This list includes European countries and regions that were part of the Roman Empire, or that were given Latin place names in historical references. As a large portion of the latter were only created during the Middle Ages, often based on scholarly etiology, this is not to be confused with a list of the actual names modern regions and settlements bore during the classical era.
Background
Until the Modern Era, Latin was the common language for scholarship and mapmaking. During the 19th and 20th centuries, German scholars in particular have made significant contributions to the study of historical place names, or Ortsnamenkunde. These studies have, in turn, contributed to the study of genealogy. For genealogists and historians of pre-Modern Europe, knowing alternate names of places is vital to extracting information from both public and private records. Even specialists in this field point out, however, that the information can be easily taken out of context, since there is a great deal of repetition of place names throughout Europe; reliance purely on apparent connections should therefore be tempered with valid historical methodology.
Caveats and notes
Latin place names are not always exclusive to one place — for example, there were several Roman cities whose names began with Colonia and then a more descriptive term. During the Middle Ages, these were often shortened to just Colonia. One of these, Colonia Agrippinensis, retains the name today in the form of Cologne.
Early sources for Roman names show numerous variants and spellings of the Latin names.
The modern canonical name is listed first. Sources are listed chronologically. In general, only the earliest source is shown for each name, although many of the names are recorded in more than one of the sources. Where the source differs in spelling, or has other alternatives, these are listed following the source. As an aid to searching, variants are spelled completely, and listed in most likely chronology.
Superscripts indicate:
- Latinized form of the Greek-derived name.
- Latinized form of the Asian-derived name via Greek.
- Altered Latinized form of the Greek-derived name.
Cities and towns in Austria
Cities and towns in Belgium
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Aldenarda [1] |
Oudenaarde (nl), Audenarde (fr) |
| Alostum [2] |
Aalst (nl), Alost (fr) |
| Anderlacum |
Anderlecht |
| Antverpia |
Antwerp, Antwerpen (nl), Anvers (fr) |
| Atuatuca Tungrorum |
Tongeren (nl), Tongres (fr) |
| Brugae |
Bruges (fr), Brugge (nl) |
| Bruxella, Bruxellae |
Brussels, Brussel (nl), Bruxelles (fr) |
| Cortoriacum, Cortracum [3] |
Kortrijk (nl), Courtrai (fr) |
| Damma, Dammum |
Damme (nl) |
| Furna [4] |
Veurne (nl) |
| Gandavum [5] |
Ghent, Gent (nl), Gand (fr) |
| Leodium |
Liège (fr), Luik (nl), Lüttich (de) |
| Lovanium |
Leuven (nl), Louvain (fr) |
| Orolaunum |
Arlon (fr), Aarlen (nl) |
| Rothnacum |
Ronse (nl), Renaix (fr) |
| Tamasiacum, Tamisiacum, Temsica |
Temse (nl), Tamise (fr) |
| Teneramonda [6] |
Dendermonde (nl) |
| Tornacum |
Tournai (fr), Doornik (nl) |
