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Linda Billings

National Institute of Aerospace, Center for Integrative STEM Education, Director of Science Communication

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I am a social scientist with a Ph.D. in mass communication who specializes in science communication, risk communication, and the rhetoric of science.

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Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP)

University College London

University of Central Florida

University College Cork

Universidade Estadual de Campinas

Michele A Willson

Curtin University

University of Kent

University of Edinburgh

Kansas State University

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Papers by Linda Billings

SSOCiA chapter.Billings.final draft.6.26.18.Earth, Life, Space

"Esrth, l;ife, space: the social construction of the biosphere and its expansion into the solar system, and beyond, 2020

Earth, life, space: the social construction of the biosphere and its expansion into the solar sys... more Earth, life, space:
the social construction of the biosphere and its expansion into the solar system, and beyond

This chapter will explore whether and how the scientific search for evidence of extraterrestrial life, in the solar system and beyond, has affected our conception of the terrestrial biosphere – and vice versa – and extended the idea of “biosphere” into outer space.

From my biased perspective, as a long-time member of the astrobiology community, I’m convinced that, of course, the search for life elsewhere has affected the way we think about our home planet. This essay will consider the ways in which this has occurred. While it will not ignore the contributions of space-based Earth observations and human space flight to a change in conceptions of our biosphere, it will focus on the contributions of exobiology and astrobiology, focusing on the search for extraterrestrial life and, to some extent, the search for potentially habitable extrasolar planets (exoplanets).

NASA commercial space.final draft.Billings

Space commercialization, 1983-1985: what was promised, what was delivered (and not), 2021

I was the founding editor of a trade publication called Space Business News and served as editor... more I was the founding editor of a trade publication called Space Business News and served as editor/reporter/proofreader/marketer for the publication’s first two years, from July 1983 to July 1985. This chapter is part reminiscence about covering the commercial space beat in the ‘80s and part highlights from the archives of Space Business News (SBN) in its first two years. I will review efforts at space commercialization during those two years and also address commercial space activities at present. My take on “commercial space” is that any company that aims, or is able, to make a profit on its activities is “commercial.”

This chapter is by no means a comprehensive report on space commercialization efforts from 1983-1985, and certainly not a comprehensive report on current commercial space activities. It provides a sampling of proposals and developments reported in SBN from July 1983 to July 1985, and much of the information in this chapter is anecdotal. I will focus on areas of commercial space development that were hot topics at the time, and I will avoid delving into the politics of space commercialization during those years. I will conclude this chapter with some observations and reflections on the status of “space commercialization” in the 2020s.

From Earth to the Universe: Life, Intelligence, and Evolution

Biological Theory, Jul 19, 2017

construction of the field, as it were. This article is more of a think piece than a research repo... more construction of the field, as it were. This article is more of a think piece than a research report, raising issues that may be of interest to readers of this thematic issue. Because I will be discussing "dogma" throughout this piece, some explanation of what I mean by the term is warranted. The Online Etymological Dictionary 2 says the English word "dogma" derives from the Latin dogma, meaning "philosophical tenet," and from the Greek dogma, meaning "opinion, tenet," literally "that which one thinks is true." I generally think of "dogma" as a belief or set of beliefs that an adherent is not willing to question, explore, evaluate, or debate. Beliefs are not bad things in and of themselves. It is often necessary to embrace and articulate a certain set of beliefs-presuppositions, axiomatic premises, or assumptions, if you will (depending on whether you're a philosopher, an astrophysicist, or a cultural studies scholar)-in order to proceed with a line of inquiry. But as the philosopher C.S. Peirce (1955[1940], p. 10) observed, an inquirer must be willing to question, or test, those presuppositions. "Belief does not make us act at once, but puts us into such a condition that we shall behave in some certain way, when the occasion arises. Doubt has not the least such active effect, but stimulates us to inquiry until it is destroyed." According to the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, 3 "dogma" is "in general, a belief held unquestioningly and with undefended certainty. In the Christian Church, [it is] a belief communicated by divine revelation." Abstract While the scientific discourse on astrobiology-the study of the origin, evolution, and distribution of life in the universe-leans toward optimism about the possibility of extraterrestrial life, optimistic thinking is tempered by the limits of evidence and observations gathered thus far. Most astrobiologists assume that "first contact" with extraterrestrial life, if it is ever to occur, will likely be the discovery of microbial life elsewhere in our solar system. But in popular culture, "first contact" tends to be characterized as contact with extraterrestrial intelligence. This article will touch on theory and research relating to the origins and evolution of life and intelligence on Earth and speculation about extraterrestrial life and intelligence.

