʲ
w j
Saraiki
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ
m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
ɳʱ
s (ʃ) (x)
(z) (ɣ) ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ
w j
Punjabi
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
m n ɳ ŋ
(f) s ɦ
ɾ l ɽ ɭ
[w] [j]
Nepali
p ʈ ts k
b ɖ dz ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tsʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ ɡʱ
m n ŋ
s ʃ ɦ
ɾ l
ɾʱ lʱ
[w] [j]
Assamese
p t k
b d ɡ
ɡʱ
m n ŋ
s x
z ɦ
ɾ l
[w]
Sindhi
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
ɓ ɗ ʄ ɠ
m n ɳ ɲ ŋ
ɳʱ
s (ʃ) (x)
(z) (ɣ) ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
ɾʱ lʱ ɽʱ
w j
Marwari
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
ɓ ɗ̪ ɗ ɠ
m n ɳ
s ɦ
ɾ l ɽ ɭ
w j
Hindustani
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n
(f) s ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
ɽʱ
([w]) ([j])
Assamese
p t k
b d g
ɡʱ
m n ŋ
s x
z ɦ
ɾ l
[w]
Bengali
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n
ʃ ɦ
ɾ l ɽ
[w] [j]
Gujarati
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n ɳ
ɳʱ
s ʃ ɦ
ɾ l ɭ
ɾʱ lʱ
w j
Marathi
p ʈ ts k
b ɖ dz ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dzʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n ɳ
s ʃ ɦ
ɾ l ɭ
ɾʱ lʱ
w j
Oriya
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
t̪ʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ
d̪ʱ ɖʱ dʒʱ ɡʱ
m n ɳ
s ɦ
ɾ l [ɽ] ɭ
[ɽʱ]
[w] [j]
Sinhala
p ʈ k
b ɖ ɡ
ᵐb ⁿ̪d̪ ᶯɖ ᵑɡ
m n ɲ ŋ
s ɦ
ɾ l
w j