| Viroviacum, Virovino |
Wervik (nl), Wervicq (fr) |
Cities and towns in Denmark
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Arus, Arhus |
Århus |
| Fredericia |
Fredericia |
| Hafnia |
Copenhagen (København) |
| Othonia |
Odense |
| Sora |
Sorø |
| Wibergis |
Viborg |
Cities and towns in Estonia
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Pernavia |
Pärnu |
| Revalia |
Tallinn |
| Tharbata |
Tartu |
Cities and towns in Finland
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Aboa |
Turku - (Åbo) |
| Arctopolis |
Pori - (Björneborg) |
| Arx Savonum |
Savonlinna - (Nyslott) |
| Arx Tavastiae, Tavasteburgum |
Hämeenlinna - (Tavastehus) |
| Borgoa |
Porvoo - (Borgå) |
| Brahestadium |
Raahe - (Brahestad) |
| Cajaneburgum |
Kajaani - (Kajana) |
| Carolina Vetus |
Kokkola - (Karleby) |
| Christinea |
Kristinestad - (Kristiinankaupunki) |
| Espo |
Espoo - (Esbo) |
| Fredericia |
Hamina - (Fredrikshamn) |
| Granivicus |
Jyväskylä |
| Helsinkium, Helsingia |
Helsinki - (Helsingfors) |
| Michaelia |
Mikkeli - (St. Michel) |
| Neo-Carolina |
Nykarleby - (Uusikaarlepyy) |
| Neostadium |
Uusikaupunki - (Nystad) |
| Ostia Carelorum |
Joensuu |
| Portus Mariae |
Mariehamn - (Maarianhamina) |
| Raumoa |
Rauma - (Raumo) |
| Sala |
Salo |
| Tammerforsia |
Tampere - (Tammerfors) |
| Tornea |
Tornio - (Torneå) |
| Uloa |
Oulu - (Uleåborg) |
| Vallis Gratiae |
Naantali - (Nådendal) |
| Vantania |
Vantaa - (Vanda) |
| Vasa |
Vaasa - (Vasa) |
Cities and towns in France
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Adiacium |
Ajaccio |
| Alberti campus |
Champaubert |
| Andematunnum, Lugdunum, Lingones |
Langres |
| Aquae Sextiae |
Aix-en-Provence |
| Antissiodorum, Autesiodorum |
Auxerre |
| Arelate, Colonia Iulia Paterna Arelatensium Sextanorum |
Arles - (Arle) |
| Argentoratum |
Strasbourg |
| Arpajonum, Arpajoni castrum, Arpacona |
Arpajon, Paris |
| Atrebatum |
Arras, Pas-de-Calais |
| Augusta Argentorate |
Strasbourg |
| Augustobona Tricassium, Tricassae |
Troyes |
| Augustodurum, Bajocae, Bajocassium civitas |
Bayeux |
| Augustodunum |
Autun |
| Aurelianum |
Orléans |
| Autricum, civitas Carnutum, Carnutes |
Chartres |
| Avenio |
Avignon |
| Belna |
Beaune |
| Brestum, Brestia, Brivates Portis |
Brest |
| Briva Isara |
Pontoise |
| Burdigala |
Bordeaux |
| Catalaunum, Catelaunorum |
Châlons-sur-Marne |
| Catculliacum |
Saint-Denis, Paris |
| Condate Riedonum |
Rennes |
| Crisenaria |
Cressy |
| Cularo |
Grenoble |
| Damovilla |
Damville |
| Darioritum |
Vannes |
| Dinia, Diniensium civitas |
Digne-les-Bains, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence |
| Divio |
Dijon |
| Divodurum |
Metz |
| Durocortorum |
Reims |
| Flavia (GOL: Flaviacum) |
Saint-Germer-de-Fly, Oise |
| Flaviniacum (GOL: Flaviacum) |
Flavigny-sur-Ozerain, Côte-d'Or |
| Gesoriacum, Bononia |
Boulogne-sur-Mer |
| Glanum |
Saint-Rémy-de-Provence, Bouches-du-Rhône |
| Lemonum, civitas Pictonum, Pictones |
Poitiers |
| Lugdunum, Colonia Copia Claudia Augusta Lugdunum |
Lyon |
| Lugdunum Clavatum |
Laon |
| Lugdunum Convenarum |