Oxford University Press eBooks, Mar 24, 2023

Planetary Protection

Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Sep 23, 2005

Planetary protection is NASA's term for the practice of protecting solar system bodies from Earth... more Planetary protection is NASA's term for the practice of protecting solar system bodies from Earth life while protecting Earth from life that may be brought back from other solar system bodies. Spacefaring nations will soon begin retrieving samples from Mars and other solar system bodies. For these samples, planetary protection is in order, and measures are already in place to prevent the forward contamination of Mars and other bodies by Earth microbes and the backward contamination of Earth by possible extraterrestrial life. A major goal of planetary protection controls on forward contamination is to preserve the planetary record of natural processes by preventing human-caused microbial introductions.

Public Impact of Planetary Science

Social Science Research Network, Dec 17, 2018

The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science,... more The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science, is poorly understood, as little research has been published on the subject. Public impact may be linked to scientific impact, but it is not the same as public impact. Nor is it the same as public benefit or public understanding. No clear, agreed-upon definition of “public impact” exists, and certainly no definition of “the public impact of planetary science” exists. It is a matter of judgment as to whether global spending on planetary science has yielded positive public impacts, let alone impacts that are worth the investment. More research on the public impact of planetary science is needed. However, the study of public impact is a social scientific enterprise, and space agencies, space research institutes, and aerospace companies historically have invested very little in social scientific research. Without further study of the subject, the public impact of planetary science will remain poorly understood.

Planetary Defense: The First Twenty-Eight Years in Review

Social Science Research Network, 2023

Survivor! (?) The Story of S. Mitis on the Moon

The story of how bacteria from Earth survived for more than two years on the surface of the Moon ... more The story of how bacteria from Earth survived for more than two years on the surface of the Moon is well known in the annals of the U.S. space program, and beyond. In places ranging from peer-reviewed journals to official space-agency sources, Wikipedia, and fringe-y Web sites such as the self-explanatory “UFO Updates List” and “Cosmic Ancestry,” an archive maintained by a “strong-panspermia” advocate, the account of how technicians at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) found viable Streptococcus mitis (S. mitis) bacteria inside equipment retrieved from the Moon and returned to Earth by astronauts has been replicated widely and reported as fact for decades.Some skeptics have argued over the years, however, that what have been described as bacteria that survived a roundtrip to the Moon and back were actually bacteria that never left Earth. The story involves a set of claims that were disputed when they were first made public and may still be in dispute today.In ...

Planetary protection: an idea whose time is gone?

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a planetary protection policy i... more The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a planetary protection policy in place that is intended to keep the United States in compliance with the 1967 United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (a.k.a. the Outer Space Treaty) – specifically, Article IX. This article specifies: “States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose.” Compliance with NASA planetary protection policy is mandatory. NASA estimates that compliance accounts for about 10 percent of a mission’s cost. (COSPAR – the international Committee on Space Research – has a parallel planetary protection policy in place, compliance with which is voluntary.) At the same time that astrobiologists are intent upon exploring multiple environments in our solar system that they deem potentially habitable – Mars, Europa, Enceladus, and Titan – human-exploration advocates, inside and outside NASA, continue to argue, as they have for years, that planetary protection requirements are unnecessarily restrictive. This critique has gained traction since President Trump was elected, and has been further propelled by Trump’s advocacy for returning humans to the Moon and then sending them on to Mars. Adding further to arguments against planetary protection requirements is Elon Musk’s proposal to independently send people to Mars. In 2018, NASA established a new Regulatory and Policy Committee of its NASA Advisory Council. The primary topic for its first meeting was planetary protection policy. Committee chair Mike Gold is a well known critic of planetary protection requirements. In 2019, NASA established a Planetary Protection Review Board, chaired by planetary scientist Alan Stern, which is intended “to review established guidelines for planetary protection and recommend any updates that are required.” By the time of SSoCIA 2020, there may be news to report on the activities of this new board. This paper will address arguments for stringent planetary protection requirements – to preserve pristine extraterrestrial environments for astrobiological exploration – and arguments against, coming down on the side of preserving pristine environments from the perspective of scientific value and environmental ethics