Language comparison chart

English Vedic Sanskrit Gujarati Rajasthani Marathi Hindustani Punjabi Sindhi Bengali Kashmiri Konkani Bhojpuri Odia Assamese Maithili Sinhala Nepali Pali Romani Saraiki (Southern Punjabi)
beautiful sundara sundar futaro sundar sundar sohnā suhɳā shundor sondar sundar suhnar/khapsoorat sundara dhuniya, xundôr sundar sonduru,sundara sundar sundaro shukar sohnra
blood rakta, loha, lohita, shoNita lohi, khoon, rakt ragat rakta khūn, rakta, lahū lahū, khūn ratu rôkto, lohit, lohu ratth rakt,ragat khūn, lahū rakta tez shonit le,rudiraya,ruhiru ragat ratta rat laho, rat
bread rotika,polika paũ, roṭlā falko chapāti, poli, bhākarī chapātī, roṭī roṭi pʰulko (pau-)ruṭi tçhot roti,rot,polo,poli,chapati,pav roṭī pauruṭi pauruti roṭi paan paũroṭi manro roti, ma(n)ri, dhodha
bring anayati lā- lajyo ān- lā- lyā ɖe ano ann haad lāv- nai an- an- anaah ghenna lyaunu anel ghin aa, Lai aa
brother bhrātr, bandhu, sahodara bhāi beero, bhayo, veer bhau, bandhu bhāī prā, pāi, vīr bʱau bhai boéy bhav,bhau bhāī, bhaīyā bhai, bhaina bhaiti sahodaraya, beeya bhaai, dai, daju phral bhrā, vīr, lala
come āgachchhati āv- av- ā- ā, āo, ājā ach asho, ai vall yo,ye āv- ās-, ā- ānha, ānhok ā- enna āunu āgachcha āvel āo
cry roditi, rauti, krandati raḍ- rodno, roosno raḍ- rō- rō- rōaɳ kãd, kando-, rodan wódun rad- ro- kanda kand- adanawa,handanawa runu rodanam rovel rovanra
dark andhaḥkāra andhārũ gairo andhār andhera hanerā ôndʱah ôndhokar, ãdhar anyí-got andhakar,andhar,kalokh anhār, anhera andhāra andhar, ôndhôkar anduru,andhakara andhyaro andhakaaro kalo andhara
daughter putrī, duhitr chhokḍi sagi, sago, chori lek, mulagī, poragī beṭi tī, kuri dʱī meye koor dhuv dhiyā, beṭi, chhori jhiya ziyari, ziyek duva,du chhori chhai Dhee
day divasa, dina divas dina, din divas, din,dina din din, dihara ɖīhn din, dibôsh dóh dis,din,divas din dina din dinaya,dawasa din dives denh, jehara
do karoti kar- kar- kar- kar- kar- kar- koro kar kar kar- kara- kôr- kar- karanna garnu kerel karo
door dvāra, kapāṭa kerel kivand dār, darvāzā darvāzā, kavad būha, dar, darvāza darvāzo dôrja, dur darwaaz, dār, daer ("window") daar,kavad darvājā, kevadi daraja, kabata duar, dôrza dora,duwaraya dhoka vudar buha, dar
die mr-, glah- mar- mar- mar- mar-, mar jā- mar-, mar ja- mar- môr, more ja-, mara ja- marun mar mu, mar ja mar- môr- maranaya,maruna marnu merel marna
egg aṇḍa, ḍimba iṇḍũ ando aṇḍa anḍā aṇḍā aṇɖo, bedo ḍim thool tanti(Dravidian origin),ande anḍā anḍā, ḍimba koni bitharaya,biju andaa anro anda, aana
salt kṣāra, sala, lavaṇa mithu loon lavan/meeth namak lūn/nūn namak lūn lobon/noon noon mith,lon noon/namak labana labon, nimôkh nimak/noon lunu nun khar/lavan lon loon/noon
earth pṛthvi, mahi, bhuvana, dharitrī pruthvi dharti, basudhara pruthvi, dharani prithvī, dhartī, zamīn jag, jahān, tarti, zamīn dhartī prithibi, duniya daertī (voiced-aspirated /dh/ > /d/) dhartari,zamin,bhui,pruthvi jamīn, pirthvi pruthibi prithiwi pruthuvi,polova,bhoomi,bima prithivi phuv zameen, dharti
eye netra, lochna, akshi, chakshu āñkh aankharli netra, ḍoḷā āñkh akh akh chokh aéchh dolo āñkh ākhi soku ainkh asa,akshi,neth,nuwan aankha yakh akh
father pitr, janaka, tāta bāp baap, kaako pitā, vaḍil, bāba bāp piyō, abba piu, baba bābā, abbā, bap mol, bab bapuy bāp, bābuji, pitāji bāpa, bābā dêuta piya,thatha buwā, pitā dad abbā, piyoo
fear bhaya, bhīti, traasa bik, ḍar bhau bhītī, bhaya, ghābra ḍar, ghabrāhat ḍar ɖapu bhôe, ḍôr dar bhay ḍar ḍara bhoy bhay baya,biya dar dar, trash darr
finger añguli, añguliyaka āñgḷi aangli bōt anguli, ungli ungal, ungli aŋur ang-gul ungij bot,aangal anguri ānguthi anguli āngur angili aunla angusht ungil