Saint-Bertrand-de-Comminges |
| Lutetia |
Paris |
| Massilia |
Marseille |
| Medicinum |
Mézin, Lot-et-Garonne |
| Mediolanum Aulercorum |
Évreux |
| Mediolanum Santonum |
Saintes |
| Narbo Martius |
Narbonne, Aude |
| Nemausus |
Nîmes |
| Nicaea, Nicia |
Nice |
| Noviodunum |
Soissons |
| Noviomagus Lexoviorum (GOL: Lexovium) |
Lisieux, Calvados |
| Noviomagus Veromanduorum (GOL: Noviomium, Noviomense palatium, Noviomum, Novionum) |
Noyon, Oise |
| Novio Rito (GOL: Niortum, Novirogus, Nyrax) |
Niort, Deux-Sèvres |
| Portus Namnetum |
Nantes |
| Ramboletium |
Rambouillet |
| Rotomagus |
Rouen |
| Samarobriva |
Amiens |
| Sancti Audoeni fanum, villa aut domus |
Saint-Ouen, Paris |
| Spinetum, Spinogelum, Spinoilum, Espinolum |
Épinay-sur-Orge, Paris |
| Tolosa |
Toulouse |
| Tullum Leucorum |
Toul |
| Caesarodunum, Augusta Turonum, Metropolis civitas Turonum, Turonica civitas, Turones, T(h)oronus |
Tours |
| Tutelae |
Tulle |
| Verodunum |
Verdun - Wirten |
| Vesontio |
Besançon |
| Vienna Allobrogium |
Vienne, Isére |
| Viennavicus |
Vienne-en-Val, Loiret |
| Vierium |
Vihiers, Maine-et-Loire |
Cities and towns in Germany
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| (Colonia Claudia) Ara Agrippinensium |
Cologne (Köln), North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Aqua Villae |
Badenweiler |
| Aquisgrana, Aquis Granum, Aquae Grani, Aquensis urbs, Granis aquae |
Aachen, Aix-la-Chapelle (fr), North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Antunnacum |
Andernach, Rhineland-Palatinate |
| Arae Flaviae |
Rottweil |
| Asopus |
Aspe |
| Assindia |
Essen, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Augusta Vindelicorum |
Augsburg |
| Augusta Treverorum |
Trier |
| Aurelia Aquensi |
Baden-Baden |
| Badena civitas |
Baden |
| Batavis, Castra Batavorum, Castra Batava |
Passau |
| Berolinum |
Berlin |
| Bonna |
Bonn, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Borbetomagus, Wormatia |
Worms |
| Brema |
Bremen |
| Brunsvicum |
Braunschweig - (Brunswick) |
| Cambodunum |
Kempten, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Castra Regina, Ratisbona |
Regensburg |
| Castrum Novaesium |
Neuss, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Chemnitium, Chemnicium |
Chemnitz |
| Cignavia, Cignea, Cygnea, Cynavia |
Zwickau |
| Clivia |
Kleve, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Colonia Agrippina, Colonia Agrippinensis |
Cologne (Köln), North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Colonia Ulpia Traiana, Vetera |
Xanten, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| (Castellum apud) Confluentes |
Koblenz |
| Constantia |
Konstanz - (Constance) |
| Cruciniacum |
Bad Kreuznach, Rhineland-Palatinate |
| Dispargum |
Duisburg |
| Dresda |
Dresden |
| Emetha, Amuthon, Embda, Emda, Embden |
Emden, East Frisia |
| Erfordia, Erphesfurt |
Erfurt, Thuringia |
| Esilinga, Ezelinga, Ezzilinga |
Eßlingen |
| Francofortum ad Moenum |
Frankfurt am Main |
| Friburgum Brisgoviae |
Freiburg im Breisgau |
| Goettinga |
Göttingen |
| Gorlicium |
Görlitz, Saxony |
| Goslaria |