Billings.Wiley chapter.final draft. July 2020

Advancing Public Understanding by "Attitude Adjustment": Strategic Communication About Space Science and Exploration

Public Impact of Planetary Science

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Planetary Science, 2020

The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science,... more The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science, is poorly understood, as little research has been published on the subject. Public impact may be linked to scientific impact, but it is not the same as public impact. Nor is it the same as public benefit or public understanding. No clear, agreed-upon definition of “public impact” exists, and certainly no definition of “the public impact of planetary science” exists. It is a matter of judgment as to whether global spending on planetary science has yielded positive public impacts, let alone impacts that are worth the investment. More research on the public impact of planetary science is needed. However, the study of public impact is a social scientific enterprise, and space agencies, space research institutes, and aerospace companies historically have invested very little in social scientific research. Without further study of the subject, the public impact of planetary science will remai...

Public engagement with space science: experiences with astrobiology and planetary defense

Billings.colonize Mars No.T&S.4.15.19

Media, Citizens and Space Exploration : Conquest and Exploitation or Discovery and Understanding?

The International Context of Astrobiology

Astrobiology and Society in Europe Today, 2018

Astrobiology, the United Nations, and Geopolitics

Astrobiology, 2021

While law and ethics are not interchangeable, law tends to reflect the ethical principles of the ... more While law and ethics are not interchangeable, law tends to reflect the ethical principles of the society that produced it. The 1967 United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies-known as the Outer Space Treaty (OST)-&quot;provides the basic framework on international space law,&quot; according to the United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs. 1 The OST reflects the common values and ethical principles of the member states of the U.N. As of June 2019, 109 nations were states parties to the treaty. 2 In the United States, which ratified the treaty in 1967, the treaty has the status of &quot;the law of the land,&quot; according to the U.S. Constitution. The OST establishes that states parties to the treaty-that is, national governments-are responsible for the actions of both publicand private-sector actors in space.

Colonizing other planets is a bad idea

Futures, 2019

Should humans should seek to exploit and/or colonize other planets, and if so, how should it be d... more Should humans should seek to exploit and/or colonize other planets, and if so, how should it be done? The author's position is no, it should not be done.  The idea of colonizing another planet likely appeals to a small fraction of humankind and suggests an inevitably elitist enterprise.  Though U.S. and international space laws are devoid of references to colonization and exploitation, the underlying ideology of space exploration that has at its core a rationale for conquest and exploitation.  This ideology is a pastiche of other belief systems: manifest destiny, American exceptionalism, libertarianism, and cosmism.  For more than 500 years, these ideologies have wreaked havoc on Earth, and they should not be exported to other planets. Should humans seek to colonize outer space? I say no. I have worked in the space community for 35 years with a variety of programs and projects ranging from science to human space flight. My view as a social scientist is that humans are not sufficiently advanced, technologically and socially, to be establishing colonies on Mars, or any other place in space.

Should Humans Colonize Other Planets? No

Theology and Science, 2017

In certain segments of the space community, the idea of colonizing other planetary bodies has bee... more In certain segments of the space community, the idea of colonizing other planetary bodies has been popular for decades. Disproportionate attention to this idea in the mass media, and lip service from key U.S. government officials, may convey the impression that the goal of space colonization 1 and exploitation is universally embraced. This author will argue that this is not the case, and, further, should not be. Given the current state of humankind's overall ethical and moral development, humans should clean up the mess they have made on their home planet and learn how to take care of one another here before they go off into space.