fire agni, bhujyu agni, jvaḷa baste āg, agni, jāl āg agg bāh agun agénn, nār ujo(from Sanskrit udyota),aag,agni āgh agni, nia zui agni,gini āgo manta yag bhaa
fish matsya māchhli maachhali māsa machhlī machhī machhī machh gāda nuste,masoli machhri mācha mas masun,mathasya,malu māchā machho machhey
food bhojana, khadati, anna, posha(Na), āhāra, etc. anna, khorāk, poshaṇ khaano, lyojibhaya jēvana, bhojan khānā, bhojan khānā khādho,ann, māni khabar khyann jevan,anna khana, ann-roti khādya, bhojana ahar, khaiddyô, khuwa bostu āhāra,kema,bojun,bhojana khānā, anna, āhār xal roti-tukkur, khanra
go gachchhati, yāti jā- jā- jā- jā- jā- vaɲ ja-, jao-, gê- gatçh vach(from Vedic Ach) ja- zu-, za- yanna janu jal vanj
god deva, ishwara, parmeshwara, devata, bhagavān, etc. parmeshvar, dev, bhagvān isar, bavji, dai dev, parmeshwar, ishwar bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā pagvān, rab, waheguru, khudā bhagvān, parmeshvar, ishvar, khudā, sāin, mālik bhôgoban, rab, ishshor, khoda dai, divta, bagvān, parmeeshar dev,sarvesvar,saib(from Persian Saheb) bhagvān, mālik, iswar, daiva, daiya bhagabāna, ṭhākura, diyan debôta, bhôgôwan devi,devathava bhagawaan, dewataa, ishwor devel rab, mālik
good shobhna, uttama sārũ chokho changla achhā changa, wadia, palā suʈʰo bhalo rut (moral "good"), jān (physical "good") baro,chang,bes badhiya, changa, achha bhāla bhal neek, neeman hondhai raamro lachho, mishto changa
grass trNa, kusha ghāsthāro chaaro gavata ghās kāh ghãhu ghash dramunn tan(from Prakrit tiNa,Sanskrit TrNa) ghās ghāsa ghã thana,thruna ghaas char ghā
hand hasta hāth haat hāt hāth hath hatʰu hat atth haat hāth hāta hat atha,hasthaya hāt vast hat
head shira, mastaka, kapāla, mūrdhā māthũ sir,maatha ḍoke sir, shīsh sir, sīs matʰo matha kalla maate(from Prakrit matthao,Sanskrit Mastaka),Takali(Dravidian origins) sīr munḍa mur oluwa,sirasa tauko, seer shero ser
heart hrdaya hruday hivado, kaljo rudaya dil dil dil hridôe ryeda Hadde(From Prakrit Hiaaya,Haddya,Sanskrit Hrdaya),Kalij(Persian origin) dil, hivara, jiyara hrudaya hridoy, hiyan hada,herdaya hridaya, mutu ilo Dil
horse ashva, ghotaka, hayi, turanga ghoḍũ ghodo ghoda ghoṛa koṛa ghoɽʱo ghoṛa gur ghodo,Vaaru(old Konkani) ghoṛa ghoda ghůra ashvaya,thuranga ghoda khoro, grast ghora
house grha, alaya ghar ghar, taaparo ghar kār ghôr ɡʱar, jaɡʱah gar (voiced-aspirate /gh/ > /g/) ghar ghar ghar ghôr ghôr gedhara,gruha ghar kher ghar
hunger bubuksha, kshudhā bhukh bhukh bhūkh bhūkh pukh bhūkhayal khide bo'tchh bhuk bhūkh bhoka bhuk kusagini,badagini bhok bokh bhuk
language bhāshā, vāNī bhāshā boli, zaban bhāshā bhāshā, zabān boli, zabān, pasha ɓoli, bhasha, zabān bhasha booyl, zabān bhasha,bhas bhākhā, boli, jubaan bhāsā bhaxa bhāshā bhashawa,basa bhaashaa chhib boli, zaban
laugh (v.) hāsa, smera has- has- hās- hãs- has- kʰillu hãsh- assun has- hãs- hās- hã- hina,sinaha,sina hasnu asal khill
life jivana, jani jivan, jindagi bhav jīvan, jīv jīvan, zindagī jindrī, jīvan, zindagi zindagī jibon zoo, zindagayn jivit,jivan jinigi jibana, prāna ziwôn jiban jeevithe jeewan, jindagi jivipen zindgey
moon chandramā, soma, māsa chandra, chāndo chaan, chando chandra chandramā, chandā, chānd chann, chānd chanɖ chãd, chôndro tçandram chandra,chandrim channa, channarma, mah chandra zunbai, zun chandra,sandu,handa chandramā, juun chhon chandr
mother janani, mātr mā, bā mai, ma āi, māi mā, bebe, amma māo, amma ma, amma, mao maeyj aavai,mai matāri, māi, amma mā, bou ai, ma myay mawa,amma,matha aamaa, maataa dai amma, maa
mouth moḍhũ, mukha moondo tond, mukha mūñh mūñh, mukh mūñh, vāt aaes mūñh tond,mukh mūñh mukh moonh, mukh mukha, kata mui mukh
name nāma nām naam nāv nām nālo nam naav naav nā, nām nāma, nā nam nām nama nām nav