Goslar, Lower Saxony |
| Hale Suevice |
Schwäbisch Hall - Hall in Schwaben, Baden-Württemberg |
| Hamburgum, Hamburgium, Hammonia |
Hamburg |
| Hannovera |
Hanover - (Hannover) |
| Herbipolis |
Würzburg |
| Hildanus |
Hilden |
| Iuliacum |
Jülich, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Lauriacum |
Lorch |
| Lindaugia, Lindavia |
Lindau |
| Lipsia |
Leipzig |
| Locoritum |
Lohr, Bavaria |
| Lubica (GOL: Lubicana, Lubeca, Lubecum, Lubacovia, Lybichi) |
Lübeck, Schleswig-Holstein |
| Magdeburgum |
Magdeburg |
| Misnia (GOL: Misnensis marchia) |
Meissen, Saxony |
| Moguncia, Moguntia, Moguntiacum, Mogontiacum |
Mainz |
| Monachium, Monacum |
Munich (München) |
| Monasterium in Eifel |
Bad Münstereifel |
| Monasterium Westphaliae |
Münster |
| Norimberga |
Nuremberg (Nürnberg) |
| Northusia |
Nordhausen |
| Novaesium, Novensium |
Neuss, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Noviomagus Nemetum (GOL: Augusta Nemetum, Nemetis, Nemodona, Spira, Spiratia, Sphira, Spyrea) |
Speyer, Rhineland-Palatinate |
| Noviomagus Trevirorum (NLU; GOL: Augusta Trevirorum, Treviris, Treberis) |
Neumagen-Dhron near Trier |
| Patavia, Castra Batava |
Passau |
| Ratisbona, Radaspona |
Regensburg, Bavaria |
| Rigomagus |
Remagen, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Rostochium (Rhodopolis) |
Rostock |
| Sumelocenna |
Rottenburg am Neckar |
| Stutgardia, Stuogardia |
Stuttgart |
| Tremonia |
Dortmund, North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Tubinga |
Tübingen |
| Tulpiacum, Tolbiacum |
Zülpich, Tolbiac (fr), North Rhine-Westphalia |
| Vetera, Colonia Ulpia Traiana |
Xanten |
Cities and towns in Hungary
Cities and towns in Ireland
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Eblana (2PG1;[1] HLU:[2] Kirkruel?;[3] GOL:[4] Dublana, Dublinum, Dublinia, Dublinium), Eblanda? |
Dublin |
Cities and towns in Latvia
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Rugensis civitas |
Riga |
Cities and towns in Moldova
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Grigoriopolis |
Grigoriopol |
| Tiraspolis |
Tiraspol |
Cities and towns in Monaco
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Monaecum (GOL: Monoecum, Portus Herculis Monoeci) |
Monaco |
Cities and towns in Norway
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Asloa |
Oslo |
| Berga |
Bergen |
Cities and towns in Poland
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Bethania, Bithomia |
Bytom |
| Bilici-Biala, Bielici-Biala |
Bielsko-Biała |
| Bydgostia |
Bydgoszcz |
| Calisia |
Kalisz |
| Cervimontium, Mons Cervi (adj. cervimontanus, hirschbergensis) |
Jelenia Góra |
| Cracovia |
Kraków |
| Culmen |
Chełmno |
| Elbinga, Elbingus, Elbinca, Elbangum, Elbingense castrum |
Elbląg |
| Gedania, Gedanum, Dantiscum |
Gdańsk |
| Glivitium |
Gliwice |
| Ostrovia |
Ostrów Wielkopolski |
| Posnania, Poznania |
Poznań |
| Resovia |
Rzeszów |
| Sandomir |
Sandomierz |
| Siradia |
Sieradz |
| Stargardia |
Stargard Szczeciński |
| Sedinum, (Stettinum) |
Szczecin |
| Thorunium |
Toruń |
| Varsovia, Varsavia |
Warsaw (Warszawa) |