FameLab USA: Improving Science Communication Skills for Early Career Scientists

Astrobiology, 2019

FameLab International is a science communication competition for early career scientists pioneere... more FameLab International is a science communication competition for early career scientists pioneered by the Cheltenham Science Festival in the United Kingdom in 2005. At its heart is training in the best practices and techniques of good communication. NASA's Astrobiology Program and its partners implemented FameLab USA, one of over 30 implementations around the globe, from 2012 to 2016. FameLab USA's focus was on providing high-quality training for participants and equipping and empowering early career scientists to become skilled, confident communicators of science. The impacts of FameLab USA on participants have been studied, and results from these analyses are presented here. Significant gains in skills for all participants were documented, especially their ability to make better connections with audiences and use thematic structural elements to organize a presentation. Participants reported gaining confidence in their ability to communicate and expanding their self-identity to include "science communicator" in addition to "scientist." They also reported that the FameLab experience increased the likelihood that they would look for communications opportunities and meet challenges presented by their institutional environment to engaging in communication. The overall conclusion is that improving and expanding communication skills and attitudes have changed how participants value communicating about their work and how competent they feel in doing so, which leads to their communicating more often.

SSOCiA chapter.Billings.final draft.6.26.18.Earth, Life, Space

"Esrth, l;ife, space: the social construction of the biosphere and its expansion into the solar system, and beyond, 2020

Earth, life, space: the social construction of the biosphere and its expansion into the solar sys... more Earth, life, space:
the social construction of the biosphere and its expansion into the solar system, and beyond

This chapter will explore whether and how the scientific search for evidence of extraterrestrial life, in the solar system and beyond, has affected our conception of the terrestrial biosphere – and vice versa – and extended the idea of “biosphere” into outer space.

From my biased perspective, as a long-time member of the astrobiology community, I’m convinced that, of course, the search for life elsewhere has affected the way we think about our home planet. This essay will consider the ways in which this has occurred. While it will not ignore the contributions of space-based Earth observations and human space flight to a change in conceptions of our biosphere, it will focus on the contributions of exobiology and astrobiology, focusing on the search for extraterrestrial life and, to some extent, the search for potentially habitable extrasolar planets (exoplanets).

NASA commercial space.final draft.Billings

Space commercialization, 1983-1985: what was promised, what was delivered (and not), 2021

I was the founding editor of a trade publication called Space Business News and served as editor... more I was the founding editor of a trade publication called Space Business News and served as editor/reporter/proofreader/marketer for the publication’s first two years, from July 1983 to July 1985. This chapter is part reminiscence about covering the commercial space beat in the ‘80s and part highlights from the archives of Space Business News (SBN) in its first two years. I will review efforts at space commercialization during those two years and also address commercial space activities at present. My take on “commercial space” is that any company that aims, or is able, to make a profit on its activities is “commercial.”

This chapter is by no means a comprehensive report on space commercialization efforts from 1983-1985, and certainly not a comprehensive report on current commercial space activities. It provides a sampling of proposals and developments reported in SBN from July 1983 to July 1985, and much of the information in this chapter is anecdotal. I will focus on areas of commercial space development that were hot topics at the time, and I will avoid delving into the politics of space commercialization during those years. I will conclude this chapter with some observations and reflections on the status of “space commercialization” in the 2020s.