night raatri, rajani, nishā, naktam, etc. rāt, rātri, nishā raati, raat rātra rāt, rātri, nishā rāt rāt rat, ratri, ratro raath raat,ratri rāt rāti rati rat rāthriya,rae raat, raatri raat
open uttana, udhatita khullũ khulyuda khol, ughad khulā khulla, khol khol khola khol ughad,ukt- khullā kholā khula harinna khulla rat khulla
peace shānti shānti, shāntatā shaanti shānti shānti, aman shānti, aman, sakūn shānti, aman shanti aman, shaenti shanti,santatay sānti-sakoon, aman sānti xanti shaanti, aman samaya,shāntiya shaanti kotor aman, sakoon
place stapana, sthala, bhu, sthāna jagyā, sthaļ jageh sthān, sthal, jāga sthān, jagah jagā, thāñ, asthān jaɠah, thāñ jaega, sthan, jomin jaay jago,thal jagah jāgā thai sthanaya thaaun, sthal than jaga
queen rāni, rājpatni rāṇi, madhurāṇi raani rāni, rājmātā rāni, malkā rāni, malka rāɳi rāni māhraeny (also used for "newly-wed bride") raani rāni, begam rāṇi rani rajina,devi,bisawa rāni rani, thagarni ranri, malka
read pathati, vachana vānch- baanch- vāch- paṛh- paṛh- paɽʱ- pôṛ- parun vaach paṛh- paḍh- pôṛh- kiyawanna padh- chaduvu parhnra, parh
rest vishrāma ārām aaraam vishrām ārām arām ārām aram, bishrom araam aaraam rām ārām, visrām zirani vishrāma shalawa,thanayama ārām, bishrām Araam
say vadati, braviti, brūté, bōl- bōl-, sāng- bōl-, keh- bōl, ākh, keh cau - chau bôl- vann bōl- mhan,sang,ulay bol-, kah- kũ- baiju pawasanna,kiyanna bhannu phenel bol, aakh
sister svasr, bhagini bêhn bain, bayee, beeri bhagini, baheen behn pēn, didi bēɳ bon, apa, didi baeynn bhain bahin, didi, didiya bhauṇi bhonti bahin bhaen,bhaengi sohouri,souri phen bheinr
small alpa, laghu, kanishtha, kshudra nāhnũ nāhnũ lahān, laghu chhoṭā nikka, chhoṭā nanɖo chhoṭo lokutt, nyika, pyoonth lhan,ille chhoṭ, nanhi choṭa, sana xoru chhoit chuti,podi saano tikno, xurdo nikka, chauta
son sunu, putra chhokḍo choora, betoo mulgā bēṭā put, puttar, munḍa puʈ chhele, pola nyechu, pothur poot putt/chhora pua putek puthra,putha,puthu chhora chhavo putr
soul ātmā, atasa ātmā aatma ātmā ātmā, rūh ātmā, rūh ātmā, rūh attã, ãtta āthmā atmo,jeev rūh ātmā ātmā ātmā ātmā di rooh
sun sūrya sūraj, sūrya suraj sūrya sūrya, sūraj sūraj siju shūrjo, roud siri surya sūraj sūrjya xuirzyô, baeli sūraj ira,hiru,sūrya sūrya kham sijh
ten dasha das das dahā das das, daha ɖaha dôsh duh dha das dasa dôh dahaya,dasa dus desh dah
three trī, trayah, trīNi (neut. nom. pl.) traṇ tiin tīn tīn tin ʈeh tin t're teen tīn tini tini thuna tin trin trai
village grāma gāñḍu gaaon, dhaani gāv, khēda gāoñ pinḍ, gāñ ɠoʈʰ gram, gaon gām ganv gāoñ-dehāt, jageer gān, grāma gaon gama,gramaya gaun gav dehat, jhoauk, vasti
want ichhati, kankshati, amati, apekshati joi- chai- pāhijē, havē chāh- chāh- kʰap, chāh- chāh- yatshun, kan'tchun jaay- chāh- darakara lôg- oone,awashyayi chaahanaa kamel, mangel chah
water pāniya, jala pāṇi paani pāṇi pāni, jal pāni, jal pāṇi pāni, jôl poyn, zal (used for "urine" only) udak,uda,pani,jal pāni pāṇi, jala pani jalaya,wathura,paen pāni, jal pani panri
when kada, ched kyahre kadine kēvhā, kadhee kab kad, kadoñ kaɖahn kôkhon, kôbe karr kedna,kenna kab kebe ketiyan kakhan, kahiya kawadhada,kedinada kahile kana kadanr
wind pavana, vāyu, vātā havā, pavan havaa vāra havā, pavan havā, paun havā batash, haoa tshath, hava varo hāvā pabana bôtãh hulan, sulan, pavana, vathaya huri, batas balval hava, phook
wolf vrka, shvaka shiyāl bheriyo kōlha bhēṛhiyā pēṛhiyā, baghiyār ɡidʱar sheal vrukh kolo bhērhiyā gadhiyā xiyal siyār vurkaya shyaal, bwanso ruv baghiyaar
woman nāri, vanitā, strī, mahilā, lalanā mahilā, nāri lugai, aurat bāi, mahilā, stree aurat, strī, mahilā, nāri aurat, zanāni, tīvīn māi mohila, nari, shtri zanaan baayal,stree mehraru, aurat, janaani stree, nāri mohila, maiki manuh kanthawa,gahaniya,sthriya,