| Vratislavia, Wratislavia |
Wrocław |
Cities and towns in Russia
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Archangelopolis (GOL: S. Michaeli Archangeli fanum, Michaelopolis) |
Archangelsk |
| Asovia (GOL: Assovium; HLU: Tanais) |
Azov |
| Astrachanum |
Astrachan |
| Belogradum |
Belgorod |
| Caluga (HLU: Coluga) |
Kaluga |
| Casanum (GOL: Kazanum) |
Kazan |
| Catharinoburgum[5] |
Ekaterinburg |
| Columna |
Kolomna |
| Demitriovia |
Dmitrov |
| Iaroslavia (GOL: Jereslavia) |
Yaroslavl |
| Iuliania |
Ulianovsk |
| Moscua, Mosqua, Moscovia [7] (HLU: Moscha) |
Moscow |
| Novogardia Inferior |
Nizhny Novgorod |
| Novogardia Magna |
Veliky Novgorod |
| Orenburgum [8] |
Orenburg |
| Permia |
Perm |
| Petropolis, Petroburgum (GOL: St. Petri fanum) |
Saint Petersburg |
| Pscovia, Plescovia |
Pskov |
| Regiomontium (GOL: Regiomontum, Regalis, Regius) |
Kaliningrad - Königsberg |
| Resania [9] (GOL: Rhezania; HLU: Rezana) |
Ryazan |
| Rostovia |
Rostov |
| Saratovia (HLU: Soratovia) |
Saratov |
| Smolenscum (GOL: Smolska) |
Smolensk |
| Stauropolis |
Stavropol |
| Susdalia (HLU: Susdala) |
Suzdal |
| Toropetia |
Toropets |
| Tueria (GOL: Tuera, Twera) |
Tver |
| Ustiuga |
Veliky Ustyug |
| Volodimiria |
Vladimir |
| Vologda (HLU: Volochda) |
Vologda |
| Viatcia, Venetica |
Kirov - Vyatka |
| Viburga, Viburgum, Viburgum Careliorum (GOL: Viburgus) |
Vyborg |
Cities and towns in Slovakia
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Cassovia |
Košice |
| Castrum Novum |
Nové Zámky |
| Bartfa |
Bardejov |
| Forum Dominarum |
Bátovce |
| Semnichia |
Banská Štiavnica |
| Celemantia |
Iža (Izsa) |
| Cismarcinum, Forum Caseorum |
Kežmarok |
| Comaromium |
Komárno |
| Crempnichia |
Kremnica |
| Leuchovia |
Levoča |
| Prividia |
Prievidza |
| Iglovia, Nova Villa |
Spišská Nová Ves |
| Suburbium, Villa Sub Castro |
Spišské Vlachy |
| Lublovia |
Stará Ľubovňa |
| Divinium |
Devín |
| Villa Theutonicalis |
Poprad |
| Eperiessinum, Fragopolis |
Prešov |
| Gerulata |
Rusovce, Bratislava |
| Laugaricio |
Trenčín |
| Tyrnavia |
Trnava |
| Neosolium |
Banská Bystrica |
| Posonium, Wratisslaburgium |
Bratislava |
| Veterosolium, Vetusolium, Solium |
Zvolen |
Cities and towns in Sweden
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Amalia |
Åmål |
| Arosia |
Västerås |
| Boërosia |
Borås |
| Calmaria |
Kalmar |
| Caroli Corona |
Karlskrona |
| Christinae portus |
Kristinehamn |
| Christiania |
Kristianstad |
| Cimbrorum portus |
Simrishamn |
| Clara Vallis |
Ljusdal |
| Copinga |
Köping |
| Coronia |
Landskrona |
| Dalecarlius |
Dalälven |
| Delisboa |
Delsbo |
| Eckesioea, Ecksium |
Eksjö |
| Encopia |
Enköping |
| Falcopia |
Falköping |
| Gevalia |
Gävle |
| Gothia |
Gothenburg (Göteborg) |
| Halmostadium |
Halmstad |
| Hiovia |
Hjo |
| Holmia, Stockholmia |
Stockholm |
| Hudvicovaldum |
Hudiksvall |
| Iuncopia |
Jönköping |
| Lagaholmia |
Laholm (older Swedish name: Lagaholm) |
| Lidcopia |
Lidköping |
| Lincopia |
Linköping |
| Lindesberga, Linda |
Lindesberg |
| Lula |
Luleå |
| Lunda |
Lund |
| Malmögia |
Malmö |
| Medicorum villa |