From Earth to the Universe: Life, Intelligence, and Evolution

Biological Theory, Jul 19, 2017

construction of the field, as it were. This article is more of a think piece than a research repo... more construction of the field, as it were. This article is more of a think piece than a research report, raising issues that may be of interest to readers of this thematic issue. Because I will be discussing "dogma" throughout this piece, some explanation of what I mean by the term is warranted. The Online Etymological Dictionary 2 says the English word "dogma" derives from the Latin dogma, meaning "philosophical tenet," and from the Greek dogma, meaning "opinion, tenet," literally "that which one thinks is true." I generally think of "dogma" as a belief or set of beliefs that an adherent is not willing to question, explore, evaluate, or debate. Beliefs are not bad things in and of themselves. It is often necessary to embrace and articulate a certain set of beliefs-presuppositions, axiomatic premises, or assumptions, if you will (depending on whether you're a philosopher, an astrophysicist, or a cultural studies scholar)-in order to proceed with a line of inquiry. But as the philosopher C.S. Peirce (1955[1940], p. 10) observed, an inquirer must be willing to question, or test, those presuppositions. "Belief does not make us act at once, but puts us into such a condition that we shall behave in some certain way, when the occasion arises. Doubt has not the least such active effect, but stimulates us to inquiry until it is destroyed." According to the Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, 3 "dogma" is "in general, a belief held unquestioningly and with undefended certainty. In the Christian Church, [it is] a belief communicated by divine revelation." Abstract While the scientific discourse on astrobiology-the study of the origin, evolution, and distribution of life in the universe-leans toward optimism about the possibility of extraterrestrial life, optimistic thinking is tempered by the limits of evidence and observations gathered thus far. Most astrobiologists assume that "first contact" with extraterrestrial life, if it is ever to occur, will likely be the discovery of microbial life elsewhere in our solar system. But in popular culture, "first contact" tends to be characterized as contact with extraterrestrial intelligence. This article will touch on theory and research relating to the origins and evolution of life and intelligence on Earth and speculation about extraterrestrial life and intelligence.

Oxford University Press eBooks, Mar 24, 2023

Planetary Protection

Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, Sep 23, 2005

Planetary protection is NASA's term for the practice of protecting solar system bodies from Earth... more Planetary protection is NASA's term for the practice of protecting solar system bodies from Earth life while protecting Earth from life that may be brought back from other solar system bodies. Spacefaring nations will soon begin retrieving samples from Mars and other solar system bodies. For these samples, planetary protection is in order, and measures are already in place to prevent the forward contamination of Mars and other bodies by Earth microbes and the backward contamination of Earth by possible extraterrestrial life. A major goal of planetary protection controls on forward contamination is to preserve the planetary record of natural processes by preventing human-caused microbial introductions.

Public Impact of Planetary Science

Social Science Research Network, Dec 17, 2018

The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science,... more The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science, is poorly understood, as little research has been published on the subject. Public impact may be linked to scientific impact, but it is not the same as public impact. Nor is it the same as public benefit or public understanding. No clear, agreed-upon definition of “public impact” exists, and certainly no definition of “the public impact of planetary science” exists. It is a matter of judgment as to whether global spending on planetary science has yielded positive public impacts, let alone impacts that are worth the investment. More research on the public impact of planetary science is needed. However, the study of public impact is a social scientific enterprise, and space agencies, space research institutes, and aerospace companies historically have invested very little in social scientific research. Without further study of the subject, the public impact of planetary science will remain poorly understood.

Planetary Defense: The First Twenty-Eight Years in Review

Social Science Research Network, 2023

Survivor! (?) The Story of S. Mitis on the Moon

The story of how bacteria from Earth survived for more than two years on the surface of the Moon ... more The story of how bacteria from Earth survived for more than two years on the surface of the Moon is well known in the annals of the U.S. space program, and beyond. In places ranging from peer-reviewed journals to official space-agency sources, Wikipedia, and fringe-y Web sites such as the self-explanatory “UFO Updates List” and “Cosmic Ancestry,” an archive maintained by a “strong-panspermia” advocate, the account of how technicians at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) found viable Streptococcus mitis (S. mitis) bacteria inside equipment retrieved from the Moon and returned to Earth by astronauts has been replicated widely and reported as fact for decades.Some skeptics have argued over the years, however, that what have been described as bacteria that survived a roundtrip to the Moon and back were actually bacteria that never left Earth. The story involves a set of claims that were disputed when they were first made public and may still be in dispute today.In ...

Planetary protection: an idea whose time is gone?