mahilawa,lalanawa,liya,landa,vanithawa

mahilaa, naari, stree juvli aurat, treimat, zaal, zanaani
year varsh, shārad varash saal, uun varsh sāl, baras, varsh sāl, varah sāl bôchhor váreeh vars sāl, baris, barikh barsa bôsôr barxa varshaya barsha bersh saal
yes / no hyah, kam / na, ma hā / nā hon/koni hōy, hō, hā / nāhi, nā hāñ / nā, nahīñ hāñ, āho / nā, nahīñ hā/ na hê, hoi, ho, oi / na aa / ná, ma hay,aan/naa hāñ / nā han / hoi / nohoi ow / nā ho / hoina, la / nai va / na ha / na
yesterday hyah, gatadinam, gatakāle (gai-)kāl(-e) kaal kāl kal kal kal (gôto-)kal(-ke) kāla, rāth kaal kālh (gata-)kāli (zuwa-)kali ēyeh hijo ij kal
English Vedic Sanskrit Gujarati Rajasthani Marathi Hindi Punjabi Sindhi Bengali Kashmiri Konkani Bhojpuri Odia Assamese Maithili Sinhala Nepali Pali Romani Saraiki (Southern Punjabi)

See also

References

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  13. Masica (1991:94–95)
  14. Masica (1991:95–96)
  • John Beames, A comparative grammar of the modern Aryan languages of India: to wit, Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarati, Marathi, Oriya, and Bangali. Londinii: Trübner, 1872–1879. 3 vols.
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  • Madhav Deshpande (1979). Sociolinguistic attitudes in India: An historical reconstruction. Ann Arbor: Karoma Publishers. ISBN 0-89720-007-1, ISBN 0-89720-008-X (pbk).
  • Chakrabarti, Byomkes (1994). A comparative study of Santali and Bengali. Calcutta: K.P. Bagchi & Co. ISBN 81-7074-128-9
  • Erdosy, George. (1995). The Indo-Aryans of ancient South Asia: Language, material culture and ethnicity. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-014447-6.
  • Kobayashi, Masato.; & George Cardona (2004). Historical phonology of old Indo-Aryan consonants. Tokyo: Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. ISBN 4-87297-894-3.
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  • Misra, Satya Swarup. (1980). Fresh light on Indo-European classification and chronology. Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
  • Misra, Satya Swarup. (1991–1993). The Old-Indo-Aryan, a historical & comparative grammar (Vols. 1–2). Varanasi: Ashutosh Prakashan Sansthan.
  • Sen, Sukumar. (1995). Syntactic studies of Indo-Aryan languages. Tokyo: Institute for the Study of Languages and Foreign Cultures of Asia and Africa, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies.
  • Vacek, Jaroslav. (1976). The sibilants in Old Indo-Aryan: A contribution to the history of a linguistic area. Prague: Charles University.

External links

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