Medevibrunn |
| Nicopia |
Nyköping |
| Norcopia |
Norrköping |
| Orebrogia |
Örebro |
| Oresundae |
Öresund |
| Pax Mariae |
Mariefred |
| Pitovia |
Piteå |
| Schedina |
Skövde |
| Stenbrovium |
Stenbro |
| Stocholmia, Holmia |
Stockholm |
| Sudercopia |
Söderköping |
| Telga |
Södertälje (older Swedish name: Tälje) |
| Upsala |
Uppsala |
| Uraniburgum |
Uranienborg |
| Urbs Mariae |
Mariestad |
| Vadstenium |
Vadstena |
| Vemmaria, Wemmaria |
Vimmerby |
| Vexionia |
Växjö |
| Visbia |
Visby |
| Visingsburgum, Wisingsburgum |
Visingsborg |
| Ystadium, Istadium, Ustadium |
Ystad |
Cities and towns in Switzerland
| Canonical Latin Name (source(s): variant(s)) |
English Name (native language(s)) - older name(s), (other language(s)), location(s) |
| Acaunum, Agaunum |
Saint-Maurice, Valais |
| Ad Fines |
Pfyn, Thurgau |
| Aquae Helveticae |
Baden, Aargau |
| Arbor Felix |
Arbon, Thurgau |
| Augusta Raurica |
Kaiseraugst / Augst |
| Aventicum |
Avenches, Vaud |
| Basilia, Basilea |
Basel |
| Berna |
Bern |
| Brienzola |
Brienz, Bern |
| Brunntrudum, Bruntraut |
Porrentruy, Pruntrut (de), Jura |
| Centum Prata |
Kempraten, Jona and Rapperswil, St. Gallen |
| Curia |
Chur, Graubünden |
| Eburodunum |
Yverdon-les-Bains, Vaud |
| Esquinia |
Écône |
| Ezelinga, Esselinga |
Esseling, Zürich |
| Genava |
Geneva |
| Irgenhausen Castrum |
Irgenhausen, Zürich |
| Lousonna |
Lausanne, Vaud |
| Morgiis |
Morges |
| Noviodunum (Colonia Iulia Equestris) |
Nyon, Vaud |
| Octodurum |
Martigny, Valais |
| Ponczirrum |
Baltschieder, Valais |
| Solodurum/Salodurum |
Solothurn |
| Suitia |
Schwyz |
| Tugium |
Zug |
| Turicum |
Zürich |
| Urba |
Orbe, Vaud |
| Vibiscum |
Vevey, Vaud |
| Vindonissa |
Windisch, Aargau |
| Vitudurum |
Winterthur, Zürich |
Cities and towns in Ukraine
See also
References
- ↑ 2PG1: Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), Geographia; book "PG" chapter (that is, "2PG1" instead of the usual "II.1"). Ptolemy wrote in Greek, so names are transliterated back into Latin to reveal the original form
- ↑ HLU: Hofmann, Johann Jacob (1635–1706): Lexicon Universale
- ↑ '?' probably historical mistake
- ↑ GOL: The standard reference to Latin placenames, with their modern equivalents, is Dr. J. G. Th. Grässe, Orbis Latinus: Lexikon lateinischer geographischer Namen des Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (1861), an exhaustive work of meticulous German scholarship that is available on-line in the second edition of 1909. To use it, one must understand German names of countries, as they were in 1909. The original was re-edited and expanded in a multi-volume edition in 1972.
- ↑ Lexicum nominum geographicorum latinorum
Sources
In order of likely publication:
- PNH: Pliny (Gaius Plinius Secundus), Naturalis Historia; book "PNH" chapter (that is, "37PNH81" instead of the usual "N.H.xxxvii.81").
- PG: Ptolemy (Claudius Ptolemaeus), Geographia; book "PG" chapter (that is, "2PG3" instead of the usual "II.3"). Ptolemy wrote in Greek, so names are transliterated back into Latin to reveal the original form.
External links