The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a planetary protection policy i... more The U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has a planetary protection policy in place that is intended to keep the United States in compliance with the 1967 United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (a.k.a. the Outer Space Treaty) – specifically, Article IX. This article specifies: “States Parties to the Treaty shall pursue studies of outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, and conduct exploration of them so as to avoid their harmful contamination and also adverse changes in the environment of the Earth resulting from the introduction of extraterrestrial matter and, where necessary, shall adopt appropriate measures for this purpose.” Compliance with NASA planetary protection policy is mandatory. NASA estimates that compliance accounts for about 10 percent of a mission’s cost. (COSPAR – the international Committee on Space Research – has a parallel planetary protection policy in place, compliance with which is voluntary.) At the same time that astrobiologists are intent upon exploring multiple environments in our solar system that they deem potentially habitable – Mars, Europa, Enceladus, and Titan – human-exploration advocates, inside and outside NASA, continue to argue, as they have for years, that planetary protection requirements are unnecessarily restrictive. This critique has gained traction since President Trump was elected, and has been further propelled by Trump’s advocacy for returning humans to the Moon and then sending them on to Mars. Adding further to arguments against planetary protection requirements is Elon Musk’s proposal to independently send people to Mars. In 2018, NASA established a new Regulatory and Policy Committee of its NASA Advisory Council. The primary topic for its first meeting was planetary protection policy. Committee chair Mike Gold is a well known critic of planetary protection requirements. In 2019, NASA established a Planetary Protection Review Board, chaired by planetary scientist Alan Stern, which is intended “to review established guidelines for planetary protection and recommend any updates that are required.” By the time of SSoCIA 2020, there may be news to report on the activities of this new board. This paper will address arguments for stringent planetary protection requirements – to preserve pristine extraterrestrial environments for astrobiological exploration – and arguments against, coming down on the side of preserving pristine environments from the perspective of scientific value and environmental ethics

Billings.Wiley chapter.final draft. July 2020

Advancing Public Understanding by "Attitude Adjustment": Strategic Communication About Space Science and Exploration

Public Impact of Planetary Science

Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Planetary Science, 2020

The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science,... more The public impact of planetary science, or, alternatively, the public value of planetary science, is poorly understood, as little research has been published on the subject. Public impact may be linked to scientific impact, but it is not the same as public impact. Nor is it the same as public benefit or public understanding. No clear, agreed-upon definition of “public impact” exists, and certainly no definition of “the public impact of planetary science” exists. It is a matter of judgment as to whether global spending on planetary science has yielded positive public impacts, let alone impacts that are worth the investment. More research on the public impact of planetary science is needed. However, the study of public impact is a social scientific enterprise, and space agencies, space research institutes, and aerospace companies historically have invested very little in social scientific research. Without further study of the subject, the public impact of planetary science will remai...

Public engagement with space science: experiences with astrobiology and planetary defense

Billings.colonize Mars No.T&S.4.15.19

Media, Citizens and Space Exploration : Conquest and Exploitation or Discovery and Understanding?

The International Context of Astrobiology

Astrobiology and Society in Europe Today, 2018

Astrobiology, the United Nations, and Geopolitics

Astrobiology, 2021

While law and ethics are not interchangeable, law tends to reflect the ethical principles of the ... more While law and ethics are not interchangeable, law tends to reflect the ethical principles of the society that produced it. The 1967 United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies-known as the Outer Space Treaty (OST)-&quot;provides the basic framework on international space law,&quot; according to the United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs. 1 The OST reflects the common values and ethical principles of the member states of the U.N. As of June 2019, 109 nations were states parties to the treaty. 2 In the United States, which ratified the treaty in 1967, the treaty has the status of &quot;the law of the land,&quot; according to the U.S. Constitution. The OST establishes that states parties to the treaty-that is, national governments-are responsible for the actions of both publicand private-sector actors in space.

Colonizing other planets is a bad idea

Futures, 2019

Should humans should seek to exploit and/or colonize other planets, and if so, how should it be d... more Should humans should seek to exploit and/or colonize other planets, and if so, how should it be done? The author's position is no, it should not be done.  The idea of colonizing another planet likely appeals to a small fraction of humankind and suggests an inevitably elitist enterprise.  Though U.S. and international space laws are devoid of references to colonization and exploitation, the underlying ideology of space exploration that has at its core a rationale for conquest and exploitation.  This ideology is a pastiche of other belief systems: manifest destiny, American exceptionalism, libertarianism, and cosmism.  For more than 500 years, these ideologies have wreaked havoc on Earth, and they should not be exported to other planets. Should humans seek to colonize outer space? I say no. I have worked in the space community for 35 years with a variety of programs and projects ranging from science to human space flight. My view as a social scientist is that humans are not sufficiently advanced, technologically and socially, to be establishing colonies on Mars, or any other place in space.

Should Humans Colonize Other Planets? No

Theology and Science, 2017

In certain segments of the space community, the idea of colonizing other planetary bodies has bee... more In certain segments of the space community, the idea of colonizing other planetary bodies has been popular for decades. Disproportionate attention to this idea in the mass media, and lip service from key U.S. government officials, may convey the impression that the goal of space colonization 1 and exploitation is universally embraced. This author will argue that this is not the case, and, further, should not be. Given the current state of humankind's overall ethical and moral development, humans should clean up the mess they have made on their home planet and learn how to take care of one another here before they go off into space.

FameLab USA: Improving Science Communication Skills for Early Career Scientists

Astrobiology, 2019

FameLab International is a science communication competition for early career scientists pioneere... more FameLab International is a science communication competition for early career scientists pioneered by the Cheltenham Science Festival in the United Kingdom in 2005. At its heart is training in the best practices and techniques of good communication. NASA's Astrobiology Program and its partners implemented FameLab USA, one of over 30 implementations around the globe, from 2012 to 2016. FameLab USA's focus was on providing high-quality training for participants and equipping and empowering early career scientists to become skilled, confident communicators of science. The impacts of FameLab USA on participants have been studied, and results from these analyses are presented here. Significant gains in skills for all participants were documented, especially their ability to make better connections with audiences and use thematic structural elements to organize a presentation. Participants reported gaining confidence in their ability to communicate and expanding their self-identity to include "science communicator" in addition to "scientist." They also reported that the FameLab experience increased the likelihood that they would look for communications opportunities and meet challenges presented by their institutional environment to engaging in communication. The overall conclusion is that improving and expanding communication skills and attitudes have changed how participants value communicating about their work and how competent they feel in doing so, which leads to their communicating more often.

Astrobiology, the United Nations, and Geopolitics

Astrobiology Ethics, 2021

While law and ethics are not interchangeable, law tends to reflect the ethical principles of the ... more While law and ethics are not interchangeable, law tends to reflect the ethical principles of the society that produced it. The 1967 United Nations Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies-known as the Outer Space Treaty (OST)-"provides the basic framework on international space law," according to the United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs. 1 The OST reflects the common values and ethical principles of the member states of the U.N. As of June 2019, 109 nations were states parties to the treaty. 2 In the United States, which ratified the treaty in 1967, the treaty has the status of "the law of the land," according to the U.S. Constitution. The OST establishes that states parties to the treaty-that is, national governments-are responsible for the actions of both publicand private-sector actors in space.

Billings.colonize Mars No.T&S.4.15.

Not only space advocates but also U.S. presidents and NASA administrators have been talking for d... more Not only space advocates but also U.S. presidents and NASA administrators have been talking for decades about sending people back to the Moon and on to Mars, to stay. Funding has not materialized, nor has public support. In recent years billionaires Jeff Bezos and Elon Musk have declared that they will launch private expeditions to send people into space and establish human colonies on Mars, drawing much media attention. Here I will argue that it would be unethical to contaminate a potentially habitable planet for further scientific exploration and immoral to transport a tiny, non-representative, subset of humanity-made up of people who could afford to spend hundreds of thousands to millions of dollars on the trip-to live on Mars, as Bezos, Musk, and their advocates propose.

Billings colonizing Mars Futures 2018

Futures

At a September 2016 workshop on social and conceptual issues in astrobiology, the author and othe... more At a September 2016 workshop on social and conceptual issues in astrobiology, the author and other participants considered this question: “Should humans seek to exploit and/or colonize space? If so, how should this be done?” At a second workshop on social and conceptual issues in astrobiology, in 2018, a roomful of scholars, including the author, discussed this question.

The author’s position is no. It should not be done.